2 Developments in Fibers For Technical Non 2016 Advances in Technical Nonw

Developments in fibers for
technical nonwovens 2
Y. Yan
South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
2.1 Introduction of fibers for technical nonwovens

2.1.1 From natural to synthetic fibers
The original nonwovens go back to ancient times, when ancients used animal fur for
the manufacture of wool mats, and this is considered the beginning of needle-
punched nonwovens. Papermaking technology is one of the four famous inventions
in ancient China, which have been traced back in China in 105 CE. Cai Lun, an
official affiliated with the Imperial Palace during the Han Dynasty (202 BCE-
220 CE), created a sheet of paper using mulberry, blast fibers, hemp wastes, other
fishnets, and old rags (Fig. 2.1) [1]. This is thought of as the origin of wet-laid
nonwovens.
The first fibers ever used are from nature, including vegetable fibers and animal
hairs. When we refer to the practical industrial manufacturing of nonwovens, it is
traced back to the use of textile residues and recycled fibers from the woven industries.
Nowadays, nonwovens have been used in personal care and hygiene, healthcare,
clothing, furniture, automotive, construction, geotextiles, filtration, industrial products,
and the agriculture field. The choice of fibers in different applications depends on the
nonwoven’s specifications, composites, and laminates, and also the cost effectiveness
is another factor needing consideration. Thanks to the development of artificial fiber
industrials, fibers now are widely expanded from natural fiber, inorganic fiber, metal
fiber, and synthetic fiber, including artificial leather to “Shin-Gosen” and high-
performance fibers, and details are comprised in this chapter. Fibers available presently
are listed in Fig. 2.2.
The primary difference between natural and synthetic fibers is in their chemical
composition and in their structures. Natural fibers have uneven and inhomogeneous
surfaces, such as a hollow and/or a noncircular cross section. In addition to their chem-
ical composition, they are differentiated from synthetic fibers by multiple-phase struc-
tures, which make them hydrophilic or hydrophobic.
Vegetable fibers are harvested from natural growth or from human cultivation.
Their properties and productivities vary from geographical regions and are affected
by the environment; they include sunlight, moisture, plant disease, insect attacks,
and population densities. Animal hairs are from fed or cultivated poultry and livestock.
The quality and growth volume of animal hairs go with their species and are affected
Advances in Technical Nonwovens. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100575-0.00002-4

Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
20 Advances in Technical Nonwovens
Figure 2.1 Cai Lun created a sheet of paper. www.baidu.com.
by the environment they live in. At present, synthetic fibers taking the advantage of
high production rate at a tremendously reduced cost play a major role in making the
nonwovens products, and they show some different properties compared to nature
fibers; in addition, their features are results of their own nature, as listed in Table 2.1.
Further new product development and innovative processes with highly added values
are giving place to “Shin-Gosen” to make biomimetic of artificial fibers. On the other
hand, an irreversible trend is that people adopt their behavior to switch their favor from
the use of natural fibers to synthetic fibers.
Another reason blocking the mass application of nature fiber such as cotton is that
the impurities in cotton fibers are difficult to be completely removed. Therefore, their
applications for high-level nonwovens are restricted. However, a change in favoring
the use of natural fibers is retrieved, owing to their sustainability properties and the
global advocacy in reducing carbon dioxide emission. Nowadays, biodegradable poly-
mers with comparative performance properties as synthetic fibers are being developed
for nonwovens applications.
Developments in fibers for technical nonwovens 21
Seeds fiber: cotton, kapok fiber

Bast fiber: flax, ramie, hemp, jute, apocynum,
Vegetable fiber pineapple leaf fiber, coconut fiber,
banana fiber, bamboo fiber, lotus fiber
Animal hairness: wool, cashmere, cony hair,
camel hair, alpaca, vicuna,
Animal fiber
Natural down, feather
fiber Silk: mulberry silk, tussah silk, eria silk,
cassava silk, spider silk
Mineral fiber: glass fiber, basalt fiber, SiC, Al2O3, ...

Fiber materials
Metal fiber: stainless steel fiber
Regenarated fiber: viscose, polynosic, cuprammonuium,

acetate rayon, Tencel
Chemical Standard fiber: polyester(terlene), nylon,

fiber acrylic fibers, polypropylene fiber,
vinylon, spandex, polyvinyl chloride fibers
Special fiber: superfine fiber, profoled fiber,

Synthetic hollow fiber, antibacterial fiber,
fiber UV resistant fiber, fire resistant fiber,
conductive fiber
High perfomance fiber: aramid fiber, UHMWPE,

polyphenylene sulfide,
carbon fiber,
polytetrafluoroethylene fiber
Figure 2.2 Fibers’ raw materials.
2.1.2 From organic fibers to inorganic fibers

Inorganic fibers, such as glass and basel are introduced for the application at an
elevated temperature environment up to 500 C or higher. Compared to organic fibers,
inorganic fibers are brittle, which presents a problem to handle and to process into
other shapes or textures. However, force spinning or centrifugal spinning is consid-
ered as a useful way to produce submicron microglass fibers using centrifugal force,
but it can hardly be used for making synthetic submicron fibers. Typical inorganic
materials for making glass fibers are carborundum (SiC), aluminum oxide (Al2O3),
and boron (B).
2.1.3 From functional fibers to high performance fibers

Synthetic fibers for general use cannot meet the requirements of commercial values.
Modified fibers with functional properties, such as antibacterial fibers, UV-protection
22
Table 2.1 Physical properties of textile fibers [2]
Physical properties
Moisture regain
Diameter Density Tenacity Extension at at 65% relative Melting
Fiber type (mm) (g/cm3) (cN/dtex) break (%) humidity (%) point (8C)
Natural (vegetal) Cotton 11e22 1.52 3.5 7 7 e

fibers
Flax 5e40 1.52 5.5 3 7 e
Jute 8e30 1.52 5.0 2 12 e
Natural (animal) Wool 18e44 1.31 1.2 40 14 e
fibers
Silk 10e15 1.34 4.0 23 10 e
Man-made Rayon viscose 12þ 1.46e1.54 2.0 20 13 e
(artificial) fibers
Acetate 15þ 1.32 1.3 24 6 230
Triacetate 15þ 1.32 1.2 30 4 230
Man-made Nylon 6 14þ 1.14 3.2e6.5 30e55 2.8e5 225
(synthetic) fibers
Nylon 6.6 14þ 1.14 3.2e6.5 16e66 2.8e5 250
Advances in Technical Nonwovens

Polyester 12þ 1.34 2.5e5.4 12e55 0.4 250
Acrylic 12þ 1.16 2.0e3.0 20e28 1.5 235
Polypropylene 10þ 0.91 2.6e6.0 20 0.1 165
Elastane e 1.21 6.0e8.0 444e555 1.3 230
(Lycra)
Inorganic fibers Glass 5þ 2.54 7.6 2e5 0 800
Asbestos 0.01e0.30 2.5 e e 1 1500
fibers, flame-retardant (FR) fibers, antistatistic fibers, and far infrared fibers are
produced. Two methods are used for their preparation: one is to change the shape
of the fiber cross section or the fiber surface morphology, and the other is to add
functional additives into the polymer matrix during the spinning process or the
finishing process. Not all the functional properties can be easily achieved from
the above-mentioned two methods. Other polymers, including aromatic polyamide,
aromatic polyester, liquid crystal polymer, polyimide, polytetrafluoroethylene, pol-
ysulfonamide, polyphenylene sulfide (PPS), polybenzoxazole, carbon fiber (CF),
and polyether ether ketone, are introduced with the features of high tenacity,
high modulus, high heat resistance, and excellent flame retardation (Tables 2.2
and 2.3) [3,4]. Fibers based on synthesized polymer, such as sodium polyacrylate,
polyethersulfone, poly(methyl methacrylate), ethyleneepropyleneediene mono-
mer, modified polyolefin, and low melting point polyester and polyamide are
good raw materials for functional nonwovens, such as low bonding temperature,
super absorbency, ion absorption, and filtration, and most of them are also in com-
mercial practice. The performance requirements for a variety of applications are
listed in Table 2.4 [4].
The limiting oxygen indexes (LOI)s

Table 2.2
of fibers [3]
Limiting
Materials oxygen index
Pyromex (carbon fiber, Teijin) 50e60

PBI 40e41
Nomax 32
Kevlar 28
Kermel (polyamide-imide, Kemel) 32
PPS 34
P84 40
Basofil (melamine fiber, BASF) 32
PBO 68
Teflon >95
Flame-resistant rayon 28e30
Modacryl 27e30
Polyestel, polyamide 20e22
Polyacryl 18e20
Rayon 18e20
Cotton 17e19
Table 2.3 Typical examples of high-performance fibers

Tenacity Modulus
Fiber Trade name (cN/dtex) (cN/dtex)
Para-aramida Kevlar 49(DuPont) 19.36 748

b
Twaron (Teijin 19.36 748
Twaron)
Technora (Teijin) 24.64 492.8
All aromatic polyester Bectran (Kuraray) 25.52 589.6
Ultra high molecular weight Dyneema (Toyobo) 26.4e35.2 880e1232
polyethylene fiber SK60
High-tenacity product 35.2e39.6 1056e1408
Polyacrylonitrile-based carbon TORAYCA (Toray) 17.6e39.6 1232e3080
fiberb (liquid crystal)
Besfight (Toho Tenax)
Pyrofil (Mitsubishi
Rayon)
Pitch-based carbon fiber Glanoc (NGF) 11.44e16.72 616e3960
(liquid crystal pitch)
Dialead (Mitsubishi
Chemical)
Poly ( p-phenylene-2, ZYLON(Toyobo) 42 1760
6-benzobisoxazole fiber
a
There are para-aramid (high tenacity and high modulus) and meta-aramid (heat resistance). para- and meta-types belong to
super and high-function fibers, respectively.
b
There are isotropic (for general use) and liquid crystalline pitch (high performance). Liquid crystalline pitch belongs to
super fiber.
Hongu T, Phillips GO, Takigami M. New Millennium fibers. Florida: CRC Press; 2005. p. 7e35.
2.2 Natural fibers

2.2.1 Vegetable fibers
2.2.1.1 Cotton
Cotton, the most widely used natural fiber, is an annual plant. The cotton containing
some linters (short fibers) swells out in thick white flocks when the ripe fruit shells
burst open. The raw cotton is composed of cellulose (80e90%), waxes and fats
(0.5e1.0%), proteins (0e1.5%), hemicelluloses and pectins (4e6%), ash (1e1.8%),
and water (6e8%). The quality of cotton is graded by the basic properties, such as fiber
length (10e50% mm), linear density (1.0e2.8% dtex), color, impurities (trash and
dust), tenacity (2.5e5.0% cN/dtex), and breaking elongation (7e10%).
Cotton has a ribbon-like cross section with a hollow spiral twist structure (Fig. 2.3),
dimensions ranging from superfine Sea Island cottons, with a length of 5 cm and a
Energy
Clothes
Industry
Interiors
Bedding
Table 2.4
Agriculture
Information
Fire fighting
Construction
Medical care
Development
Life materials
Aviation/space
Marine products
Civil engineering
Defense/munitions
Ocean development
Traffic/transportation
= Very important property.

High tenacity
High modulus
High toughness
High tear strength
Shock resistance
= Less important property.

Abrasion resistance
Fatigue resistance
Durability
Dimension stability
Dye stability
Lightweight
Transparency
Air permeability
Heat retention
Heat resistance
Performance required for various application fields
Insulation
Fire-proofing
Fire prevention
Fire resistance
Anti-weatherability
Moisture absorption
Moisture
Water absorption
Water-proofing
Water repellency
Electric controlling
Electric insulation
Bacteria-proofing
Fungi-proofing
Chemical-resistance
High adhesive
Ease of storage
safety
25 Developments in fibers for technical nonwovens

(a) (b)
Figure 2.3 Cross section (a) and longitudinal section (b) of cotton fibers.
Courtesy of Chunming LI, South China University of Technology.
linear density of 1 dtex, to coarse Asiatic cottons of 1.5 cm and 3 dtex. A short length
down to 23 mm can be typically seen. The tenacity of cotton varies with different
brands, as listed in Table 2.5.
Cotton fibers in wet have a strength of 3e5.6 cN/dtex, which are stronger than dry
cotton fibers (2.6e4.3 cN/dtex). This is a unique property in natural fibers. A thicker
cell wall is an indication of the cotton maturity, which also presents a stronger tenacity
and a better chemical stability.
The density of the cell wall of a dry cotton fiber is 1.55 and 1.52 g/cm3 at 65%
relative humidity (RH), and 1.38 g/cm3 when wet [6]. The absorption of heat in the
dry cotton is in the range of 1.19 and 1.33 kJ/g. The corresponding heat of wetting in
the dry state is in the range of 41e46.1 and 47.3e54 kJ/g, depending on test methods
[7]. The specific heat of dry cotton is 1.21 J/g [8], and the thermal conductivity of a pad
of cotton with a bulk density of 0.5 g/cm3, ie, a packing factor of 1/3, is 71 mW/m K [8].
Table 2.5 Mechanical properties of cottona

Initial Work of
Fineness modulus Tenacity rupture Elongation
(dtex) (cN/dtex) (cN/dtex) (MN/tex) (%)
St. Vincent, Sea 1.00 73 4.52 15.0 6.80

Island
Uppers, 1.84 50 3.23 10.7 7.10
American
Bengals, Indian 3.24 39 1.85 5.0 5.60
a
Tested at 65% relative humidity, 20 C. Tested sample length is 1 cm, and the test speed is 0.9 (N/tex)/min.
[Woodhead Publishing in Textiles] Gordon S, Hsieh YL. Cotton Science and technology. Florida: CRC Press; 2007. p. 46.
Variation of heat of absorption of Sea Island cotton

Table 2.6
with humidity
Relative humidity (%)
0 15 30 45 60
Heat of absorption from liquid water (kJ/g) 1.24 0.50 0.39 0.32 0.29
Heat of absorption from water vapor (kJ/g) 3.69 2.95 2.84 2.77 2.74
[Woodhead Publishing in Textiles] Gordon S, Hsieh YL. Cotton Science and technology. Florida: CRC Press; 2007.
p. 40e42.
Cotton loses 8% of its strength after 20 days and 32% after 80 days at 100 C, and even
62% and 90% at 130 C [8]. At the temperature of 21 C and the RH of 65%, a coarse
unbleached gray cotton yarn over stainless steel of radius 19 mm at standard conditions
of 72 m/min, 25 g initial tension, shows the coefficient of friction (m) of cotton on cotton
is 0.29 (for crossed fibers) and 0.22 (for parallel fibers), and m for cotton passing over
guides is 0.29 (for hard steel), 0.32 (for porcelain), 0.23 (for fiber pulley), and 0.24
(for ceramic) respectively [6]. The heat of absorption of cotton varies with the environ-
mental relative humidity, as listed in Table 2.6.
Raw cotton can be used for oil absorbence without a treatment, thanks to its natural
hydrophobic properties from the wax and fats on the surface of the fibers. Most cotton
fibers are chemically treated in an alkaline solution and/or H2O2 to bleach and to
dewax the fiber surface in order to obtain the required quality and purity for various
applications. The treated cotton fibers become hydrophilic.
A new variety of cotton is on the market for some special applications. Organic or
ecological cotton is one of them. Organic cotton is obtained through biological culti-
vation without the use of pesticides, plant growth regulators, and defoliants. Naturally
colored cotton is another variety, and what make it attractive is its inherent brick-red,
salvia-green, or brown shades from its natural growth by selected seeds during culti-
vation. By genetic modification, transgenic cotton fibers produced through genetic
manipulations are in progress to obtain a wider variety of colors while improving their
natural performances.
2.2.1.2 Jute/ramie/sisal/apocynum/hemp/linen/flax
The first vegetable fiber is from bast including jute, ramie, sisal, apocynum, hemp,
linen, and flax. The quality of raw bast fibers depends on the quality of the soil, the
climate, and the method used to separate the bast from the cortex after it has been har-
vested. Chemically, jute fiber is a highly lignified fiber, which consists of cellulose
(60%), hemicelluloses (26%), lignin (11%), proteins (1%), waxes and fats (1%), and
ash (1%).
Bast fiber may show a noncircular cross section, or a hollow structure depending on
different species. The number of hollows varies with different bast fibers. The cross
section of jute is shown in Fig. 2.4 and hemp in Fig. 2.5. The cross section is not a
(a) (b)
Figure 2.4 Cross section (a) and longitudinal section (b) of jute fibers.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.5 Cross section (a) and longitudinal section (b) of hemp fibers.
Albrecht W, Fuchs H, Kittelmann W. Nonwoven: fabrics, raw materials, manufacture,
applications, characteristics, test processing. Wiley-Vch Verlag GmbH & Co. KCaA,
Weinheim. 2003: 19-20.
hollow structure in hemp and in jute. Compared with cotton, hemp has a smooth sur-
face with no spiral twist, which makes the bast fibers easy to pull off from the yarn
texture.
Properties of some bast fibers are listed in Table 2.7.
Jute is not a costly fiber but has a high tenacity with low tensile elongation and low
crimps, so it is a predominant fiber used for floor coverings, for the base or interme-
diate layer in tufted floor coverings, for the filling pieces in upholstery, and for acoustic
insulating materials.
Manila hemp is from yellow to brown in color. Its length is about 5e8 mm, and
it is solid, light, and shiny. It has a very high wet strength and good resistant to
rot. Manila hemp is used to produce tea bags and Manila paper on special machin-
ery. The solidity of the fiber and its pectin content give this special paper a unique
quality.
Table 2.7 Properties of selected natural bast fibers

