Outline of the course

1.Introduction to textile fibers :

 Classification of important textile fibers based on their origin and constituents
 Important properties of fibers: cotton , jute ,linen, Wool, silk, polyester ,nylon,
acrylic, spandex and viscose rayon
2. New fiber and their properties
 Tencel, Lycra and technical textiles
3. Yarn processing
 Manufacturing of cotton , line wool and silk
 Sequence of spinning operation for making spun
 Spinning –mechanical, chemical and melt
4.Types of yarn their properties relevant to fabric behavior
 Types of yarns and their properties relevant to fabric behavior- simple yarn:
single, ply, cord
 Novelty yarn: slub, boucle, chenille, nubs, corkscrew, grendelle
 Textured yarns: stretch yarns, bulk yarns, core spun yarns
 Blended yarns: yarn twist,
 Cont.….
• Relevance of thread count; linear density, balance yarn slippage to fabric
performance/ Yarn count/ size: theory of direct and indirect method of yarn
numbering systems
5.Understanding of various textiles testing equipment with relevance to:
 Yarn twist, yarn strength, crimp, yarn count and yarn appearance
Introduction to Textile
 Cont.….
Textile Products

Yarn
Seed Cotton

Grey fabric

Finished
Synthetic fiber
fabric

Ginned Cotton Apparel/clot

hing
5
Textile Manufacturing Processes (General)
Ginned Cotton Weaving Finishing
Spinning Singeing
Cone Winding
Preparation (Blow room) Desizing
Opening, Cleaning,
Mixing, Blending Warp Winding Scouring
Carding
Sizing Bleaching
Drawing
Mercerization
Combing Drawing – in
Tying - in Printing
Drawing
Dyeing
Weaving
Roving Production Finished Fabric Inspection

Grey Fabric Inspection

Spinning Garment

Yar Grey Fabric T-Shirt, Trouser, etc 6

 Chapter One
Introduction to textile fibers
 Outlines
 Introduction of textile fibers
 Classifications of textile fibers
 Properties of textile fibers
 Difference between cellulose and synthetic
fibres
 Properties Natural cellulosic fiber
 cotton
 jute
 linen
 Introduction to textile fibers
 A textile fiber is a unit of matter, either natural or
manufactured, that forms the basic element of fabrics and other
textile structures or
 “the basic entity, either natural or manufactured, which is
twisted into yarns, and then used in the production of a fabric”.
 A fiber is characterized by having a length at least 100 times its
diameter or width.
 Fibers can be spun into yarns or made into fabrics by various
methods, including weaving, knitting, braiding, felting, and
twisting.
 The essential requirements for fibers to be spun into yarns
include a length of at least 5 mm, flexibility, cohesiveness, and
sufficient strength.
 Other important properties are elasticity, fineness, uniformity,
durability, and luster.
 Classification of textile fibers
 There are many types of fibers available in nature but all of
them can not be used for making fabrics. The fibers which can
be made into fabrics are called Textile fibers.
 A textile fiber can be defined as follows-
 Any small thread-like structure which can be woven or
otherwise made into a fabric is called Textile Fiber. It is
the smallest unit in textiles.
 Textile fibers are traditionally classified according to their
source /orgions.
 Thus a broad classification of textile fibers will be into
Natural fibers and Man made fibers.
 These are further divided into specific classes.
 The fibers which are available in nature in fiber form are called Natural fibers.
 They are obtained from three major sources – Vegetable, Animal and Mineral.
 Cont.
 Vegetable Fibers : These fibers ….
are available from vegetable origin. Chemically
they are composed of cellulose and hence are also known as Cellulosic fibers.
 These fibers are available from different parts of different plants like stem,
leaves, fruit etc.
 Cotton and Linen are the most used fibers from this category.
 Animal Fibers: These fibers are available from animals. Chemically they are
composed of protein and hence are also known as Protein Fibers.
 These fibers are either body hair of certain animals or secretion of certain
insects.
 Wool and Silk are the most popular fibers from this category.
 Mineral Fibers: There is only one fiber available in this category
called Asbestos.
 It is available from certain kind of rocks and has a very special property that
it does not catch fire.
 Because of this property it has extensive use in industrial and construction
sector.
 Cont.
…..
 The fibers which are not available in nature in fibrous form and are
produced by man with the help of either natural or synthetic materials are
known as Man-made fibers or Synthetic fibers.