Property Hemp Flax Sisal Jute
Density (g/cm3) 1.48 1.4 1.33 1.46

Modulus (GPa) 70 60e80 38 10e30
Tenacity (MPa) 550e900 800e1500 600e700 400e800
Elongation (%) 1.6 1.2e1.6 2e3 1.8
[Dekker mechanical engineering] Mallick PK. Fiber reinforced composites materials manufacturing and design. Florida:
CRC Press; 2007. p. 56.
2.2.1.3 Coconut fiber (coir fiber)

Coconut fiber, obtained from unripe coconut, is a natural fiber extracted from the husk
of coconut. The coconut is steeped in hot seawater, and subsequently, the fibers are
removed from the shell by combing and crushing, the same process as jute fiber.
The individual fiber cells are narrow and hollow with thick walls made of cellulose,
and each cell is about 1 mm long and 10e20 mm in diameter, as shown in Fig. 2.6.
The raw coconut fibers show length varying from 15 to 35 cm and diameter from
50 to 300 mm. When they are immature and then become hardened and yellowed
because a layer of lignin is deposited on their walls. Coconut fiber shows a good stiff-
ness and is used in products such as floor mats, doormats, brushes, mattresses, coarse
filling material, and upholstery [9].
2.2.1.4 Banana fiber

In Japan, banana cultivation for clothing and household application dates back to at
least the 13th century and has been using as a source of fiber for high-quality textiles
until now. In the Japanese system, leaves and shoots of banana trees are cut from the
(a) (b)
Figure 2.6 Cross section (a) and longitudinal section (b) of coconut fibers.
Albrecht W, Fuchs H, Kittelmann W. Nonwoven: fabrics, raw materials, manufacture,
applications, characteristics, test processing. Wiley-Vch Verlag GmbH & Co. KCaA,
Weinheim. 2003: 19-20.
plant periodically to ensure its softness and different qualities for specific uses.
Commonly, the outermost fibers of the shoots are the coarsest and are used for
tablecloths, while the softest innermost fibers are good materials for kimono and
kamishimo. In the Nepalese system, the trunk is harvested and then cut into small
pieces for the softening process, followed by mechanical fiber extraction, bleaching,
and drying to the final products. This kind of fibers is used in rugs with a silk-like
texture. In South Indian state of Tamil Nadu, after harvesting for fruit, the trunk (outer
layer of the shoot) is made into a fine thread in flower garlands.
2.2.1.5 Pineapple leaf fiber

The chemical content in pineapple fiber is similar to that in flax and jute fiber
(Table 2.8), but the lignin content in pineapple leaf fiber is more than that in flax
(2e7%) and less than that in Jute (10e18%). Composition and properties of pineapple
leaf fiber and bundle fiber are shown in Tables 2.9 and 2.10 [11].
Pineapple fiber is white in appearance, soft and smooth, feels like silk, and shows
higher tenacity than cotton thread; then it can be used as ideal material for triangular
core lines in geotextiles, central reinforcement materials for rubber conveyor belts, and
core materials for belt and high-strength canvas. It can also be used in the papermaking
industry, for reinforced plastic, roof materials, ropes, fishing nets, and weaving
artworks.
2.2.1.6 Lotus fiber/Nelumbo nucifera fiber

Lotus fiber (also called Nelumbo nucifera fiber or lotus root fiber) is pulled from the
lotus root. Lotus petioles also can be used to make fibers because they contain thin fi-
bers when the petiole is broken into pieces. Lotus fiber is lightweight and can give a
cool feeling in hot weather and warmth in cold weather. It also features an everlasting
pleasant lotus fragrance. The constituent of lotus fiber is same as other nature vegetable
fibers, in which the cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin are 41.4 0.29%,
25.87 0.64%, and 19.56 0.32%, respectively [12,13]. Lignin is a major structural
component of lotus fiber material, conferring mechanical strength to the cell wall.
Physical properties of lotus fibers are listed in Table 2.11 [13].
Lotus fiber shows light brown or yellowish with rough surface; the fiber length is
30e50 mm and shows a special helical structure (Fig. 2.7), and this distinct microme-
chanical performance can make it be an idea model for designing biomimetic
Table 2.8 Constituent of pineapple fiber

Water-
soluble Fat and
Constituent Cellulose Hemicellulose Pectin Lignin material wax Ash
% 56e62 16e19 2.0e2.5 9.0e1.3 1e1.5 4e7 2e3
Zhang Y, Chongwen Y. Properties and processing of the pineapple leaf fiber. J Dong Hua Univ 2001;18:0e4.
Developments in fibers for technical nonwovens
Table 2.9 Physical properties of pineapple fiber
Single cell Bundle fiber (untreated)
Strength Tenacity
Length (mm) Diameter (mm) Fineness (tex) Length (mm) (cN/dtex) Elongation (%) (cN/dtex) Initial modulus (Pa)
3e8 7e18 2.5e4.0 10e90 4.26 3.42 3.06 (10) 99.0
31
Table 2.10 Properties of treated (bundle) pineapple fibers

Kamishimo Initial
Fineness Length Tenacity CV% of Elongation modulus
(tex) (mm) (cN/dtex) tenacity (%) (cN/dtex)
Degummed 1.86 e 3.75 30.52 3.85 88.0

fibers
Increment 38 e 1.19 9.43 þ12.57 12.11
(%)
CV, coefficient of variation.

Table 2.11 Physical properties of lotus fiber compared with

cotton and flax
Lotus fiber Cotton Flax
Parameter Mean Max Min %CV
Fineness (dtex) 0.91 1.81 0.56 32.59 1.5e2.0 1.7e3.3
Tenacity (cN/dtex) 2.23 5.25 1.07 36.59 2.4e3.1 4.1e5.5
Initial modulus (cN/dtex) 78.5 144.1 12.9 34.70 50e80 175e184
Elongation (%) 2.60 4.07 1.88 22.38 6.0e9.0 1.6e3.3
Moisture regain (%) 12.3 7.16 e
Ying P, Guangting H, Zhiping M, et al. Structural characteristics and physical properties of lotus fibers obtained from
Nelumbonucifera petioles. Carbohydr Polym 2011;1:188e195.
Figure 2.7 Special helical structure of lotus fiber.

functional materials [14]. It is reported that lotus root contains considerable

amounts of effective ingredients, including polyphenolic compounds, vitamins,
and antioxidants [15].
2.2.1.7 Kapok fiber

Kapok is a fiber derived from the fruits of the silk cotton tree and is mainly composed
of cellulose, lignin, and polysaccharide. The average length is 8e32 mm and diameter
of 20e45 mm. It is considered the finest (only 50% cotton), lightest, and the highest
percentage hollow structure (more than 86%, and it is two to three times of cotton)
in natural fibers (Fig. 2.8), so it is used as packing materials for pillows and quilts
in Southeast Asian countries. Besides these constituents, such as cotton, a small
amount of waxy coating covers the fiber surface and makes it very hydrophobic,
and the hollow lumen structure improves the properties, which make it an ideal oil-
absorption material. The color of the original kapok fiber is pale yellowish-brown
for Philippine kapok and pale yellow for Vietnamese kapok. The bulk density of kapok
fiber is 0.3 g/cm3, only 20% of cotton fiber (1.54 g/cm3); double refraction index is
0.017, lower than that of cotton (0.040e0.051), and the crystallization degree is
35.90%. The structure of the cell wall is looser than that of cotton. The fiber has
good heat resistance, with decomposing temperature of 296 C. The fiber stops decom-
posing and carbonizing happens at 354 C [16e18].
2.2.2 Animal fibers

2.2.2.1 Wool
Wool is the second most important natural fiber. Wool is a suitably stiff and perma-
nently crimped bicomponent fiber because of the different nature of cortical cells,
and this is the hint of crimp synthetic fiber (Fig. 2.9). Microscopic barbs on the surface
(a) (b)
Figure 2.8 Cross section (a) and longitudinal section (b) of kapok fiber.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.9 Longitudinal section of wool (a), cashmere (b), and yak wool (c).
Courtesy of Jiafei XIE, GTT.
of wool fibers help fibers hook together for the preparation of felts or mats. The distinct
variations in thickness are, in most cases, favorable to produce nonwovens with rela-
tively good shape stability and also good insulation because of air trapped between the
fibers. Wool is a keratin fiber, a mixture of chemically linked amino acids that are also
the natural constituents of all living organisms. Wool is inherently fire retardant, but
further improvements can be achieved by a kind of fire-retardant treatments [19].
Some basic properties of wool are listed in Table 2.1.
2.2.2.2 Silkworm silk (Bombyx mori)

Silkworm silk is another protein-based fiber produced naturally by the silkworm,
B. Mori or other varieties of moth, and it is the only naturally and commercially pro-
duced continuous filament. Silkworm silk fiber is composed of a fibroin core and a
sericin casing, and is relatively rigid because the sericin causes the filaments to adhere
to one another. After the desericin treatment (with alkali treatment) silk has high
tenacity, high luster, and good dimensional stability. A triangle cross section is
its typical structure, which results in the luster of silkworm silk (Fig. 2.10).
(a) (b)
Figure 2.10 Cross section (a), longitudinal section (b) of silk.

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.11 Longitudinal section (a and b) and cross section (c) of feather.
Its biocompatibility and gradual disintegration support it to be a good raw material for
medical textiles. Like wool, the special luster and triangle cross section has also been
an inspiration for the development of some highly technical synthetic fibers, which we
always called bionic fibers. Properties of silkworm silk are shown in Table 2.1.
2.2.2.3 Down and feather

Down and feather are another kind of keratin fiber, which has a helical rather than
folded chain structure, with strong inter- and intrachain hydrogen bonding responded
for its unique characteristics. The basic units in feather are the microtubule bundle cells
(Fig. 2.11). The outer layer of the cell is covered with a layer of membrane consisting
of macromolecule-containing phosphoric acid group, olefin-containing phosphate
ester, and cholesterol, and these special chemical components provide the fiber with
evident hydrophobic properties. During the formation of microtubule bundle cells,
lots of hollow and cavity structures form, and some still air is retained, which responds
to the good thermal insulation properties of feather.
2.3 Synthetic fibers

2.3.1 Cellulose fiber
Many artificial fibers are prepared from cellulose-based materials, and two different
categories are accepted according to different processes: one is the viscose process
in which fibers are regenerated from solution of derivatives of cellulose, and typical
examples are viscose and modal; the other is a solvent process in which the fibers
are regenerated from cellulose fibers from solutions of cellulose, and cuprammonium
continuous fibers and Lyocell fibers are two examples. Cellulose-based artificial fibers
show different properties, and some special types, like the highly crimped fiber and
high wet-strength fiber, are under development (Table 2.12) [20] Asahi Kasei in Japan
has the patented conglutination of cuprammonium fibers in the regeneration of the
cellulose with the brand name of Bemberg, cupro cellulose fiber made from cotton
linter. Lenzing in Austria has the patented technology to produce cellulose from
NMMO with the brand name of TENCEL; in addition, the company has other famous
cellulose-based fibers, such as Lenzing Modal and Lenzing Viscose fibers. The most
important viscose staple fibers are shown in Table 2.13 [21].
36
Table 2.12 Commercial viscose staple fibers and their properties
Viscose staple fibers-basic types modal fibers Modal fibers
Normal Highly crimped High wet
Properties type type strength Polynosic High wet modulus
Finess (dtex) 1.3e100 2.4e25 1.4e7.8 1.7e4.2 1.7e3.0
Maximum tensile load in dry state (cN/dtex) 0.75e2.7 1.8e2.4 2.8e3.6 3.2e4.5 3.6e4.5
Maximum tensile load extension (%) 16e30 20e30 21e28 8e14 14e18
in dry state
Relative wet strength (%) 60e65 60e65 65e80 72e65 75e65
Water retention (%) 90e115 90e115 65e80 65e75 65e75

Suitable No No No Good With reservations
Dadashian F, Wilding MA. An investigation into physical changes occurring in tencel fibers having different manufacturing dates. J Text Inst Part Fiber Sci Text Technol 1999;90(3):275e287.
Table 2.13 Properties of some typical cellulose-based artificial fibers
Normal
Fibers performance Lyocell viscose fibers Polynosic Modal Cuprammonium Cotton Polyester
Tenacity (cN/dtex) Dry state 4.2e4.8 2.0e2.5 3.6e4.2 3.4e3.8 1.5e2.0 2.5e3.0 4.8e6.0
Elongation (%) 10e15 18e23 10e15 14e16 10e20 8e10 25e30
Tenacity (cN/dtex) Wet state 2.6e3.6 1.0e1.5 2.7e3.0 1.8e2.2 9.0e1.2 2.6e3.2 4.6e5.8
Elongation (%) 10e18 22e28 11e16 15e18 16e35 12e14 25e30
Initial modulus (cN/dtex) 250e270 400e500 200e350 180e250 300e500 100e150 210
Loop tenacity (cN/dtex) 18e20 10e14 8e12 12e16
Rencheng T, Jianping Z, Shiying M. Lyocell textile dyeing and finishing technology. Beijing: China Textile Press; 2001. p. 28e29.
37
During the viscose process, some parameters can be changed, and different proper-
ties of viscose can be obtained, such as the composition of the viscose, the precipita-
tion, and the condition of the coagulating bath, drawing method, and/or air gap used.
For Tencel, fibrillation occurs during the milling process in the wet environment. We
can use this “milled” fibrillation for functional paper, and some special textiles called
“peach-skin” or some other porosity fabrics, but on the other hand, it will cause pilling
of cloth during its application.
For Tencel fibers, their crystallinity and mechanical properties will change due to
the degradation of the fiber with the storage time, as illustrated in Table 2.14.
2.3.2 Protein-based fibers