Regenerated fibers Synthetics

fibers
 Cont.….
 Rayon - The raw material for these fibers is obtained from natural cellulosic
source only.
 Because of this reason, rayon are also known as Regenerated
Cellulosic fibers.
 Viscose rayon is the most popular fiber amongst all rayon's.
 Azlon - The raw material for this is obtained from natural protein sources.
 Azlon fibres are soft to touch and are used to make blends with other
fibres.
 Nylon, Polyester etc. – The raw material for these fibres is obtained from
different chemicals. All these fibres are thermoplastic.
 Glass & Metallics - These are manufactured by using natural minerals and
metals which are not originally in fibrous form. Hence they are also known as
Man-made Mineral fibres.
 They are also thermoplastic but they melt or change shape at extremely
high temperatures.
 Cont.
 Based on the chemical composition of the fibres, natural fibres can be divided
into two main types:
 Vegetable (cellulosic) fibres
 Animal (protein) fibres
 Asbestos is the only natural mineral fibre and it is no longer in use as it
has been found to be carcinogenic in nature.
 Animal (protein-based) fibres can be divided into the following categories:
 Wool (from sheep)
 Hair (e.g. from goats, such as mohair and cashmere; or from
rabbits, such as angora)
 Silk (from silkworms)
 Based on which part of the plant the fibres come from, vegetable fibres can be
divided into:
 Seed hairs (e.g. cotton)
 Bast (fibres derived from the outer, or bast, layers of plant stems,
e.g. flax, hemp and jute)
 Leaf (e.g. sisal)
 Cont.….
 Manufactured or man-made fibres can be classified as:
 Synthetic or chemical polymers, e.g. polyester, nylon
(polyamide), acrylic, elastomers ( example : polyurethane,
Lycra, Spandex).
 Regenerated, e.g. viscose, modal, acetate
 Inorganic, e.g. carbon, glass, ceramic and metallic fibres
 Properties of textile fibres
 A linear polymer can be called a textile fiber only if it possess
certain specific qualities.
 The properties which are necessary for a fiber to be called a
textile fiber are called Primary properties.
 Certain other properties are desirable in a textile fiber. They are
called Secondary properties.
 These are properties which may not be an absolute must
but their presence improves the utility of the fiber.
 Cont.…..
Primary properties : These are properties that a textile fiber must possess in
order to be called a textile fiber. There are five such properties-
1. Length : A textile fiber must have sufficient length to be made into a yarn.
 It should be at least 100 times longer than its diameter/ width.
 Generally, the longer the fiber, the stronger the yarn made from it.
2.Strength : A textile fiber must have adequate strength to be spun into a yarn and
later woven into a fabric.
 The strength of a fiber is measured in grams of force per denier (g/den).
 The strength of a fiber, should be considered in both dry as well as in wet
condition.
 The wet strength of a fiber gives us an idea about which method to use
for
washing it.
3. Flexibility : The ability of fibre to bend without breaking is called flexibility or
pliability.
 Textile fibres should be flexible so that they can be spun into a yarn.
 Flexibility of the fibre helps in creating a fabric which has good draping ability.
 Draping ability helps the fabric to mold over the body and to move with the
body.
 Cont.…
4.Cohesiveness : This is the ability of fibres to stay together and adhere to each
other.
 Without this property, it will be impossible to keep fibres together to make
a yarn.
5.Uniformity : If the fibres will be similar to each other in all the above four
properties, then only it will be possible to make a regular yarn and smooth fabric
out of them.
Secondary Properties : These are properties which are desirable in a textile fibre,
but not essential.
 If they are present in a fibre, they help in making a better fabric.
 But even if they are not present in a fibre, a fabric can still be made from it.
 There are many such properties.
 Cont.….
1. Physical Appearance : Usually length, color, luster and texture are considered
in physical appearance. in general, a smooth, regular looking fibre will result
in a smooth, regular looking fabric.
A. Lustre : It is the shine of the fibre. A lustrous fibre makes a lustrous fabric
which looks more attractive. Silk has the best lustre amongst all textile fibres.
Cotton is not lustrous. Man-made fibres are very lustrous but their lustre can
be controlled.
 Cont.…..
B. Color : Most natural fibres have some or the other color. Cotton and silk are
usually off white or cream coloured, linen is cream to light brown or gray and
wool is available in many colors including black. Man-made fibres are usually pure
white but they can be manufactured into any color.
c. Texture : It is the surface quality or the ‘feel’ of the fabric. Silk is very smooth in
touch. Wool and cotton are slightly rough. Jute and Coir are quite rough in
texture. Man-made fibres are usually very smooth but their texture can also be
controlled.
2.Density : This means mass or weight per unit volume and is expressed in gm/cc.
In plain language, it means how dense is the fibre. A high density fibre will make
a heavier fabric while a low density fibre will make a light weight fabric.
3.Elasticity : The ability of a fibre to stretch when force is applied and come back
to the original position when the force is removed, is known as elasticity. The
man-made fibres in general have better elasticity than natural fibres. This is a
convenience property. It helps in putting on and taking off clothes.
 Cont.
4.Resiliency : This is the ability…
of a fibre to save itself from wrinkling. If this
property is good in fibre, the fabric will not get creased and ironing will not be
required. Bad resiliency results in frequent ironing. Man-made fibres have very
good resiliency as compared to natural fibres.
5.Moisture Absorption : If the moisture absorption of a fibre is good, it will
absorb perspiration thus making the fabric comfortable to wear. It will take time
to dry. If the moisture absorption is not good, fabric will not be comfortable to
wear but will dry quickly. Man-made fibres usually have low moisture
absorption than natural fibres.
6. Thermal Properties : These are properties related to heat:
A. Effect of Heat : The ability of a fibre to tolerate heat without getting damaged
by it. This property helps us to know how to wash and iron fabrics made from
different kinds of fibres. Man-made fibres being thermoplastic can easily get
damaged by heat.
 Cont.…
B. Heat Conductivity : The ability of a fibre to pass heat through itself.
 Fibres with good heat conductivity pass our body heat to the outer
atmosphere and make us feel comfortable in and thus give us comfort in
 summers.
winters.
 Fibres with bad heat conductivity does not pass our body heat to the
7. Biological Properties : These are properties related to damage and durability.
outer atmosphere
A.Effect of Moth : Certain fibres can get damaged by small insects called Moths.
In general, Natural Animal Fibres get easily damaged by moths.
B.Effect of Mildew : This means whether the fibre will get affected by Mildew i.e.
fungus. Natural Vegetable Fibres get easily damaged by mildew. Man-made Fibres
are least affected by either Moth or Mildew.
Difference between cellulose and synthetic fibres
Cont.
…..
Properties Natural cellulosic fiber
(cotton , jute and linen)
 Properties of cotton fiber
 Cotton Fibres is the king of fibres because of Appearance, Strength
Absorbency
 One of the best fiber suitable for our climate because Cotton is a soft staple
fibre that grown in a form known as a boll around the seeds of the cotton
plant.
 Cotton is a remarkable fiber which has many good properties making it one
of the most popular fiber in our country and around.
 Cont.….
A. Microscopic Properties: Under the microscope, the longitudinal view of
cotton shows a flat ribbon-like structure. There are twists or convolutions
seen throughout the length. The diameter is uneven and there is very little
lustre.
Microscopic Characteristic of Cotton
 Flat ribbon like appearance
 Diameter is uneven
 Convolutions (twists) are seen
 Cont.…..
B. Physical Properties:
1.Length : Individual fibers range from1/8 inch- 2 1 /2 inches. Long staple length
in cotton is desirable because the fibers can be spun into yarns of higher tensile
strength.
2. Luster : Cotton has very little luster. A process called ‘Mercerization’ increases
the luster.
3.Strength : Cotton has a tenacity of 3.0-5.0 grams/ denier. This produces a fiber
of moderate to above average strength. Cotton is 10-20% stronger when wet.
Mercerized cotton is stronger than un-mercerized cotton.
4.Elastic recovery and elongation: Cotton fiber has very little natural elasticity. It
is more elastic than linen but less than silk and wool. Cotton has an elongation of
3-10%, with a recovery of only 75% at 2% extension.
5.Resiliency : Cotton has low resiliency, due to this cotton fabrics wrinkle easily
and needs frequent ironing. Application of resin finishes improves the resiliency
of cotton.
 Cont.
6.Moisture regain : Moisture…. regain of un-mercerized cotton is 8.5% at 65%
relative humidity and 70o F temperature.
 Mercerized cotton absorb more moisture than non-mercerized fibers.
 Moisture regain for mercerized fiber varies from 8.5-10% the moisture
regain factor of cotton has made it more desirable as summer wear.
 Water has little effect on cotton, other than swelling of the fiber, which
may cause shrinkage. Even boiling water has no action on cotton.
 Cotton is stronger when wet. This property of cotton does not demand
for any special care while laundering the fabrics.
7. Density: Cotton is one of the high density fibers used with a density of 1.54
– 1.56 gm/cc. This makes the fabric heavy in weight.
Summery physical properties
 Cont.…..
C) biological properties :
1. Effect of mildew : Being a cellulosic fiber, cotton fabrics especially sized
fabrics are affected by mildew readily when permitted to remain in damp
condition.
 Small greenish-black or rust colored spots caused by mildew (fungus)
develops, and a musty odor may be detected.
 Therefore, cotton material should be kept in a dry atmosphere.
2. Effect of moth : Being a cellulosic fiber cotton is not attacked by moths and
beetles.
D) thermal properties:
3.Effect of Heat : Cotton burns readily and quickly. While burning it smells like a
burning paper & leave small amount of fluffy gray ash.
4.Heat Conductivity : Cotton is good conductor of heat and hence suitable for
summer wear.
 Uses of cotton