Gelatin, also denatured collagen, is a protein and major constituent of the white fibrous
connective tissue occurring in the hides, skins, and bones of animals. Collagen, in the
form of elongated fibrils, is the main structural protein of the various connective tissues
in animals. It is extracted from the raw material by subjecting it to either acid or alka-
line treatment and obtains Type A (acid treatment) and Type B (alkaline treatment)
gelatins, respectively. The main amino acids are glycine, proline, alanine, and
4-hydroxyproline. Chemically, soy protein is an amino acid polymer or polypeptide.
Collagen and soybean protein are always used for fiber prepared by wet spinning
with PVA, and properties of protein fibers are listed in Table 2.15 [22].
2.3.3 Chitosan
Chitin is a polymer with units of N-acetyl glucosamine and contains about 6.9% nitro-
gen (N), which makes it useful as a chelating agent. Chitin can be used in the biomed-
ical, pharmaceutical, paper, textile, photographic, and other applications fields. Chitin
is from the exoskeletons of arthropods such as crustaceans, the radulae of molluscs,
and the beaks and internal shells of cephalopods, including squid and octopuses; it
is also found in bacteria and fungi. In its native form, chitin cannot dissolve in common
solvents and its average molecular weight of 1.036 106 to 2.5 106 Da. Chitosan is
a derivative when chitin is deacetylated and it is soluble in aqueous acetic acid. Typical
properties of chitin and chitosan fiber are listed in Table 2.16. Chitosan fiber can be
prepared by dry-spinning and wet-spinning. Sometime, polyvinyl alcohol is blended
with chitosan to improve the wet stability of the fibers, with the contents of PVA in
the fibers varied from 10% to 50%. Chitosan can also be blended spinning with cellu-
lose, polycapro lactone (PCL), or other fiber formation polymers. Chitosan fiber can be
used in controlled release applications when it is loaded with silver particles or other
model drugs, in scaffolds for tissue engineering, and in sensors and actuators based on
changes in pH under the low-voltage actuators [24].
2.3.4 Sodium alginate/calcium alginate

Alginates are polysaccharides found as the cell wall constituents in brown algae
(Phaeophyceae), which is considered a seaweed, and it is extensively used in the med-
ical industry, mainly as a wound dressing due to its excellent ability to absorb moisture
Table 2.14 The effect of storage time on crystallization and mechanical properties of Tencel fiber
Storage time Crystallinity Moisture Initial modulus Viscosity of 2%
(year) index absorption (%) (cN/dtex) Tenacity (cN/dtex) Elongation (%) cuprammonium
4 0.53 8.7 128 4.32 13.2 0.0505

5 0.56 8.1 122 4.23 12.7 0.0481
8 0.78 6.3 89 3.78 9.8 0.0299
Rencheng T, Jianping Z, Shiying M. Lyocell textile dyeing and finishing technology. Beijing: China Textile Press; 2001. p. 28e29.
39
Table 2.15 Properties of some protein fibers

Soybean
Properties Collagen fibers Wool protein fiber
Tenacity (cN/dtex) Dry 1.60e2.20 0.88e1.50 0.62

Elongation (%) 35.2e44.0 22.0e30.8 52.8
Tenacity (cN/dtex) Wet 0.704e1.32 0.660e1.43 0.308
Elongation (%) 37.0e44.0 22.0e44.0 52.8
Initial modulus (cN/dtex) 22.9e51.0 9.68e22.0
3
Density (g/cm ) 1.39 1.32
Flexibility Well Well
Zeng H, Functional fibers. Beijing: Chemical Industry Press; 2005. p. 418.
Table 2.16 Properties of chitosan fiber and chitin fiber

Elongation
Tenacity (cN/dtex) (%)
Line density Knot strength
Fiber (tex) Dry Wet Dry Wet (cN/dtex)
Chitin 0.17e0.44 0.97e2.20 0.35e0.97 4e8 3e8 0.44e1.44
fiber
Chitosan 0.17e0.11 0.97e2.73 0.35e1.23 8e4 6e12 0.44e1.32
fiber
Zeng H, Functional fibers. Beijing: Chemical Industry Press; 2005. p. 409.
and keep wounds dry. The naturally occurring sodium alginate is water soluble but
changes to water insoluble by the ion-exchanging reaction of the sodium alginate
into other forms. Alginate can be formed into fibers through the wet-spinning process,
and the fiber has also been widely used for wound dressing and other medical appli-
cations because alginates gelatinize by absorbing wound exudates, which avoids the
discomfort when removing wound dressings, keeps the wound moist, and assists in
better wound healing. The mechanical properties of alginate fiber depend on the fiber
formation process, and the tenacity varies from 1.1 to 2.2 cN/dtex and elongation of
13e21%. In order to improve the mechanical properties and biocompatibility of the
fiber, chitosan was used (Table 2.17) [26,27].
2.3.5 Synthetic chemical fiber

2.3.5.1 Polyolefin
Polyolefin fibers include both polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), and the latter
is commonly used. PP has good mechanical properties, hydrophilic properties, and a
Table 2.17 Comparison of properties of alginate fibers

with and without chitosan
Solution
concentration Draw Tenacity Elongation
Fiber type (%) ratio (cN/dtex) (%)
Sodium alginate 6 1.18 2.2 20.4

Sodium alginate 4 1.09 1.232 13.1
Alginate þ unhydrolyzed 6 1.18 2.024 23.4
chitosan
Alginate þ hydrolyzed 6 1.18 2.464 20.5
chitosan
Reddy N, Yang Y. Innovative biofibers from renewable resources. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag; 2015. p. 99e121.
density less than that of water, which allows it to float as ropes, nets, mats, and other
similar applications. Low cost, good processability and recycling, and good resistance
to acid and alkaline environments of PP have greatly influenced its growth and sub-
stantial use in technique textile applications. PE has moderate physical properties
with a low melting temperature of about 110 C for its low density form and about
140 C for its high density form. A famous PE nonwoven is Tyvek, produced by
DuPont. Thermal properties and density of polyester, polyamide, and polyolefin fiber
are listed in Table 2.18.
Table 2.18 Physical properties of synthetic fibers

Properties PTT PBT PET PA6 PA66 PP PE
Tm ( C) 228 226 260 220 265 168 132
Tg ( C) 45e65 20e40 69e81 40e87 50e90 e17 e60
Density 1.33 1.35 1.38 1.13 1.14 0.91 0.94e0.98/
(g/cm3) 0.92e0.94
24-h water 0.03 e 0.09 1.9 2.8 e e
absorption
rate
336-h water 0.15 e 0.49 9.5 8.9 <0.03 e
absorption
rate
Qian Y. PTT fiber and its development. Beijing: China Textile Press; 2006. p. 36.
Table 2.19 Typical values for normal polyamide 6 fiber properties

Tenacity Elongation
cN/ CV cN/ CV Boiling Crimp
Type dtex % dtex % shrinkage /% percentage/ %
FDY 78D/24 f 4.5 3e6 46 3e6 10.2
22/12 4.8 3e6 45 3e6 10.6
44/12 4.5 3e6 48 3e6 10.7
DTY 78/24 4.1 3e6 28 3e6 52
44/12 4.0 3e6 30 3e6 60
78/24/2 3.7 3e6 27 3e6 53
(Kindly provided by Guangdong Xinhui Meida Nylon Co., Ltd.)
2.3.5.2 Polyamide
The first synthetic fiber that appeared in the world market in 1939 was Nylon 66, pro-
duced by DuPont. A series of nylons have been developed since then. Nylon 66 and
Nylon 6 are most popular in fiber form. They are well known for their high extensi-
bility, good recovery, wear resistance, low density, and relatively high moisture absor-
bency compare to polyester. Properties of some polyamide staples are listed in
Table 2.19, and performance comparison of polyamide with polyester and acrylics
is shown in Tables 2.20 and 2.21 [29,30].
2.3.5.3 Polyester fiber

The first commercial polyester is polyethylene terephthalate with the brand name of
Dacron by DuPont in 1951, and it is the first most-used fiber, far ahead of other
Table 2.20 Properties comparison of typical synthesized fibers

Properties Nylon 66 Nylon 6 PET Acrylics
Density (g/cm3) 1.14 1.14 1.39 1.18

Tg ( C) 40e50 40e60 70e80 e
Tm ( C) 265 230 260 320
Tenacity (cN/dtex) 5.28e8.8 4.84 5.28 3.52
Moisture regain (%) 4.0 4.1 0.2e0.4 1.0e2.0
Elastic recovery (5% strain) (%) 89 89 65 50
Refractive index 1.54 1.52 1.54 1.5
Joseph V, Kurian A. New polymer platform for the futuredSorona from corn derived 1,3-Propanediol. J Polym Environ
2005;13(2):159e167.
Table 2.21 Performances of commercial synthesized polymers

Properties PET PTT PBT PA66
Tenacity (MPa) 72.5 67.6 56.5 82.8

Flexural modulus (MPa) 3.11 2.76 2.34 2.83
Heat distortion temperature of 1.8 MPa ( C) 65 59 54 90
2
V-notch impact strength (J/m ) 37 48 53 53
3
Density (g/m ) 1.40 1.35 1.34 1.14
Tm ( C) 265 225 228 265
Tg ( C) 80 40e60 25 50e90
Dielectric strength (mV/m) 21.7 20.9 15.8 23.6
Dielectric constant 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.6
Dielectric dissipation factor 0.02 0.015 0.02 0.02
Water absorption of 24 h (100%) 0.09 0.03 e 2.8
Water absorption of 14 day (100%) 0.49 0.15 e 8.9
Sun J, Lv W. New fiber material. Shanghai: Shanghai University Press; 2007. p. 620.
synthetics both in terms of production and consumption. It can be used in either

continuous filament or as a short staple of varying lengths according to their final
application, and the staples are always used with natural fibers such as cotton,
wool, and even downs. Polyester fiber shows high modulus and tenacity, which
makes it have excellent physical and chemical properties, dimensional stability,
easy care, good weather resistance, easy process ability, recyclability, and good
dimensional stability, but poor comfort due to its low moisture absorption
(Table 2.22).
A high glass transition temperature of around 70 C with good resistance to heat
and chemical degradation also qualifies polyester for most technical textile applica-
tions. PET has the similar mechanical properties to silkworm silk, so it is a good
material to mimic natural silkworm silk. Many methods are used for the modification
of polyester, including in cross section, surface morphology, chemical treatment, and
even some chemical modifications have been carried out until now. Functional poly-
ester fibers have been products for various application fields, and the diameter or
fineness of fibers are different, according to their final applications, as illustrated
in Table 2.23. The mechanical properties also are designed for particular use, as
listed in Table 2.24.
Because of the environment protection and the 3Rs (recycle, reduce, and reuse)
concept put on the agenda, raw materials for polyester fiber not only base on petro-
leum, but also on nonpetroleum, like plants and microorganisms; postused PET bottles
are collected and reused to make into polyester fibers.
Table 2.22 Important properties of basic types of polyester fiber

Fine fiber Fine fiber Wool type Wool type
Properties unstabilized stabilized normal low-pilling
Fineness/diameter (dtex/mm) 1.7/40 1.7/40 3.3/60 3.3/60

Tenacity (cN/dtex) 5.5e6.0 5.5e6.0 4.5e5.5 3.6e4.2
Elongation (%) 24e30 22e28 40e50 35e45
Wet strength retention 100 100 100 100
(relative) (%)
Boiling shrinkage (%) 4e7 1e4 1e3 2e3
Shrinkage on exposure of 6e9 2e5 2e5 3e5
high temperature (%)
Hot air shrinkage (%) 16e18 5e7 9e12 10e12
No. of abrasion revs 4000e6000 3000e4000 3500e4500 2000e2500
Li G. Polymer material processing technology. Beijing: China Textile Press; 2010. p. 167.
Table 2.23 Fineness of PET fibers for different applications

Fiber Fineness (dtex)
Normal fibers, superfine 1.0e2.4

Wool type 2.4e5.0
Padding type 3.3e22
Carpet type 6.7e17
Low-pilling fibers 1.7e44
High-shrinkage fibers (classical and linear) 1.7
Bicomponent fibers 3.0e17
Bonding fibers >1.7
Flame-retardant type 1.7e4.4
PTT is a new member in polyester family; its value as a commercial polymer has
improved because its monomers are not all dependent on petroleum. DuPont has suc-
cessfully commercialized the production of this polymer via 1,3-propanediol obtained
by fermentation and produces Polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT) with the brand
name of Sorona. The beneficial properties of Sorona are derived from a unique, semi-
crystalline molecular structure featuring a pronounced “kink,” which means that outer
forces, such as tensile or compressive forces, translate at the molecular level, causing
Table 2.24 Characteristics for modified polyester fibers

Pill- Super pill-
Fiber cross sections Unit Round Hollow resistant resistant
Fiber characteristics (initial state)

Fineness dtex 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.0
Tenacity cN/dtex 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.0e3.3
Elongation % 35 40 45 32e37
Bending resistance Turns 150,000 150,000 50,000 900e1300
After 4 h of high-temperature dyeing
Fineness dtex 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.0
Tenacity cN/dtex 4.5 4.0 3.5 2.2
Elongation % 35 40 40 25
Bending resistance Turns 70,000 120,000 20,000 1000
the bending and twisting of bonds, rather than simply stretching. PTT fiber resists UV
degradation better than other fibers and exhibits both low water absorption and low
electrostatic charging [29]. PTT show better elastic recovery than PA6:Nylon 6 and
is easier to dye than PET (Table 2.25).
For special applications, polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) is another fiber alterna-
tive in the polyester family, especially in melt blown nonwovens for filters. Properties
of the typical three polyesters are shown in Table 2.26.
Table 2.25 Performance of polyester fully drawn yarns

Performance PET-FDY PTT-FDY PA-FDY
Tenacity (cN/dtex) 3.8 3.0 4.0

Breaking elongation (%) 30 40 35
Elasticity þþ þþþ þþþ
Boiling water shrinkage (%) 8 14 10
Dyeability e þþþ þþ
Dyes Disperse dyes Disperse dyes Acid dyes
Heat setting þþ þþ e
Heat-setting crimp rate (%) 20 42 e
Table 2.26 Performances of typical polyester fibers

Performance PET PBT PTT
Initial modulus (cN/dtex) 9.15 2.40 2.58

Elongation (%) 20e27 24e29 28e33
Elastic recovery rate (%) 4.0 10.6 22
1
Crystallization rate (min ) 1.0 15 2e15
Photostability þþþ þþþ þþþ
Dimensional stability þþ þþ þþþ
Dyeability þ þþ þþþ
2.3.5.4 Polyacrylonitrile
Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) is produced by the additional polymerization of acrylonitrile;
always, the second and the third monomers are used for the modification of dyeability
and spinnability. They can then be spun into fibers by dry or wet spinning methods,
such as how Orlon with a distinctive dumbbell cross section is spun by dry process
produced by DuPont, and Acrilan had circular cross section and is spun by the wet
extrusion technique produced by Monsanto. PAN fiber can also get the crimp structure
like wool by using the bicomponent spinning process in fiber preparation. Properties of
PAN fibers are listed in Table 2.27.
2.3.5.5 Spandex
Spandex is a kind of synthetic-based elastomeric polymer containing at least 85%
segmented polyurethane (PU) in its main chain. It can be extended up to six or
more times its original length and recovery completely. Spandex is textured or weaved
with natural or synthetic fibers like cotton, polyester, and polyamide for some elastic
textiles. They were initially produced by DuPont in 1959 under the now well-known
trademark of Lycra. Other products include Elaspan (Invista), Acelan and Acepora
(Taekwang), Creora (Hyosung), Inviya (Indorama Corporation), ROICA (Asahi
Kasei), Linel (Fillattice), and ESPA (Toyobo). Physical and mechanical properties
of commercial PU fiber are in Table 2.28, and the differences between spandex and
rubber yarn are shown in Table 2.29.
2.3.5.6 Polyvinyl alcohol

Polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH or PVA) fiber is a water-soluble fiber when it is reacted with
butyraldehyde and formaldehyde. Polyvinyl acetyls can be obtained, which is called
“artificial cotton.” PVA has a melting point of 230 C and 180e190 C for the fully
Table 2.27 Properties of PAN fibers and their comparison with wool
Fiber types
PAN Modified
staple PAN PAN staple
Properties fiber filament fiber Wool
Tenacity Dry 2.2e4.8 2.8e5.3 1.7e3.5 0.8e1.5
(cN/dtex)
Wet 1.7e3.9 2.6e5.3 1.7e3.5 0.7e1.4
Elongation (%) Dry 25e50 12e20 25e45 25e35
Wet 25e60 12e20 25e45 25e50
(Wet/dry strength) (%) 80e100 90e100 90e100 76e96
Knot strength (cN/dtex) 1.4e3.1 2.6e7.1 1.3e2.5 0.7e1.2
Hooking strength 1.6e3.4 1.7e3.5 1.4e2.5 0.7e1.3
(cN/dtex)
Initial Modulus (cN/dtex) 22e54 35e75 18e48 9.7e22
Elastic recovery rate (%) 90e95 70e95 85e95 98
(elongation at 3%)
Moisture Commercial 2 2 15
regain
standard 1.2e2.0 0.6e1.0 16
(%)
state
(20 C,
relative
humidity,
65%)
Heat resistance ( C) e 150 100 C harden
Softening point ( C) 190e240 Not obvious 300 C
carbonization
Melting point ( C) Not obvious e 130
Decomposition 327 e e
temperature ( C)
Glass transition 80, 140 e e
temperature ( C)
Light fastness (residual 60 60 20
strength for 12 months
exposure) (%)
Flammability (limiting 18.2 26.7 24e25
oxygen index) (%)
Continued
Table 2.27 Continued