 Cotton is the single most widely used fiber and it is an excellent

choice for a multitude of purposes.
 Due to its comfort factor, strength, absorbency, softness cotton
has almost universal acceptance.
 Due to its good moisture regain, these fabrics are very
comfortable to wear in hot humid climate in tropical country.
 Due to its good heat resistance they can be used very safely while
working in kitchen or while bursting fire crackers.
 Cotton fiber has high wet strength and most soaps and detergents
used in home laundering do not have any harmful effect on them.
 This makes the fabric care less demanding and hence most of
cotton fabrics can be laundered and dried at home without any
special precautions.
 Cont.…
 Cotton is extensively used with man made fibers to achieve
new combinations of properties that are not available in the fibers
separately.
 In such blends the cotton fiber contributes characteristics of comfort,
absorbency, softness while manmade fibers add strength and easy care.
 The fibers have great importance in medical field.
 Bed sheets, pillow covers, curtains used in hospitals can be easily sterilized
by autoclave.
 Due to its high absorbency they are used for bandages. It is also favorite
fabric for various active sports wear.
 Cotton due to its high absorbency, absorbs sweat and hence
are comfortable as sports wear and for summer clothing.
 Cont.…
1. Apparel uses : Inner garments, hosiery items, scarf, sarees, hand gloves,
socks, hats, caps, shirts, pants and various sports wear.
 Cont.…
2. Household uses : curtains, bed sheets, pillow covers, napkins, table cover &
mats, towels, mattress, bathroom mats etc.
 Cont.…..
3. Medical uses : Threads, bandages, gauze, sterilized cotton, doctor’s aprons
etc.
 Cont.…..
4. Industrial and commercial, miscellaneous uses : Shoe laces, embroidery
threads, sewing threads, ropes, twines, socks bags, handbags, laces, nets,
trimmings.
Properties of jute fibers
 Properties of Jute fibers
 The strong threads made from jute fibre are used worldwide in sackcloth - and
help sustain the livelihoods of millions of small farmers.
 Jute is extracted from the bark of the white jute plant, Corchorus capsularis
and to a lesser extent from tossa jute (C. olitorius).
 The plant

 The fibre
 Jute is known as the ‘Golden Fibre’ due to its golden brown color and its
importance.
 In terms of usage, production and global consumption, jute is second only to
cotton. It is also a bast fibre, available from the stem part of its plant
 Jute is environmentally friendly as well as being one of the most affordable
fibres. It is bio-degradable and can be recycled.
 Cont.…..
 Jute fibres are very long (1 to 4 meters and a diameter of from 17 to 20
microns), lustrous and golden brown in color.
 They are strong, have low elasticity, can absorb moisture but are not
affected much by moths or mildew.
 Jute has high insulating and anti-static properties, moderate moisture
regain and low thermal conductivity.

Figure microscopic view of jute fibers ( a. longitudinal and b. cross-section of jute )

 Cont.….
Physical properties of jute fiber:

 Fiber length - 50 to 300 mm

 Fiber diameter - 0.035 to 0.14 mm
 Specific gravity - 1.48 gm/cc
 Fiber denier - 6 to 50
 Tenacity - 2.7 to 5.3 gm/tex
 Breaking elongation - 0.8 to 1.8 %
 Moisture regain - 13 %
 L:D - 110 to 140
 Unit cell length 0.8 to 6 mm
 Traverse swelling in water - 20 to 22 %
 Cont.
Chemical properties of….
jute fiber:
1. Chemical composition
 Cellulose - 58-63%
 Hemicellulose - 20- 22%
 Lignin - 12 - 14.5 %
 Wax and fats - 0.4 -0.8%
 Pectin - 0.2 -0.5 %
 Protein - 0.8 - 2.5 5
 Mineral matter - 0.6 -1.2%
2. Prolonged heating causes degradation of jute fiber.
3.Action of heat - strong acid at boiling causes hydrocellulose
and lead to loss in strength. But dilute acid have no effect on
jute fiber.
4.Action of alkali- Dilute alkali has no effect of jute fiber, but
strong alkali at boil causes loss in strength.
 Uses of jute :
1. Jute has been mainly used for making packaging materials like gunny
bags, market bags, sackcloth, grocery bags, shopping bags and floor mats,
ropes and twines since very old times.
 Cont.….
2. It is also used as lining for carpets and linoleum.
3.Nowadays it is becoming popular in fashion garments, jackets,
dress materials and fashion accessories like hand bags, footwear etc.
4. It is used for home furnishing and also for making furniture which are gaining
popularity rapidly.