Fiber types
PAN Modified
staple PAN PAN staple
Properties fiber filament fiber Wool
a a a
Acid resistance 35% HCL, 65% 35% HCL, Other hot acid
H2SO4, 45%a 70%a H2SO4 resistance,
HNO3 No effect No effect in except H2SO4
in strength strength
Alkali resistance In 50%a NaOH and The same as Bad alkali
28%a NH3$H2O, PAN resistance,
intensity of little shrinking in
decline dilute alkali
Solvent resistance Does not dissolve in Soluble in Does not
solvents acetone, dissolve in
solvents
Bleaching resistance NaClO2 and H2O2 The same as SO2 and H2O2
resistance PAN resistance
Abrasive resistance Good Good Common
Resistant to fungal Fungal resistance, Fungal Fungal
not damaged by resistance, resistance,
worms not damaged damaged by
by worms worms
Electrical insulating Dielectric constant: Dielectric Specific
property (20 C, relative 6.5 specific constant: 4.5 resistance:
humidity, 65%) resistance: 5 108 U cm
2 104 U cm
Dyeability Dispersed dyes Dispersed dye Acid dyes
Dationic dyes cationic dye Mordant dyes
Acid dyes indigoid dyes
a
All are mass fractions of relevant material.
hydrolyzed and partially hydrolyzed grades, respectively. It decomposes rapidly above

200 C. It shows good resistance to oil, grease, and solvents; also, it has good oxygen
and aroma barrier properties. Its mechanical properties feature high tenacity and flex-
ibility, and handle like cotton, but it depends on humidity because of its high hydro-
philic property. The water, which acts as a plasticizer, will then reduce its tenacity but
increase its elongation and tear strength. Some properties of commercial PVA fiber are
shown in Table 2.30.
Table 2.28 Physicalemechanical properties of PU elastic fibera
Properties Lycrab Spandellec Vyrened Glospane
Fineness (tex) 51 46 50 62
3
Density (g/cm ) 1.15 1.26 1.32 1.27
Moisture regain (%) 0.8 1.2 1.0 1.1
Tenacity (cN/dtex) 0.33 0.40 0.61 0.49
Elongation (%) 580 640 660 620
The stress of 50% elongation 0.2816 0.2376 0.1584 0.2728
(cN/dtex)
The stress of 200% elongation 0.9504 0.6336 0.3168 0.7568
(cN/dtex)
Elastic recovery 50% 100 100 100 98
rate/% elongation
200% 95 98 99 96
elongation
400% 90 92 97 92
elongation
a
Tested condition: 65% relative humidity, 20 C.
b
DuPont.
c
Firestone.
d
United States Rubber Co.
e
Universal American Co.
Table 2.29 Performance between spandex and rubber yarn

Fiber
Properties Spandex Rubber yarn
Tenacity (cN/dtex) 0.5e1.5 0.2e0.3
Elongation (%) 400e800 600e700
Initial modulus (cN/dtex) 0.15e0.45 0.04e0.05
Residual elongation (%) 20 3
Aging resistance A B
Dyeability A B
Abrasion resistance D B
Ozone resistance A B
Oil resistance C B
Thermal stability A B
The minimum denier 11 100
A, good; B, poor; C, normal; D, very good.

Table 2.30 Performance of commercial polyvinyl acetyl fibers

Performance Short fiber Filament
High High
General Tenacity General Tenacity
Tenacity (cN/dtex) Dry 4.0e4.4 6.0e8.8 2.6e3.5 5.3e8.4

Wet 2.8e4.6 4.7e7.5 1.8e2.8 4.4e7.5
Hooking strength (cN/dtex) 2.6e4.6 4.4e5.1 4.0e5.3 e
Knot strength (cN/dtex) 2.1e3.5 4.0e4.6 1.9e2.6 e
Elongation (%) Dry 12e26 9e17 17e22 8e22
Wet 13e27 10e18 17e25 8e26
The elastic recovery at 3% 70e85 72e85 70e90 70e90
elongation (%)
Initial modulus (cN/dtex) 22e62 62e114 53e79 62e220
Moisture regain (%) 4.5e5.0 4.5e5.0 3.5e4.5 3.0e5.0
3
Density (g/cm ) 1.28e1.30 1.28e1.30 1.28e1.30 1.28e1.30
Thermal properties Softening point is 215e220 C
in dry heating condition,
melting point is not obvious, it is easy to burn, and the
ash is brown or black, irregular
Sunlight resistance Well
Acid resistance No change in 10% hydrochloric acid or 30% sulfuric acid
action, swells and decomposes in concentrated
hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, or sulfuric acid
Alkali resistance No change in 50% NaOH solution or concentrated aqueous
ammonia
Other chemicals resistance Well
Solvent resistance Insoluble in common organic solvents (such as alcohol,
ether, benzene, acetone, gasoline, tetrachlorethylene,
etc.), swells or dissolves in hot pyridine, phenol, cresol,
or formic acid
Wear resistance Well
Antifungal and infestation Well
resistance
Dyeability Direct dye, sulfide dye, azo dye, reduction dye, and acid
dye; dyeability is lower than generally natural and
synthetic fibers, while the color brightness is not enough.
2.4 Modified and functional chemical fibers

2.4.1 Profiled fiber
Raw materials of chemical fibers are from both natural sources like cellulose and pro-
tein, and from coal, gas, and fossil oil. With deepening understanding of the nature of
fiber, people need some new fibers to meet their requirement of high-quality and
comfortable garments and clothes; then so-called high “Kansei fibers” come to the
new stage, and the Shin-Gosen play an important role.
So a smooth surface and uniform circular cross section is the only profile we need?
In order to improve some properties and even add some new properties or functions to
chemical fiber, fibers with noncircular cross sections are prepared, and the changed
profiles will vary the friction coefficient between fibers, appearance, bulk density, spe-
cific surface area, water retention, and dyeability. Natural fibers always have rough and
irregular surfaces and cross sections, like vegetable fibers, which have a hollow and
porous cross section and ribbon surface. With the development of bionics, a series
of functional fibers have been designed since 1980, and a new filament with a triangle
or trilobal cross section was prepared then.
The most effective way to make profiled fibers is to replace the traditional spinneret
pack with a profiled one, but the deformation from the capillary cross section to the final
cross section of fibers is related to the dye swell, which depends on the viscoelasticity of
polymers and the particular processing conditions. Some typical cross sections of capil-
laries are shown in Fig. 2.12. Hills (in United States) and Kasen (in Japan) are two famous
companies that produce the spinnerets with noncircular cross sections of capillaries. Pro-
filed fiber can provide different properties to fibers as shown in Table 2.30. Like hollow
profiled fibers, it provides a notable weight advantage to its final products like pillow,
excellent bulkiness, warm resilience, and soft touch like Airclo produced by Toray. Air-
clo has a hollow ratio up to 24% in its 15 Denier fiber series [36]. A special cross section
of capillaries can provide profiled fibers with different features, as listed in Table 2.31.
Antron fiber, produced by DuPont, uses additives, varied noncircular cross-
sectional profiles, and modified surface characteristics to enhance its aesthetic and vi-
sual appeal in carpets, and also to improve its resilience and dissipate static charges.
Toray also developed a nontransparent white swimming costume (Bodyshell) by
combining conjugate spinning and noncircular cross-section technology. The filament
is composed of a star-shaped core containing titanium oxide. Titanium oxide is a white
powder, which reflects light (nonlight transmitting), is stable against light, does not
turn yellow, and can be processed into very fine particles [38].
FiberVisions serves the nonwovens industry with its new opportunities to make
versatile hygiene fabrics without sacrificing strength and barrier properties of products,
and launched its new trilobal thermal bonding staple PP fibers, HY-Light/T-194
(Fig. 2.13).
Major advantages of the new fibers include: high nonwoven tensile strength,
improved opacity, comfort and softness, and tailored specifications. The density of
HY-Light/T-194 is 0.91 g/cm3, which is 50% lower than polyester and 25% lower
than polyamide [39].
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15
16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25
26 27 28 29 30
Figure 2.12 Cross-section collection of capillaries.

Cross section collection used with permission from © Kasen http://www.kasen.co.jp/english/
product/nozzle/nozzle04.html.
Table 2.31 Special profiled fibers and their features

Shape Special properties
Special shininess
Soft and smooth touch feeling
Hollow, moisture retention, warmth, and light weight
As shiny as silk
For deep color
Structure color
Figure 2.13 HY-Light/T-194 triangle polypropylene thermobonding fiber [39].
For filtration, a special profiled fiber 4DG attracts industry’s attention. 4DG fiber
has deep groves and channels along its longitudinal axis, as shown in Fig. 2.14. These
deep grooves can provide higher fiber surface area and improve the transition of water
or air along the longitudinal axis of the fiber. Also, the fiber that can serve as ducts to
Characteristic: surface area 4DGTM
6 d/f (25 µm dia.)

Equal area 37 d/f (64 µm dia.)
Round cross section
equal surface area
6 d/f (34 µm × 47 µm)

0.6 d/f (7.8 µm dia.)
Equal area
4DG fiber Round fibers
Figure 2.14 Profiled fiber, 4DG.

Table 2.32 Physical properties of 4DG fiber

Dry lay applications Fiber type
Filament (denier) 6 10 15
Tenacity (cN/dtex) 2.0 2.5 2.4
Elongation (%) 40 66 92
Crimps per inch 9 8 7
Crimp angle, degrees 92 84 84
Shrinkage 190 C air 0.9 0.5 0.7
100 C water 0 0 0
Shape factor, m 2.7 2.7 2.4
Fiber, cross-sectional Width 34 42 50
Length 47 58 74
a 3
Specific capillary volume (cm/g ) 0.49 0.47 0.39
2
Specific capillary surface area (cm/g ) 3130 2210 1710
Major channel Width, m 8 11 12
Depth, m 13 18 21
b
Channel area (%) 40 40 35
c
Maximum potential flux (cc/g/h) 122 113 148
a
Ratio of channel to fiber cross-sectional area 1/r.
b
Ratio of channel to (channel þ fiber) cross-sectional area 100.
c
Internally developed test at Eastman.
http://www.fitfibers.com/files/4DG%20fibers.ppt#1, Fiber innovation technology 4DG deep groove fibres, FIT website;
2007.
move fluid spontaneously, store or trap substances, and provide large surface areas for
a given denier per filament. Almost all thermoplastic polymer can be used to produce
4DG fiber [40]. Physical properties of 4DG fiber are introduced in Table 2.32.
In order to improve the bonding properties of cellulosic fiber, some new fibers were
developed, like VILOFT, produced by Kelheim Fiber in German. Ribbon-like fibers
are used as glittering fibers in yarns with the ratio of thickness to width as approxi-
mately 1:12 in the depicted type of fibers. The bonding force between such ribbon-
like fibers is evident, but it is not as strong as we expected.
2.4.2 Conjugate spinning fiber

Two methods can be used to produce fiber with some special features mimicking nat-
ural fibers, like coiling or spiraling structure. One method is crimping, bulking, or
texturing process, which means making the fibers vary or spiral along the fiber axial
direction rather than straight. This method is a process that takes advantage of the ther-
moplastic properties of fibers to change the fiber axis into a curvilinear or strictly me-
chanical processes to rearrange the positions of the fibers in a bundle, so that the fiber
axes will no longer be parallel.
The other method is using a conjugate spinning technology in which the crimp
would be “built-in” without the need for additional operations. Conjugate spinning (al-
ways get bicomponent fibers) is a spinning method to combine two more or less
different raw materials into one fiber, such as side-by-side, concentric sheathecore,
and eccentric sheathecore structure (Fig. 2.15). Side-by-side conjugate fibers can be
made with considerable variations in their crimping or curling effect (frequency,
amplitude, volume, and permanency), and a good example is synthetic bicomponent
fibers provided by ES Fibervision.
Another typical bicomponent fiber is a sheathecore conjugate fiber. The main
reason for this kind of fiber is to change the character of the fiber surface, or change
its dyeability, handle, or moisture regain and electrostatic properties. The core is usu-
ally the major core component providing the strength and stiffness. For nonwovens,
the sheath serves as the binder during thermal bonding process. Some time, the
side-by-side bicomponent fibers are also for the same purpose when a particular bulk-
iness of the fabric is needed. A good example for nonwovens producers looking to
reach new heights in resilience, bulk, and softness can turn to a new bicomponent,
PTC Bounce fiber, a PP fiber with a Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) core, for cus-
tomers who use ultrasonic welding to bond nonwovens. The PET core gives PTC
Bounce-based nonwovens excellent bulkiness and resilience, while the PP sheath
provides excellent bonding capabilities to fibers. The high melting point of PET
compared to the melting point of the PP sheath can further increase the bonding tem-
perature range, furthermore providing high heat sealing performance. Properties of
sheathecore bicomponent fibers produced by ES Fibervisions are listed in Table 2.33.
Sometimes, biodegradable polymer can also be used in bicomponent fibers, like
biodegradable Bico fiber produced by Shinwa (Japan). This fiber uses PLA as the
core polymer and PE as the sheath (Fig. 2.16). Like PET/PE bicomponent fiber, the
PE sheath provides smooth and soft handle, while PLA provides an ecofriendly advan-
tage for the final products based on its biodegradability [41].
Elk produced by Teijin is a new polyester fiber cushion to replace PU. It is made of
two special fibers: binder bonding fiber is a coreesheath fiber (with the polyester
Concentric shealth-core Eccentric shealth-core Side by side Hollow splittable
Zigzag type Wavy type Spiral type

conventional two dimensional crimp lofty two dimensional crimp highly lofty three dimensional crimp
Figure 2.15 Crimpingebulking fibers made by conjugate spinning [39].

Table 2.33 Sheathecore bicomponent fibers by ES Fibervisions
Typical fiber values Fibers for carded, thermally bonded nonwovens Fibers for air-laid and wet-laid products
AL- SL-
ES-C ES- ES- adhesion- special- AL- AL-
cure ES-delta II tendon lowmelt C C AL-delta II lowmelt thermal
Measure Method Nom. value
The weight in grams of a Internal 1.7e16.7 1.7e16.7 1.7e10 3.3e10 1.7e16.7 1.7e6.7 1.7e6.7 3.3e10 1.7e3.3
fiber of 10-km length FV test (2.2e16.7) (2.2e16.7)
(dtex)
Tensile strength (cN/dtex) Internal 2.5e3.6 2.5e3.6 3.0e4.0 2.8e3.4 3.0e4.0 2.8e3.6 2.5e3.6 2.8e3.4 2.5e4.0
FV test
Elongation at break (%) Internal 100e160 100e160 100e160 70e90 100e160 80e150 100e160 70e90 40e100
FV test
Fiber length (under a Internal 40e60 40e60 40e60 40e60 3,4,6,12 3,4,6,12 3,4,6,12 3,4,6,12 3,4,6,12
prescribed load) (mm) FV test
Raw material PE PP PE PP PE PP PE PP PE PP PE PP PE PP PE PP PE PP
Soft point ( C) 124 140 124 140 124 140 124 140 124 140 124 140 124 140 124 140 124 140
Melting point ( C) 130 162 130 162 130 162 130 162 130 162 130 162 130 162 130 162 130 162
Crimp frequency (KD) no. Internal Variable
of crimps/10 cm FV test
Spin finish level as Internal 0.2e0.4 0.3e0.5 0.2e0.4 0.3e0.5
weight (%) FV test
FV, facility value

All measurements are conducted under standard atmosphere according to ISO 554 (23 C/50%).
Sheath : polyethylene
Core : polylactic acid
Figure 2.16 PLA/PE spunbond sheath-core composites [41]. www.shinwacorp.co.jp.
elastomer as the sheath and polyester as the core) to form the strong and flexible
bonded point of the products, and matrix fiber is polyester to tangle spring structure
of the final products. Elk shows lower density of 34 kg/m3 (PU is 40 kg/m3), better
air permeability of 130 cc/cm2 s compared to 3 cc/cm2 s of PU [42].
Grilon BA 140 (produced by EMS) is another new development in bicomponent
fiber made of a PA core, sheathed with co-polyamide, and these fusible adhesive fibers
are used for the reinforcement and bond nonwovens, spun yarns, and textiles. The
sheath layer melts at 135 C, while the core remains solid until a temperature of
220 C. Through use of bicomponent fibers, fusible adhesive can be distributed very
finely throughout the supporting fibers. The solid core provides support for the nonwo-
vens both during and after bonding [43].
Conjugated fibers with hollow in the cross section are also produced by Toray with
the brand name of HC/HCS. By controlling the “intrinsic viscosity” of polymer,
HC/HCS have 3D helical structured crimps based on the shrinkage difference of
two polyesters [37].
2.4.3 Ultrafine fiber

Can you image that we can reach from the earth to the moon with a total weight of
4.16 g ultra microfiber? But it is true. This microfiber contains about 40,000 polymer
molecules in its cross section [44]. Textile Terms and Definitions [44] simply describes
ultra microfiber as fibers or filaments with linear densities of approximately 1.0 dtex or
less. By the conjugate spinning process, we can obtain different ultrafine fibers, like
Sea Island type, separation type, and multilayer type (Fig. 2.17).
The first commercial microfibers were obtained by way of co-extrusion of polyes-
ters or polyamides with another polymer, mostly polystyrene. Due to the lack of
compatibility, the sections of different components usually separate during neck draw-
ing or during the finishing process with the aid of mechanical force or some chemical
agents. The need of dissolution makes such processes exceptionally cumbersome and
expensive, and right now, some water-soluble polymers are used [45]. The Japanese
first introduced microfibers in an attempt to reproduce silk-like properties with the
Sea-island type Separation type

“toraysee” (Toray)
“toraysee” “belima” (Kanebo)
“belima”
Multilayer type Seperation type

“WRAMP” (Kurarag)
“WRAMP” “micro star”
star” (Teijin)
Figure 2.17 Various kinds of ultrafine fibers.
Hongu T, Phillips GO, Takigami M. New millennium fibers. Florida: CRC Press; 2005. p. 7e35.
addition of enhanced durability. Woven fabric made of ultrafine-diameter fibers make

them impermeable to water droplets while allowing air and moisture vapor circulation.
These ultrafine fibers are similar in form to skin fibrils, and can therefore be used in the
manufacture of peach skin or artificial suede. Nanofront produced by Teijin is a kind of
ultrafine polyester fiber with the fiber diameter around 700 nm (Fig. 2.18).
The surface area of fiber decreases with the diameter of fiber, and the relationship is
listed in Table 2.34. High surface can provide some special properties for fibers, such
as capillary adsorption, handle, draping, color, and luster. Ultrafine fibers have been
used for artificial suede for many years; they can provide better comprehensive perfor-
mance advantages than natural suede (Table 2.35).
Some split fibers impart sharp-angled edges in the surface of fiber, which act as
gentle abraders when they are made into wiping cloths in the optical and precision
Diameter is 700 nanometers.

Section area is 1/7500 the area of a hair.
Human chemistry,human solutions
n
Nanofront (fiber diameter: 700 nm) Hair (diameter: 60 µm)
With Teijin’s unique

“New Sea/Island separatable fiber technology”
Sea part
Dissolving in
alkaline solution
Island part 700 nm × 8360 fibers = 39 dtex

56 dtex/10 39 dtex/8360
Figure 2.18 Ultrafine fibers can be obtained by Sea Island separable fiber technology in
Teijin [42].
Table 2.34 The relationship in fineness and diameter/surface

area of polyester (PET)
Single fiber fineness (dtex) 0.06 0.11 0.56 1.11 5.56
Fiber diameter (mm) 2.3 3.2 7.2 10.1 22.6
2
Fiber surface area (m /g) 1.3 0.9 0.41 0.29 0.13
Sun J, Lv W. New fiber material. Shanghai: Shanghai University Press; 2007. p. 474e475.
microelectronic industries. Ultrafine fibers are also used to make bacteria barrier fab-
rics in the medical industries. Structure color (also called physical color) is another
application of split fibers, mimicking the structure of the butterfly in Amazonia.
Another famous product of ultrafine segmented filament is Evolon PET or Evolon PA
produced by Freudenberg, which is prepared by a patented manufacturing process. They
are suitable for a diversified range of applications such as in antimite bedding, printing
media for signs and advertising, cleaning cloths, sound absorption, technical packaging,
sun protection and window treatment, coating and synthetic leather, and many others.
The split methods of segmented fiber include dissolve second component, mechan-
ical treatment like needle-punch or spunlace. High pressure water jets in spunlace is a
new method, and it can provide a softer surface on fabrics (Fig. 2.19).
2.4.4 Functional modified fibers

Functional fibers are the demand directly from the market; many functions have been
actually put into practice, such as antimicrobial, anti-UV, far infrared, antistatic, FR,
Table 2.35 The performance comparison between artificial suede

BELLESEIME and natural suede
Natural suede Natural chamois
Performances BELLESEIME (sheepskin) leather
Thickness (mm) 0.7 0.7 0.70

2
Weight (g/m ) 270 380 380
Tenacity (kg/cm) 124.5 42.1 141.1 55.9 141.1 55.9
Elongation (%) 73 138 48 55 48 55
Tear strength (kg) 22.5 13.7 16.7 15.7 16.7 15.7
Bending resistance (mm) 58 48 50 45 50 45
Weight loss during friction (%) 0.12 1.3 1.30
Wrinkle recovery (dry) (%) 87 92 68 66 68 66
Color fastness (level) lighting 4 2 2
Dry friction 3 1 1
Wet friction 4 2 2
Water washing 4 1 1
Microfilaments: 0.15 dtex

Thanks to high pressure water jets, the The water jets simultaneously tightly
filaments are split into microfilaments entangle and consolidate the
microfilaments, creating a fabric:
Evolon.
Figure 2.19 Evolon uses the spunlace process to split fibers into microfilaments [47].
fragrant, cool feeling, conductivity properties, etc. In most places, functional additives
are used, and they are either organic or inorganic. If inorganic materials are used, par-
ticle size and their distribution must be carefully evaluated, and the particle size must
less than 1 mm, and if they are used during melt spinning, their thermal stability should
be considered at the same time.
2.4.4.1 Far infrared fiber

Far infrared fiber can emit a low dosage of far infrared ray and provide heat retention
and thermal energy properties; it can be used as health textiles that make it possible to
meet people’s requirement of far infrared therapy, improve the microcirculation of the
body, and promote metabolism. Ceramic powders are always used into the far infrared
fibers, as listed in Table 2.36.
For example, Solar-Aloha, developed by Descente and Unitika in Japan, can absorb
light of less than 2-mm wavelength, and it converts it to heat owing to its zirconium
carbide content. In winter, the fiber can use the cold winter sun to capture more
than 90% of this incident energy to keep the wearer warm.
2.4.4.2 Flame-retardant fiber

Commercial chemical fibers are combustible in nature, and improved FR properties
must be considered in actual application. Most FR additives contain bromine (Br),
chlorine (Cl), phosphorus (P), antimony, or aluminum. Among them, commonly
used additives are additive brominated hydrocarbons and reactive brominated hydro-
carbons, nonhalogenated phosphate esters, halogenated phosphate esters, trioxide anti-
mony oxide, pentoxide antimony oxide and sodium derivatives, chlorinated
hydrocarbons like chlorinated paraffin, and chlorinated cycloaliphatics. Others include
chlorinated or brominated compounds, fluorinated compounds, magnesium carbonate,
magnesium hydroxide, melamine, molybdenum compounds, silicone polymer, and
zinc borate. Sometimes, polymers are chemically modified, and N, P, Cl, fluorine
(F), silicon (Si), and Br elements can be introduced into the polymer main chain [49].
FR polyester fibers have been systemically researched, and many products are
available in the market (Table 2.37).
Chemical composition and physical properties

Table 2.36
of the far infrared ceramic powder used in fibers
Chemical Density
formula Color Grain size (mm) (g/cm3)
Ultrafine titanium TiO2 White 0.02e0.10 4.0

dioxide
Ultrafine zinc oxide ZnO White 0.01e0.04 5.5e5.8
Zirconium carbide ZrC Grey and black 1.2e2.0 3.2e3.3
Aluminum oxide Al2O3 White 0.6e1.0 3.9e4.0
Zirconium oxide ZrO2 White 0.02e0.10 3.3e3.5
Stannic oxide SnO2 White 0.01e0.06 6.9
Magnesium oxide MgO White 0.3e1.0 3.0
62
Table 2.37 Commercial flame-retardant polyester products
Melting
Fire tempe- Limiting
Trade Modification retardant Tenacity Elongation rature Density oxygen Ames
name Companies method agents (cN/dtex) (%) (8C) (g/cm3) index (%) test
Dacron- DuPont Copolymerization Bromine 3.5 40 235 1.41 27e28 Negative

900F
Trevira270 Hirst Copolymerization Phosphorus 3.5e4.0 20e35 252 1.38 26 Negative
Trevira CS Hirst Copolymerization Phosphorus 3.9 49 252 e 29 Negative
Heim Unfla Toyobo Copolymerization/ Phosphorus 4.8 34 259 1.38 28 Negative
Exter blend
GH471 Toyobo Copolymerization Phosphorus 4.0 31.5 256 1.40 30e32 Negative
GH478 Toyobo Copolymerization Phosphorus 4.4 32 256 1.40 30e32 Negative

Unfla Toray Blend e 4.0e4.3 25e32 258 e 31e32 Negative
Exter Teijin Blend Halogen 3.0e3.3 30e35 246e252 1.37 28 Negative
Nines Kuraray Copolymerization e e e e e 26e29 Negative
FR polyester fiber Trevira CS and Trevira, marketed by Trevira GmbH in Germany,

are featured as high tenacity and good FR fibers. Chemically modified acrylics, prin-
cipally the modacrylics, introduce Cl atoms in their molecular structure, which are
responsible for their low burning behavior, and have the ability to self-extinguish
once the source of ignition has been removed. PyroTex, produced by PyroTex Fibers
GmbH, is an inherent flame and heat-resistant PAN fiber with LOI of 43%, and shows
good acid and alkaline resistance, UV resistance, good resistance against solvents, hy-
drolysis, and oxidizing agents, and its temperature resistance is up to 250 C [51].
2.4.4.3 Conductive fiber

Electrically conductive or electroactive fibers are commonly used in protective cloth,
filters, and smart and interactive textiles, which could be used in electrical, medical,
sports, energy, and military applications. Conductive fibers, especially for commonly
used synthetic fiber, can be prepared in coreesheath bicomponent fiber, adding
conductive additives in the core part. Functional additives include carbon black, multi-
walled carbon nanotubes, grapheme, ZnO, silver, and conductive polymers [52]. Prop-
erties of some conductive fibers are listed in Table 2.38.
2.4.4.4 Scented fiber

Microcapsules are used in producing functional fibers by blending them with polymer
matrix and then spinning into fibers. Sometimes, microcapsules are used in the
finishing process. These kinds of fibers are called scented fiber. Cripy produced by
Mitsubishi Rayon (R) is a scented fiber enclosed a fragrant essence in isolated cavities
along the length of hollow polyester fibers. Pillows and bed linen made from these ma-
terials are claimed to improve sleep and relieve sleeping disorders because of their
gradual and continuously released scent. The effect can also be achieved by printing
or padding microcapsules containing perfumes into fabrics, which subsequently burst
and release the scent. Considering the processing, the thermal properties of fragrances
must be considered in case of its invalidity or volatilization; some commercial thermo-
stable fragrances and their boiling point temperatures are listed in Table 2.39.
2.4.4.5 Antibacterial fibers

With the growing health awareness in public and personal health care, an increasing
need for antibacterial fibers must be considered, and these special functional fibers
can be used in medical devices, health care, hygienic applications, water purification
systems, hospitals, dental surgery equipment, textiles, food packaging, and storage.
There are various chemical and physical possibilities used in the production of antimi-
crobial fibers. Antibacterial agents used in fiber include quaternary ammonium com-
pounds, triclosan, metallic salts like silver, copper, zinc, and cobalt, and inorganic
nanosized metal oxides, like titanium dioxide (TiO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), and cooper
II oxide (CuO). Among these antimicrobial agents, silver (Ag) has been widely
used in many fields because of its strong biocidal effects on many pathogenic bacteria,
but in Europe and in North American, nanoscale Ag is forbidden in some application
Table 2.38 Performance comparison of conductive fibers
Polymer matrix PA12 PA6 PET PA6 PET PP PP PA6 PBT PP PA6
Conductive Carbon Carbon Carbon White White PANI PANI PANI PANI Polyaniline Silver
component Black Black Black Metal Metal solution
Color Ash/black Ash/black Ash/black White White Dark Green Green Green Black Brown
Tenacity 1.76e2.64 1.76e3.52 2.2e3.08 2.2e3.08 2.64e3.52 2.64e4.4 2.2e3.08 2.2e3.08 2.2e3.08 3.52e4.4 3.52e4.4
(cN/dtex)
Elongation (%) 50e70 40e60 25e45 50e70 30e50 100e150 120e180 60e90 40e70 120e180 120e180
Melting point 178 215 255 215 255 165 150 200 235 120 215
( C)
Density (g/cm3) 1.05 1.22 1.39 1.25 1.45 0.99 0.96 1.16 1.36 0.92 1.32
Electrical 8
10 e1010 6
10 e10 8 6
10 e10 8 8
10 e10 10 8
10 e10 10 3
10 e10 5 5
10 e10 7 8
10 e10 10
1011 1
10 e10 2
102e103
resistivity (Remains
(Ucm) to be
established)
Table 2.39 Commercial thermostable fragrances

Boiling Boiling
No. Fragrance name point (8C) No. Fragrance name point (8C)
1 Propionate geranyl 253 11 Cinnamyl acetate 262

2 Cinnamate 253 12 Butyl isoeugenol 270
3 Lauryl alcohol 255e259 13 Versalide 280
4 Lauromacrogol 256.6 14 Rosone 280e282
5 Jasmine 258 15 Isoeugenyl acetate 282
6 p-methoxyaceto- 258 16 Vanillic aldehyde 285
phenone
7 Anise alcohol 259 17 Dibenzyl oxide 297
8 Glycerol triacetate 259 18 Coumarin 297e299
9 Ether 259 19 Cinnamic acid 300
10 Isoamyl benzoate 262 20 Benzyl benzoate 324
fields. In addition, nanosized inorganic particles have high surface area/volume ratio
and display unique physical and chemical properties, and have been the selective
role used in the manufacturing of antibacterial fibers. Natural plant extracts are once
again to attract people’s attention due to their low toxicity, but their thermal stability
is another disadvantage.
2.4.4.6 Heat storage and thermoregulated textiles fibers

The heat storage and thermoregulated fibers are newly developed functional fibers.
The US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) accelerated the
application research of latent heat storage materials for the space laboratory in the
1960s. There are three types of heat storage: sensible, latent, and chemical reaction
heat storage. Water, steel, and stone are widely used sensible heat storage materials,
but latent heat storage materials are also called phase change materials (PCMs) which
can absorb or release heat with a slight temperature change. PCMs can be used in func-
tional fibers include hydrated inorganic salts, polyhydric alcoholewater solution,
polyethylene glycol (PEG), polytetramethylene glycol, aliphatic polyester, linear chain
hydrocarbon, hydrocarbon alcohol, hydrocarbon acid, etc. (Tables 2.40e2.42) [55].
Several typical heat storage and thermoregulated fibers are in Table 2.43. Another
interesting material gives rise to thermochromic fabrics made by Toray, which have a
uniform coating of microcapsules containing heat-sensitive dyes that change color at
5 C intervals over a temperature range of 40 to 80 C, creating “fun” and special
effects [55,56].
Table 2.40 Hydrated inorganic salts used for phase change materials
Specific heat
Heat
Density capacity
Melting Melting storage
(kg/m3) (J/(kg K))
Hydrated point heat density
inorganic salts (8C) (kJ/kg) Solid Liquid Solid Liquid (MJ/m3)
CaCl2$6H2O 29 190 1800 1560 1460 2130 283
LiNO3$3H2O 30 296 e e e e e
Na2SO4$10H2O 32 225 1460 1330 1760 3300 300
CaBr2$6H2O 34 138 e e e e e
Na2HPO4$12H2O 35 205 e e e e e
Zn2SO4$6H2O 36 147 e e 1340 2260 e
Na2SO4$5H2O 43 209 1650 e 1460 2300 345
The phase change behavior of different molecular weight

Table 2.41
PEGs measured with DSC
Average Melting Melting
PEG molecular point heat Crystallization Crystallization
sample weight (Da) (8C) (kJ/kg) point (8C) heat (kJ/kg)
1 400 3.24 9.37 24.00 85.40

2 600 17.92 121.14 6.88 116.16
3 1000 35.10 137.31 12.74 134.64
4 2000 53.19 178.82 25.19 161.34
5 4000 59.67 189.69 21.97 166.45
6 6000 64.75 188.98 32.89 160.93
7 10,000 66.28 191.90 34.89 167.87
8 20,000 68.70 187.81 37.65 160.97
PEG, polyethylene glycol; DSC, different scanning calorimetry.
Table 2.42 The phase change properties of linear chain hydrocarbons

Heat of
Phase change Number of Melting melting (kJ/ Crystallization
materials carbon atoms point (8C) kg) point (8C)
n-Hexadecane 16 16.7 236.58 16.2

n-Heptadecane 17 21.7 171.38 21.5
n-Octadecane 18 28.2 242.44 25.4
n-Eicosane 20 36.6 246.62 30.6
n-Heneicosane 21 40.2 200.64 e
Table 2.43 Typical heat storage fibers

Japanese
Research items Triangle Triangle USDA ester
Company in Company in Southern Company

America America laboratory
Manufacturing Microcapsule Microcapsule PEG filled Aliphatic
methods solution solution the polyesters
spinning spinning hollow melt
fibers composite
spinning
Mass fraction of 6 3 e e
phase change
materials (%)
Theory of fiber heat, 15* 7* e 50*
heat release (J/g)
Endothermic 36 29 34 31
temperature ( C)
Exothermal 28 e 18 4
temperature ( C)
Fiber fineness (dtex) 2.2 e 2 2.1
Using stability Good Good Bad Medium
Production Scale Laboratory Laboratory Patent
production application
Note: * shows the estimates according to fibers’ composition.

2.4.4.7 Anti-ultraviolet fiber

UV light is an electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength from 400 to 100 nm,
shorter than that of visible light. It can be divided into UVA (320e400 nm), UVB
(290e320 nm) and UVC (100e290 nm), and only UVA and UVB cannot be absorbed
by the ozone layer. In humans, excessive exposure to all bands of UV radiation can
result in chronic harmful effects on the skin, eye, and immune system. Overexposure
to UVB radiation not only can cause sunburn, but also some forms of skin cancer, so
fibers with the function of cutting out the UV become important for personal protec-
tive application. Anti-UV fibers are prepared by adding some inorganic additive dur-
ing fiber processing or during the finishing step, and the used functional additives
including ZnO, TiO2, and so on. Their properties can be improved with the decrease
of particle size, and nanoparticles attract the most attention in low denier fiber
formation.
2.4.5 Newly developed fiber materials

Polyethylene naphthalate (PEN) is a polyester with two condensed aromatic rings in
molecular main chain compare to PET confer on it improvements in strength and
modulus, chemical and hydrolytic resistance, gaseous barrier, thermal and thermo-
oxidative resistance and ultraviolet (UV) light barrier compared to PET (Table 2.44).
Pentex PEN fiber produced by Honeywell, which stretches only 40% as much as
standard PET fibers, shows twice than Kevlar 29.
2.4.5.1 Water-soluble fibers

Water-soluble PVA (PVOH) fiber is one of soluble bonding fibers used in the textile
and papermaking industry. It can be used as interlining of lace cloth, reinforcement fi-
ber in concrete, or a water-soluble film useful for packaging. By changing the hydro-
lyzed degree and modifying the eOH group into eCOOH, PVOH can be soluble in
different temperatures of water. KURALON water-soluble types, produced by Kur-
aray in Japan, can provide a range of dissolving temperatures (Table 2.45) [58].
2.4.5.2 Low melt point fiber

For some special applications, polyester or polyamide with lower melt temperatures are
developed, and they are not like Grilon BA in the form of a bicomponent fiber; they spin
into fiber directly, which is called low melt point fiber. Grilon KA 140 (produced by
EMS) is a staple fiber made of copolyamides that has a melting point of 135 C. The
fibers are added to a nonwoven or spun yarn in amounts of 5e20% as an adhesive.
Grilon KA 115 is made of copolyamide with a melting point of 115 C and has been
developed mainly for bonding wool and cotton fibers. Grilon KE 150 and Grilon KE
170 are made of co-polyester with melting points of 150 and 170 C, respectively.
They have a very low viscosity at their melting point and, therefore, are very efficient
at wetting the matrix fibers. These fibers are mainly used in volume nonwovens [59].
2.4.5.3 Elastic fiber

Vistamaxx propylene-based elastomers (PBEs) are polyolefin elastomers containing a
predominant (almost 80%) amount of propylene with isotactic propylene crystalline
[60]. These new thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs) are highly elastic and exhibit excel-
lent recovery from deformation. Processing of PBE is not like PU; it can be prepared
by melt spinning due to the thermoplastic properties, and it shows improved product
performance. Also, it will be safer than PU during service [58]. Pebax, produced by
Arkema, is another block copolymer (polyether block amide) offering good perfor-
mances in mechanical and chemical processing properties among the other thermo-
plastic elastomers [61].
2.4.5.4 Ion exchange

Ion exchange fibers are the fibers consisting of oriented macromolecules containing
functional groups of acid and alkaline nature. The main feature of ion exchange fibers
is the ability of their functional groups to dissociate in liquid media and exchange ions
Table 2.44 Properties of PEN and PET

Performance Testing method PEN PET
Oligomer extraction volume e 2 1.5

[mg/(m2$h)]
O2 permeation rate e 6 1015 1.58 1014
[mL$cm/(cm2$s$Pa)]
CO2 permeation rate e 2.78 1014 9.8 1014
[mL$cm/(cm2$s$Pa)]
Vapor permeation rate e 2.55 1014 6.3 1015
[mL$cm/(cm2$s$Pa)]
Radiation resistance (MGY) e 11 2
Hydrolysis resistance (h) e 200 50
Weather ability (h) e 1500 500
Water absorption (%) ASTM-D570 0.2 0.3
LOI (fiber) (%) e 31 26
Tg ( C)(noncrystalline/ DSC 118/124 70/78
semicrystalline)
Tm ( C) DSC 265 252
Continuous use temperature ( C) e 160 120
Heat distortion temperature ASTM-D648 100 70
(noncrystalline)
Thermal shrinkage e 0.4 1.0
(150 C, 30 min) (%)
Density ASTM-D792 1.33 1.34
Tensile strength (MPa) ASTM-D638 74 55
Strength fracture extensibility (%) ASTM-D638 250 250
Bending strength (MPa) ASTM-D790 93 88
Bending elastic modulus (MPa) ASTM-D790 2300 2200
2
Impact strength (J/m ) ASTM-D256 30/35 30/45
Tensile modulus (MPa) 588 44
2
Young modulus (kg/mm ) 1800 1200
Tensile elastic modulus (GPa) 17.6 11.8
Surface hardness (grade M) ASTM-D585 90 80
Table 2.45 Standard types of KURALON short-cut fiber for paper

making
Type Product Tenacity Diameter Soluble temperature Cut length
no. number (cN/dtex) (mm) in water (8C) (mm)
Subject VPB033 0.3 6 More than 100 2

fiber
VPB053 0.5 7 More than 100 2 or 3
VPB102 1.0 11 99 5
VPB103 1.0 11 More than 100 3 or 5
VPB203 2.0 15 More than 100 6
VPB303 3.0 18 More than 100 7 or 9
Binder VPB041 0.4 6 80 3
fiber
VPB071 0.7 9 80 3
VPB101 2.6 17 80 4
VPB105-1 1.0 11 70 4
VPB105-2 1.0 11 60 4
Ref: www.eftfibers.com/doc/d7.pdf.
as well as show chemisorption properties. Poseidon, produced by Kelheim, is a viscose

ion exchange fiber, which can be fully regenerated (Fig. 2.20). Based on the ion ex-
change principle, other active components maybe docked onto the fiber like silver
or copper ions [62].
Figure 2.20 Poseidon viscose fiber [62].

2.4.5.5 Superabsorbent fiber

Superabsorbent fiber is a kind of functional fiber that can absorb and retain extremely
large amounts of liquid relative to their own mass. Water-absorbing polymers, the raw
material for superabsorbent fiber, can absorb aqueous solutions through hydrogen
bonding with water molecules, and their total absorbency and swelling capacity are
controlled by the type and degree of cross-linkers used to make the gel. One example
is that acrylic acid blended with sodium hydroxide in the presence of an initiator are
used to form a polyacrylic acid sodium salt. Oasis is a superabsorbent fiber made
by the collaborative efforts of Acordis and Allied Colloids, based on cross-linking co-
polymers of acrylic acid. The fiber is claimed to absorb moisture many times its own
weight and holds it even under pressure. Another example of superabsorbent fiber is
highly swellable cellulose fibers, which are prepared using alkalized celluloses etheri-
fied and cross-linked. Ethylene oxide, chloroacetic acid, and methyl chloride are used
as etherification agents, and mono- and multifunctional compounds are used as cross-
linking agents. In water and many other liquids, these highly swellable fibers,
depending on their structure, can absorb several thousand percent of their weight in
water relatively quickly and also retain it relatively well. The fibers show high water
retention value varies from 1000% to 3000%, and their absorption of the surrounding
moisture is 2e3 times faster and higher than cotton. Highly swellable cellulose fibers
can be reused to absorb moisture and absorb water from saline solutions [44].
2.5 High performance fibers

2.5.1 Carbon fiber
CF is a popularly used high-temperature fiber composed mostly 95% of carbon atoms
and with the diameter varying from 5e10 mm. The advantages of CFs are their excep-
tionally high tenacityeweight ratios and initial moduluseweight ratios, high chemical
resistance, high temperature tolerance, low thermal expansion, high electrical conduc-
tivity, and high thermal conductivity (which is even higher than that of copper), and
very low coefficient of linear thermal expansion (which provides dimensional stability
in such applications as space antennas), which make them widely used in aerospace,
civil engineering, military, motorsports, competition sports, health care, and pollution
control. But the disadvantages of CFs are their low strain to failure, low impact resis-
tance, and high cost.
CFs are manufactured most commonly from two types of precursors (starting
materials): PAN and pitch (Table 2.46) [63]; sometimes, cellulose is also used
(Table 2.47) [64]. Pitch, a by-product of petroleum refining or coal coking, is a lower
cost precursor than PAN. Thermal conductivity of PAN CFs is in the range of
10e100 W/m K compared with 20e1000 W/moK for pitch CFs. Electrical conductiv-
ity of PAN CFs is in the range of 104e105 S/m compared with 105e106 S/m for pitch
CFs. For both types of CFs, the higher the initial modulus, the higher are the thermal
and electrical conductivities.
Table 2.46 Tensile properties of three typical CFs

Elongation at
Precursor Tensile strength (GPa) Tensile modulus (GPa) break (%)
PAN 2.5e7.0 250e400 0.6e2.5

Mesophase pitch 1.5e3.5 200e800 0.3e0.9
Rayon z1.0 z50 z2.5
Chand S. Review carbon fibers for composites. J Mater Sci 2000;35(6):1303e1313.
Properties of coal tar pitch-based CF (Dialead, Mitsubishi

Table 2.47
Chemical Corporation, with diameter of 10 mm)
Grade of Dialead Single
crystal
Property K1352U K1392U K13B2U K13C2U K13D2U graphite
Tenacity (GPa) 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.8 3.7 e
Initial modulus 620 760 830 900 935 1000
(GPa)
Ultimate 0.58 0.49 0.46 0.42 0.40 e
elongation (%)
Density (g/cm3) 2.12 2.15 2.16 2.20 2.21 2.265
Electrical 6.6 5.0 4.1 1.9 0.4
resistivity
(mU m)
Thermal 140 210 260 620 800 2000
conductivity
(W/(m K))
Morgan P. Carbon fibers and their composite. Taylor & Francis Group, LLC; 2005. p. 295.
During the carbonization process, precursor filaments are heated and stretched at
1000e2000 C in an inert atmosphere for w30 min, and then relatively low-
modulus (between 200 and 300 GPa), high-strength CFs are obtained. Further graph-
itization process can arrange carbon atoms in a crystallographic structure of parallel
planes or layers above 2000 C with or without stretching, and relatively high-
modulus between 500 and 600 GPa (without stretching) graphite fibers can be pro-
duced. During the hot stretching, the graphitic planes are formed and aligned in the
filament direction, the tensile strength of fibers can be increased, and other properties,
such as electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, longitudinal coefficient of ther-
mal expansion, and oxidation resistance can be improved as the result of the amount
of crystallinity improved, and the defects such as missing carbon atoms or catalyst
impurities are eliminated. CFs are commercially available in long and continuous tow,
chopped staple with length of 6e50 mm, and milled staples of 30e3000 mm.
Carbon-based microfibers, like ultrafine CFs, carbon nanotube fibers, and graphene
fibers, attract the notice of industry because they are excellent alternatives due to their
outstanding mechanical properties, good electrical conductivity, easy to functionalize
or hybridize with other materials, and the possibility to align the functionalities on a
large scale in an axial direction, and their potential applications include wearable, flex-
ible, or miniaturized devices for energy conversion and storage, sensing, and actuation,
among others [65].
A carbon nanotube (CNT) can be described as a graphite sheet rolled up into a
nanoscale tube (which are single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs)), or with addi-
tional graphene tubes around the core of an SWCNT (which are multiwall CNTs).
These CNTs have diameters in the range between fractions of nanometers and tens
of nanometers, and lengths up to several centimeters with both of their ends normally
capped by fullerene-like structures. They will show potential applications in electronic
devices, reinforced materials, hydrogen storage, or field emission materials [66].
Famous carbon fiber producers include Toray (Japan) (Table 2.48), Teijin (Japan)
(Table 2.49), Mitsubishi Rayon (Japan) (Table 2.50), Formosa Plastics (Taiwan)
Table 2.48 Properties of CF produced by Toray

Tenacity Initial modulus Elongation Density
Type (MPa) (GPa) (%) (g/cm3)
T300 3530 230 15 1.76

T300B 3530 230 15 1.76
T400HB 4410 250 18 1.8
T700SC 4900 230 21 1.8
T800SC 5880 294 2 1.8
T800HB 5490 294 1.9 1.81
T1000GB 6370 294 2.2 1.8
M35JB-6000 4510 343 1.3 1.75
M35JB-12000 4700 1.4
M40JB 4400 377 1.2 1.75
M46JB-6000 4200 436 1 1.84
M46JB-12000 4020 0.9
M50JB 4120 475 0.8 1.88
M55JB 4020 540 0.7 1.91
M60JB 3820 588 1.9 1.93
M30SC 5490 294 e 1.73
Table 2.49 Properties of CF produced by Teijin
Tenacity Tensile Elongation Density Electrical
Grade (MPa) modulus (GPa) (%) (g/cm3) resistivity
HTA40 1K 3800 238 1.6 1.78 1.6 103

3K 4200 240 1.8 1.76 1.6 103
HTS40 6K 4200 240 1.8 1.76 1.6 103
12K 4200 240 1.8 1.76 1.6 103
STS40 24K 4000 240 1.7 1.76 1.7 103
UTS50 12K 4900 240 2.0 1.80 1.6 103
24K 5000 240 2.1 1.79 1.8 103
IMS40 6K 4700 295 1.6 1.76 1.3 103
12K 4700 295 1.6 1.76 1.3 103
IMS60 6K 5800 290 2.0 1.80 1.4 103
12K 5800 290 2.0 1.80 1.4 103
24K 5800 290 2.0 1.80 1.4 103
HMA35 12K 3200 360 (345) 0.9 1.78 1.0 103
UMS40 12K 4600 395 (380) 1.2 1.79 1.0 10
24K 4600 395 (380) 1.2 1.79 1.0 103
UMS45 12K 4600 480 (415) 1.1 1.81 1.0 104
UMS55 12K 4100 540 0.8 1.92 7.8 104
Table 2.50 Properties of CF PYROFILTM produced by Mitsubishi

Rayon
Tenacity Initial modulus Elongation Density
HT Series TR30S 3L 4120 234 1.8 1.79

TR50S 6L 4900 240 2.0 1.82
TR50S 12L
TR50S 15L
TR50D 12L 5000 240 2.1 1.82
TRH50 18M 5300 250 2.1 1.82
TRH50 60M 4830 250 1.9 1.81
TRW40 50L 4120 240 1.7 1.80
IM Series MR 60H 24P 5680 290 1.9 1.81
HM Series MS 40 12M 4410 345 1.3 1.77
HS 40 12P 4610 455 1.0 1.85
Table 2.51 Properties of CF produced by Formosa plastics

Tensile Tensile
strength modulus Elongation Density
(MPa) (MPa) (%) (g/cm3)
TC-33 3450 230 1.5 1.80

TC-35 4000 240 1.6 1.80
TC-36S 4900 250 2.0 1.81
TC-42S 5690 290 2.0 1.81
(Table 2.51), Hexcel (US) (Table 2.52), Akrilik Kimya Sanayii (Turkey) (Table 2.53),
and Hyosung (Korea) (Table 2.54) [67].
2.5.2 Aromatic polyamide fiber

Aromatic polyamide fiber are highly crystalline fibers in which at least 85% of the
amide linkages (COeNH) are attached directly to two aromatic rings, and have
Table 2.52 Properties of CF produced by Hexcel

Density
Fiber type Tenacity (MPa) Initial Modulus (MPa) Elongation (%) (g/cm3)
AS4 4619 231 1.8 1.79

4413 231 1.7 1.79
4413 231 1.7 1.79
AS4C 4654 231 1.8 1.78
4447 231 1.7 1.78
4482 231 1.8 1.78
AS4D 4826 241 1.8 1.79
AS7 4895 248 1.7 1.79
IM2A 5309 276 1.7 1.78
IM2C 5723 296 1.8 1.78
IM6 5723 279 1.9 1.76
IM7 5723 276 1.9 1.78
5654 276 1.9 1.78
IM8 6067 310 1.8 1.78
IM9 6136 303 1.9 1.8
IM10 6964 310 2 1.79
HM63 4688 441 1 1.83
Table 2.53 Properties of CF produced by Akrilik Kimya Sanayii

(Turkey)
Tenacity Initial Modulus Elongation Density
A-38 3K 3800 240 1.6 1.78

6K
A-42 12K 4200 240 1.8 1.78
24K
A-49 12K 4900 240 2 1.78
24K
Fest method ISO 10618 ISO 10618 ISO 10618 ISO 10119
Table 2.54 Properties of CF produced by Hyosung (Korea) (tow)

H2550 6K H2550 12K H2550 24K H3055 12K
Property Si unit Si unit Si unit Si unit
Filament diameter 7.0 7.0 7.0 6.6

(mm)
Tenacity (GPa) 4.4 4.9 4.5 5.5
Initial modulus (GPa) 240 250 250 290
Elongation (%) 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.9
3
Fiber density (g/cm ) 1.76 1.78 1.78 1.75
Yield (g/km) 400 800 1650 g e
Size content by mass 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
(%, w/w)
the lowest density and the highest tensile strength-to-weight ratio among the current
high performance fibers. The first aromatic polyamide introduced in commercial ap-
plications is a meta-aramid fiber produced by DuPont as HT-1, and then under the
trade name Nomex in the early 1960s. Nomex is famous in industry for its excellent
resistance to heat, as it neither melts nor ignites in normal levels of oxygen, and it
handles like normal textile apparel fibers like CFs (Fig. 2.21). Para-aramid fiber,
developed in the 1960e1970s by DuPont and Akzo Nobel, shows much higher
tenacity and elastic modulus, and Dupont was the first to produce a para-aramid
called Kevlar in 1973 after much work finished by the company’s scientist, Stepha-
nie Kwolek. Aromatic polyamide fiber shows a negative coefficient of thermal
Figure 2.21 Nomax fibers.
expansion in the longitudinal direction, which is used in designing low thermal

expansion composites. The major disadvantages of aromatic polyamide fiber are
their weather resistance, low compressive strengths, and difficulty in cutting or
machining in composites. The chemical resistance properties are listed in Table 2.55
[68]. It can be see that the chemical resistance of aromatic polyamide can be
improved through copolymerization of Poly-p-phenylene terephthamide (PPTA).
Typical properties of para-aramid fibers and meta-aramid fibers are introduced in
Tables 2.56e2.58.
2.5.3 Polysulfonamide fiber

Polysulfonamide (PSA) fiber is a special high-performance fiber developed in China. It
is a new FR fiber with excellent heat resistance, thermal stability and thermal oxida-
tion, high volume specific resistance and initial modulus, instability of crimp, and
low friction coefficient. The main physical properties of PSA are listed in Table 2.59.
PSA fiber usually has a round shape (Fig. 2.22).
2.5.4 Aromatic polyester fiber [66]

Like aramid, aromatic polyester fibers are highly crystalline aromatic polyester fibers,
in which lots of the ester linkages (COOeRe) are attached directly to aromatic
Table 2.55 Chemical resistance of PPTA at different conditions

Strength retention (%)
Concen- Tempe-
tration rature Time Kevlar- Kevlar- Copolymer
Conditions (%) (8C) (h) 29 49 PPTA
Sulfuric 20 95 20 13 50 99
acid
100 2 29 93
Caustic 10 95 20 15 38 93
alkali
100 4 18 75
Glycerine 100 95 300 96 92 94
Heat e 200 (dry) 100 75 75 100
resistance
1000 e e 75
120 400 20 e 100
(Saturated
steam)
Table 2.56 Mechanical properties of Armos and para-aramids

Initial Tensile
Density modulus strength Elongation Moisture
Aramid (g/cm3) (GPa) (GPa) (%) regain (%)
HM, 120e170 3.0e3.5 2.5e3.0 2.0e3.0

Kevlar/Twaron
1.44 834.7e1182.4 20.9e24.3
HT 60e90 3.0e3.5 3.0e3.5 2.0e3.0
Kevlar/Twaron/
1.44 417.3e626 20.9e24.3
Technora
HM 130e160 4.5e5.5 3.5e4.0 3.0e3.5
Armos(Russia)
1.43 904.2e1112.9 31.3e38.3
HM, high modulus; HT, high tenacity; UHM, ultra high modulus.
rings. Vectran is a polyester-based high-performance Liquide Crystal Polymer (LCP)

produced by Ticona, and its performances are listed in Table 2.60. Its modulus is
similar to Kevlar 29, but it has less strength loss. Vectran fiber shows a 0.02% creep
at 30% of max load after 10,000 h, high chemical and abrasion resistance and high
tensile strength. The UV endurance of Vectran is inferior to PET and PEN, but has
better exposure degradation than aramids.
Table 2.57 Mechanical properties of PPTA fiber Kevlar
Kevlar
29 49 69 100 119 129 149
High
Color elongation
Standard HM HM yarn type HT UHM
Tenacity (cN/dtex) 20.3 19.6 20.6 18.8 21.2 23.4 15.9
Initial modulus (cN/dtex) 499 750 688 419 380 671 989
Elongation (%) 3.6 2.4 2.9 3.9 4.4 3.3 1.5
Moisture regain (%) 7.6 4.5 6.5 7.0 7.0 6.5 1.5
3
Density (g/cm ) 1.44 1.45 1.44 1.44 1.44 1.44 1.47
Dry heat, 250 C, 10h 56
Wet heat, 120 C, 100h 43
Wear off (times)
Rolla wear off 145
Twisting wear off 945
Sun J, Lv W. New fiber material. Shanghai: Shanghai University Press; 2007. P. 77-78.
79
Table 2.58 Properties of PMIA fiber

Typical
Properties Typical value Properties value
Tenacity (cN/dtex) 3.5e6.1 Heat shrinkage

(%)
Initial modulus 53.4e124.2 177 C 1.0
(cN/dtex)
285 C 2.5
Elongation (%) 22e45 300 C 3.5
Density (g/cm ) 3
1.38 Flame (815 C) 4.0
Moisture regain (%) 5
Tg ( C) 270 Strength 88
retention (%)
Td ( C) 400e430 200 C, 1000 h 70e80
Limiting oxygen 29e32 250 C, 1000 h 65
index (%)
Chemical resistance Good (except concentrated 260 C, 1000 h
sulfuric acid, concentrated
nitric acid, concentrated
hydrochloric acid, and 50%
NaOH)
Electrical properties Insulation Tmax working 200e230
( C)
PMIA, poly(m-phenylene isophthalamide).

2.5.5 Heterocyclic aromatic fiber [67]

Polybenzimidazole (PBI, poly[2,20 -(m-phenylene)-5,50 -bibenzimidazole) is a kind of
heterocyclic aromatic fiber with a very high melting point. It is yellow to brown,
has exceptional thermal and chemical stability, and does not readily ignite. Due to
its high stability, PBI is used to fabricate high-performance protective apparel such
as firefighter’s gear, astronaut spacesuits, high-temperature protective gloves, mem-
brane in fuel cells, and aircraft wall fabrics. Some special features of PBI fiber
are introduced in Table 2.61, and its chemical resistance properties are listed in
Table 2.62 [68].
Poly( p-phenylene-2, 6-benzobisoxazole) (PBO) is another liquid crystal polymer
developed by Japan-based Toyobo under the trade name Zylon. It is a gold fiber
with an initial modulus that is significantly higher than other high modulus yarns,
including aramids (Table 2.63). Comprehensive properties of PBO fiber include
high thermal stability, low creep, high chemical resistance, high cut, and abrasion
Table 2.59 Main physical properties of PSA

Item Index Item Index
Tenacity (cN/dtex) 3.1e4.4 Strength retention (%)

Initial modulus (cN/dtex) 52.8 200 C 83
Elongation (%) 15e25 250 C 70
Density (g/cm ) 3
1.42 300 C 50
Tg ( C) 257 350 C 38
Softening temperature ( C) 367 Strength retention in
hot air (%)
Tm ( C) 无 250 C, 100 h 90
Initial decomposition >400 300 C, 100 h 80
temperature ( C)
Limiting oxygen index (%) >33 350 C, 50 h 55
Combustion performance Flame 400 C, 50 h 15
retardant,
self-
extinguishing
Chemical resistance Good Electrical insulation
properties
Regain (%) (relative 6.3 (40% chopped fiber,
humidity, 65%, 60% fibrid-made
20e25 C) fiber paper)
Heat shrinkage (%) Examination 2.6 1016
Boiling water resistivity(U cm)
300 C air, 2 h
0.5e1.0 Surface resistivity (U) 2.05 1013
<2.0 Permittivity 1.79
Radiation resistance No significant Voltage breakdown 22e25
5 106e107 red (Co60 change strength (kV/mm)
gamma rays)
resistance. PBO is also very flexible and has a soft feel, but PBOs shows poor resis-
tance to both UV and visible light.
2.5.6 Polyphenylene sulfide fiber

PPS is an organic polymer consisting of aromatic rings linked with sulfides. It is
another kind of high-performance fiber, mostly with a round cross section, as shown
Figure 2.22 PSA fibers.
Table 2.60 Performances of Vectran

Item Vectran
Density (g/cm3) 1.41

Decomposition temperature ( C) >400
Water absorption (%)
20 C, RH 65% 0.05
20 C, RH 100% 0.27
Tenacity (cN/dtex) 23.2
Initial modulus (cN/dtex) 529
Elongation (%) 3.9
Knot strength (cN/dtex) 7.0
Hooking strength (cN/dtex) 19.0
Shrinkage (%)
Dry heat 200 C, 15 min 0
300 C, 15 min 0.10
400 C, 15 min 3.18
Wet heat 100 C, 15 min 0
Table 2.61 Special features of PBI fibers

Properties Unit Typical value
Moisture regain (65% % 15

relative humidity, 20 C)
Boiling water shrinkage % <1.0
Dry heat shrink at 205 C % <1.0
Heat capacity K/(kg C) 1.0
Limiting oxygen index % >41
Surface resistance (65% U/cm 1 1010
relative humidity, 21 C)
Fiber color Golden yellow
Standard fiber length Mm 38, 51, 76, 102
Heat conductivity W/(m C) 0.038
Strength retention of PBI fiber under difference chemical

Table 2.62
conditions
Concentration Temperature Time Strength retention
Conditions (%) (8C) (h) (%)
H2SO4 50 30 144 90
H2SO4 50 70 24 90
HCL 35 30 144 95
H2SO4 10 70 24 90
HNO3 70 30 144 100
H2SO4 10 70 48 90
NaOH 10 30 144 95
NaOH 10 93 2 65
NaOH 10 25 24 85
in Fig. 2.23, which offers superb heat resistance, chemical resistance, hydrolysis resis-
tance, flame retardance, and so on. PPS fiber can be used in filter for coal boilers,
papermaking felts, electrical insulation, specialty membranes, gaskets, and packings.
TORCON is a product of PPS made by Toray. Because of its high melt temperature
(around 285 C), PPS can continuously be used around 190 C. It is also resistant to
hydrolysis at high temperatures to acid, alkaline, organic solvents, which is
better than other high-modulus fibers. The crystallinity of PPS fiber varies from
84
Table 2.63 Comparison between PBO and other high-performance fibers
PBO
Aromatic
Properties AS HM PPAT Steel fiber CFRP T300 UHMWPE PBI polyester
Tenacity (GPa)/(N/tex) 5.8/3.7 5.8/3.7 2.8/1.9 2.8/0.38 3.6/2.03 3.5/3.6 0.4/0.27 1.1/0.8
Initial modulus 180/114.4 280/176.0 109/75.0 200/25.6 230/130.7 110/10.7 5.6/3.9 15/1.0
(GPa)/(N/tex)
Elongation (%) 3.5 2.5 2.4 1.4 1.5 3.5 30 25
3
Density (g/cm ) 1.54 1.56 1.45 7.80 1.76 0.97 1.40 1.38
Moisture regain (%) 2.0 0.6 4.5 0 e 0 15 0.4
Limiting oxygen 68 68 29 e e 16.5 41 17
index (%)
Thermal decomposition 650 650 550 e e 150 550 260

temperature ( C)
Coefficient of thermal e 6 106 e 0.1 106 e e e e
expansion ( C-1)
Figure 2.23 PPS fibers.
50% to 65% with the processing condition. Triangle cross-section PPS fibers are pro-
duced and can be used for high-efficiency filtration. Mechanical properties of PPS fiber
are listed in Table 2.64.
2.5.7 Ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene

Ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) belongs to the thermoplastic
PE with a molecular mass usually between 2 and 6 million. As an extended chain
PE fiber, it can produced by gel spinning, which yields a highly oriented fibrous struc-
ture with exceptionally high crystallinity (95e99%) relative to melt spinning used for
conventional PE fibers. Spectra is one of the commercial UHMWPE fibers made by
Honeywell, which offers superior UV resistance, very high initial modulus, superior
breaking strength, and high flex strength. UHMWPE fiber is odorless, tasteless, and
nontoxic, and shows high resistance to corrosive chemicals except oxidizing acids,
and extremely low moisture absorption (1%, compared with 5e6% for Kevlar 49).
Table 2.64 Mechanical properties of PPS fiber

Limiting
Initial Moisture oxygen
Tenacity Elongation modulus Density Tm regain index
Property (cN/dtex) (%) (cN/dtex) (g/cm3) (8C) (%) (%)
3.8e4.6 25e40 400e485 1.34 285 0.2e0.3 38

Because of its very low coefficient of friction and it is self-lubricating, it can also be
used in artificial joints. The melting point of UHMWPE fibers is 147 C, and applica-
tion temperature is limited to 80e90 C. UHMWPE fibers provide high impact resis-
tance for composite laminates even at low temperatures, so it is a good body armor raw
material. Equivalent to Spectra, Dyneema is an extremely strong fiber produced by the
Dutch company, DSM. Dyneema DSK78 set a new standard combining the typical
high strength to weight ratio, excellent low stretch, and abrasion and UV resistance,
but added three times better creep performance compared to Dyneema SK75, and
nearly two times better than Dyneema SK90. Dyneema SK60 has the highest level
of specific strength, and a 10-mm diameter rope of Dyneema SK60 can bear up to a
20-ton (theoretical value) weight load. The specific gravity of Dyneema SK60 is
0.97, so it is the lowest value among super fibers and can float in water [69]. Property
details of UHMWPE are listed in Table 2.65 [67].
Table 2.65 The physicalechemical properties of UHMWPE fibers

Typical
Properties Items value
Water resistance Moisture regain 0

and chemical
Water erosion None
resistance
Acid resistance Good
Alkali resistance Good
Ultraviolet resistance Good
Thermal properties Boiling water shrinkage (%) <1
Melting point ( C) 144e155
Thermal conductivity (along the fiber axis, 20
[W/(m K)]
Coefficient of thermal expansion (K1) 12 106
Electrical properties Resistance (U) >14
Dielectric strength (kV/cm) 900
Dielectric constant (22 C,10 GHz) 2.25
Tangential loss angle 2 104
Mechanical Tensile modulus (GPa) 100
property
Tenacity (GPa) 3
Creep (22 C, 20% load, % day) 1 102
Compression axial strength (GPa) 0.1
Compression axial modulus (GPa) 100
Shear strength (GPa) 0.03
Shear modulus (GPa) 3
Figure 2.24 UHMWPE fibers.
Because the excellent mechanical properties of UHMWPE fiber are the result of
high drawn ratio during the fiber processing, evident fibrils are often found on the sur-
face of the high-performance fibers, as shown in Fig. 2.24.
2.5.8 High polyketone fiber

Polyketone, produced by Asahi Kasei, is seen as a new high-strength fiber similar to
aramid fiber, but the price is lower than aramid. This fiber has a molecular structure,
which includes carbon monoxide and is also composed of ethylene. Thus, it contains
only carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, which need a low manufacturing cost compared to
other high-strength fiber. Table 2.66 shows a comparison of performance between
polyketone fiber and other fibers [70].
2.5.9 Polyimide fiber

Polyimide fiber is made from an aromatic heterocyclic polymer, and P84 is the brand
name of the polyimides manufactured by Evonik Fibers with a trilobal fiber cross sec-
tion (Fig. 2.25). P84 is a fully imidized polyimide derived from aromatic dianhydrides
and aromatic diisocyanates and has a glass transition temperature of 315 C. The fibers
start to carbonize at temperatures beyond 370 C. Due to the aromatic structure, the
polymer and fibers are inherently nonflammable. An LOI of 38% can be measured.
P84 can be used for temperatures up to 260 C, depending on the environment [71].
Typical properties of P84 are introduced in Table 2.67.
Table 2.66 Comparison of performance between polyketone fiber

and other fibersa
Properties Polyketone fiber Ester Rayon Aramid
Tenacity (cN/dtex) 18.2 2.7 5.5 20.9

Elongation (%) 5 13 11 4
Modulus (cN/dtex) 363.6 100.1 118.2 445.5
Heat contraction at 150 C (%) 0.5 3.9 1.7 0.5
3
Density (g/cm ) 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.4
a
Nikkei Industry newspaper, July 25, 2002.
Figure 2.25 P84 fibers.
Table 2.67 Properties of P84 staple fiber

Property Typical value
Diameter (dtex) 2.2

Tenacity (cN/dtex) 3.8
Elongation at break (%) 30
Shrinkage at 240 C, 10 min (%) <3
Limiting oxygen index (%) 38
Glass transition temperature (Tg) ( C) 315
3
Density (g/cm ) 1.41
Due to its outstanding chemical and thermal stability and physical properties, P84
fibers can be used for a variety of applications, ranging from filter media for high-
temperature filtration, protective clothing, and sealing materials for spacecraft to
various high-temperature applications, such as thermal insulation.
2.5.10 Inorganic fiber or mineral fiber

2.5.10.1 Glass fiber
Glass fiber is commonly used in high-temperature filtration (see Fig. 2.26). The chemical
composition of glass fiber is SiO2, B2O3, CaO, Al2O3 (Table 2.68 [72]). Sometimes,
Na2O and K2O are used to lower the viscosity and melt temperature of glass melts by
means of destroying the network skeleton in the glass matrix and smoothing the degass-
ing process. SiO2 can be substituted by CaO to decrease the spinning temperature during
fiber preparation in the future, and Al2O3 is used for its advanced water resistance.
E-glass and S-glass are commonly used in fiber reinforced plastics industry. C-glass
is used in chemical applications requiring greater corrosion resistance to acids than is
provided by E-glass. Unlike soda-lime glass, the Na2O and K2O content in E- and
S-glass fibers is very low, which gives them a better corrosion resistance to water, as
well as higher surface resistivity. Properties of E-glass and S-glass are in Table 2.68.
The disadvantages of glass fiber are relatively low initial modulus, brittle and high den-
sity (among the commercial fibers), sensitivity to abrasion during handling, which
frequently decreases its tensile strength, relatively low fatigue resistance, and high hardness.
Properties of different inorganic fibers are listed in Table 2.69. There are several
inorganic fibers available, but their properties are based on chemical components
and process methods, as in Table 2.70.
Figure 2.26 Glass fibers.

Table 2.68 The chemical compositions of E- and S-glass fibers

Component E-glass C-glass A-glass S-glass M-glass
SiO2 55.20% 64.50% 72% 64.32% 53.70%

Al2O3 14.8 e e 24.80% e
Fe2O3 0.30% 4.10% 0.60% 0.21% 0.50%
MgO 3.30% 3.30% 2.50% 10.27% 9%
CaO 18.70% 13.40% 10% <0.01% 12.90%
B2O3 7.30% 4.70% w <0.01% 12.90%
Na2O 0.30% 7.90% 14.20% 0.27% e
K2O e 1.70% e e e
TiO2 e e e e 8%
BaO e 0.90% e e e
F2 0.30% e e e e
CeO2 e e e e 3%
Li2O e e e e 3%
ZrO2 e e e e 2%
PbO e e e e e
BeO e e e e 8%
Xi P, Gao J, Li W, et al. High-tech fibers. Beijing: Chemical Industry Press; 2004. 426.433,449.
Table 2.69 Properties of E-glass and S-glass

Property E-glass S-glass
Density (g/cm3) 2.56 2.45

Tenacity (Gpa) 1.8e2.7 3.6e4.5
Initial modulus (GPa) 70 85
Elongation (%) 4.6 5.1
Refractive index 1.55 1.54
Linear expansivity ( C1) e 7.2 106
Soft temperature( C) 840 1000
Electrical resistivity (U) 1014 e
Xi P, Gao J, Li W, et al. High-tech fibers. Beijing: Chemical Industry Press; 2004. 426.433,449.
Table 2.70 Basic properties of some inorganic fibers
Coefficient of
Typical Tensile Tensile Strain to thermal Poisson’s
Fiber diameter Density modulus strength failure expansion ratio
Unit (mm)a g/cm3 Gpa (msi) Gpa (ksi) % (10-6/ C)b

Glass
E-glass 10 (round) 2.54 72.4 (10.5) 3.45 (500) 4.8 5 0.2
S-glass 10 (round) 2.49 86.9 (12.6) 4.30 (625) 5.0 2.9 0.22
Boron 140 (round) 2.7 393 (57) 3.1 0.79 5 0.2
SiC
Monofilament 14 (round) 3.08 400 (58) 3.44 (499) 0.86 1.5
Nicalon (multifilament) 14.5 (round) 2.55 196 (28.4) 2.75 (399) 1.4
Al2O3
Nextel 610 10e12 3.9 380 (55) 3.1 (450) 8
(round)
Nextel 720 10e12 3.4 260 (38) 2.1 (300) 6
Al2O3-SiO2
Fiberfrax (discontinuous) 2e12 2.73 103 (15) 1.03e1.72
(150e250)
ksi: kilopound per square inch, 1ksi ¼ 6.895MPa 1MPa ¼ 145psi ¼ 0.000145msi.
a
Nippon carbon.
b
3M.
[Dekker mechanical engineering] Mallick PK. Fiber reinforced composites materials manufacturing and design. Florida: CRC Press; 2008.
91
Table 2.71 Performance comparison between boron fibers

and other fibers
Diameter Tenacity Initial modulus Density
Fiber (mm) (GPa) (GPa) (g/cm3)
TEXTRON boron 100 and 3600 400 2.57

fiber with tungsten 140
core
TEXTRON SCS-6 140 3450 380 3.0
SiC fiber
TEXTRON SCS-6 140 3450 307 2.8
SiC fiber
Japan Caron 15 2800 259 2.74
HI-NICALON
SiC fiber
Japan UBE 10 2800e3000 200 2.5
TYHANNO SiC
fiber
Japan Toray T300 7 3530 230 1.76
carbon fiber
DuPont FP Al2O3 20 1380 380 3.9
Japan Sumitomo 17 1500 200 3.2
Al2O3
Zhao J. Boron fiber and its composites. Fiber Compos 2004; (4):3e5.
2.5.10.2 Boron fibers

Generally, boron fibers are made by means of boron vapor condensing on some carrier
materials, such as of tungsten wires, glass, graphite, aluminum, and molybdenum, and
the typical fiber diameter with tungsten wires as carrier materials is around 12 mm. Bo-
ron fibers are preferable to make some composites. Typical properties of boron prod-
ucts are shown in Table 2.71.
2.5.10.3 Basalt fiber

Basalt fiber is composed of the minerals plagioclase, pyroxene, and olivine. It is
similar to CF and glass fiber, having better physicomechanical properties than fiber-
glass, but is significantly cheaper than CF, as listed in Table 2.72 [74].
2.5.10.4 Metal fibers

Metal fibers are on the market as filament yarns, rovings, mats, and wovens, and their
common merit is their high temperature resistance. Except for steel, metal fibers of
Table 2.72 Basic properties of basalt fiber
Property Value
Tenacity (GPa) 4.84

Initial modulus (GPa) 89
Elongation (%) 3.15
3
Density (g/cm ) 2.7
Figure 2.27 Metal fibers.

Picture ask for permit info@meadowbrookinventions.com.
Figure 2.28 Stainless steel fibers.

aluminum, magnesium, copper, molybdenum, and tungsten are made for particular ap-
plications (Fig. 2.27). Metal fibers, such as Angelina Aluminum Metal Fibers (pro-
duced by Meadowbrook Inventions, Inc.), use prepared recycled aluminum, and it
shows good heat resistance and dye bath tolerance, and protective qualities including
thermal regulation, UV and electromagnetic protection, antibacterial, antistress, and
antistatic properties [75] Most metal fibers show a coarse surface (Fig. 2.28).
Another metal fiber produced by the company is Angelina Copper Metal Fiber; this
kind of fiber can be used in the high-temperature application field. More than that, its
antibacterial properties, antiinflammatory, antiarthritic, antistatic, pharmacological
health benefits, and solvent resistance expand the application fields, including bedding
and home furnishings, antibacterial textiles, antistatic carpets, filtration, and decorative
applications.
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2 Developments in Fibers For Technical Non 2016 Advances in Technical Nonw

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Developments in ﬁbers for

2.1 Introduction of ﬁbers for technical nonwovens

Advances in Technical Nonwovens. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100575-0.00002-4

Figure 2.1 Cai Lun created a sheet of paper. www.baidu.com.

Seeds fiber: cotton, kapok fiber

Mineral fiber: glass fiber, basalt fiber, SiC, Al2O3, ...

Metal fiber: stainless steel fiber

Regenarated fiber: viscose, polynosic, cuprammonuium,

Chemical Standard fiber: polyester(terlene), nylon,

Special fiber: superfine fiber, profoled fiber,

High perfomance fiber: aramid fiber, UHMWPE,

2.1.2 From organic ﬁbers to inorganic ﬁbers

2.1.3 From functional ﬁbers to high performance ﬁbers

Natural (vegetal) Cotton 11e22 1.52 3.5 7 7 e

Advances in Technical Nonwovens

The limiting oxygen indexes (LOI)s

Pyromex (carbon ﬁber, Teijin) 50e60

Table 2.3 Typical examples of high-performance ﬁbers

Para-aramida Kevlar 49(DuPont) 19.36 748

2.2 Natural ﬁbers

= Very important property.

High tear strength

= Less important property.

25 Developments in ﬁbers for technical nonwovens

Table 2.5 Mechanical properties of cottona

St. Vincent, Sea 1.00 73 4.52 15.0 6.80

Variation of heat of absorption of Sea Island cotton

Table 2.7 Properties of selected natural bast ﬁbers

Density (g/cm3) 1.48 1.4 1.33 1.46

2.2.1.3 Coconut ﬁber (coir ﬁber)

2.2.1.4 Banana ﬁber

2.2.1.5 Pineapple leaf ﬁber

2.2.1.6 Lotus ﬁber/Nelumbo nucifera ﬁber

Table 2.8 Constituent of pineapple ﬁber

% 56e62 16e19 2.0e2.5 9.0e1.3 1e1.5 4e7 2e3

3e8 7e18 2.5e4.0 10e90 4.26 3.42 3.06 (10) 99.0

Table 2.10 Properties of treated (bundle) pineapple ﬁbers

Degummed 1.86 e 3.75 30.52 3.85 88.0

CV, coefﬁcient of variation.

Table 2.11 Physical properties of lotus ﬁber compared with

Figure 2.7 Special helical structure of lotus ﬁber.

functional materials [14]. It is reported that lotus root contains considerable

2.2.1.7 Kapok ﬁber

2.2.2 Animal ﬁbers

(a) (b) (c)

2.2.2.2 Silkworm silk (Bombyx mori)

Figure 2.10 Cross section (a), longitudinal section (b) of silk.

(a) (b) (c)

2.2.2.3 Down and feather

2.3 Synthetic ﬁbers

Advances in Technical Nonwovens

2.3.2 Protein-based ﬁbers

2.3.4 Sodium alginate/calcium alginate

4 0.53 8.7 128 4.32 13.2 0.0505

Table 2.15 Properties of some protein ﬁbers

Tenacity (cN/dtex) Dry 1.60e2.20 0.88e1.50 0.62

Zeng H, Functional ﬁbers. Beijing: Chemical Industry Press; 2005. p. 418.

Table 2.16 Properties of chitosan ﬁber and chitin ﬁber

Zeng H, Functional ﬁbers. Beijing: Chemical Industry Press; 2005. p. 409.

2.3.5 Synthetic chemical ﬁber

Table 2.17 Comparison of properties of alginate ﬁbers

Sodium alginate 6 1.18 2.2 20.4

Table 2.18 Physical properties of synthetic ﬁbers

1 400 3.24 9.37 24.00 85.40