5. The latest use of jute has been in paper making.

properties of linen (flax) fiber
 Introduction
 One of nature's strongest vegetable fibres, flax was also one of the first to be
extracted, spun and woven into textiles
 The word flax is derived the old English Fleax. Linen is term applied to the yarn
spun from the flax fibers and to the cloth or fabric woven from this yarn.
The plant
 Flax fibres obtained from the stems of the flax plant and are used mainly to
make linen

The fibre
 Like cotton, flax fibre is a cellulose polymer, but its structure is more crystalline,
making it stronger, crisper and stiffer to handle, and more easily wrinkled.
 Flax fibres range in length up to 90 cm, and average 12 to 16 microns in diameter.
 They absorb and release water quickly, making linen comfortable to wear in hot
weather.
 properties of linen (flax) fiber
A) Microscopic properties : Under the microscope longitudinal view of linen
appears to be composed of a number of small fibers cemented together. It
looks much like a bamboo pole with crosswise markings called nodes &
inter nodes. Flax has a large central canal.
 Microscopic Characteristic of Linen
 Bamboo pole like appearance
 Crosswise markings (Nodes)
 Large central canal

Figure : `microscopic view of flax fiber a. longitudinal view b. cross- sectional view
 Cont.
physical properties : ….
1. Length : Linen fibers vary in length from few inches to 22 inches or more.
Linen fibers (Long linen fibers) are usually more than 12 inches and
frequently from 18-22 inches, Average length of fibers after processing is 10-
15 inches. Tow fibers (short linen fibers) are less than 12 inches in length and
can be as short as a fraction of an inch.
2. Luster : Flax possesses a high natural luster. Flax is almost silky in appearance
and produces attractive yarns and fabrics.
3. Strength : Among the natural fibers, it is second in strength to silk. It is much
stronger than cotton and it gets stronger when wet. Tenacity of flax is 5.5 –
6.5 grams / denier.
4. Elastic recovery and elongation : Linen (flax) fiber has no significant elasticity.
It is, in fact, the least elastic of natural fibers. Fibers are naturally stiff and
resists bending. It has elastic recovery of 65 % at 2 % extension. It has low
elongation of 1.8 – 2 %, may extend as much as 3.3 %.
 Cont.…..
5.Resiliency : Linen fiber has little resiliency. Thus fabrics are prone to crease and
wrinkle badly. Finishes can be applied to improve this property.
6.Moisture regains : Linen fiber has good moisture regain. It’s moisture regain is
10-12 % at 65 % relative humidity and 70 degree Ferranti temperature.
 When absorbency is the main consideration, linen is preferable to cotton.
 It absorbs moisture and dries more quickly.
 It is therefore excellent for handkerchiefs and towels. Water causes the
fiber to swell slightly.
 This can cause shrinkage. Fabrics can be stabilized in the
finishing
process.
7.Density : Linen is a high density fibre. Its density is 1.5 gms/cc. This makes the
fabric heavy in weight.
 Cont.…..
C) biological properties :
1.Resistance to Mildew : Being a cellulosic fiber like cotton linen is vulnerable
to mildew. Mildew will grow on and damage fiber particularly in humid
atmosphere.
2. Resistance to Moth : Like cotton linen is resistant to moths & insects.
D) thermal properties :
3.Effect of Heat : Linen fiber burns much the same way as cotton. Fibers burn
readily and quickly with a smell similar to that of burning paper. It leaves a
small amount of gray ash.
4.Heat Conductivity : It is a good conductor of heat and hence is more
suitable for summer wear.
Summary of flax fiber properties
 Uses of linen

 Flax has many advantages. It has a high natural luster, strength, good
moisture regain, and drape.
 Flax is used primarily for fashion fabrics in both apparel and
home
furnishings due to its high price.
 Linen can be made into sheer lightweight fabrics. Linen absorb
moisture more readily and dries more quickly than cotton.
 Because of this property linen fabrics are cool and comfortable to wear.
 Linen is most suitable for summer apparel due to it’s heat conductivity. It
allows the heat of the body to escape.
 Cont.….
 Linen launders well and gives up stains readily, its softness is enhanced by
repeated washing, because of these special qualities linen has long been
used for a wide variety of home furnishings.
 In fact the often used tern of ‘linen’ which refers to home furnishings now
usually made of cotton and cotton blends stems form their original
composition of linen
 because flax fibers are strong,
 they do not break off in use as quickly as other fibers;
 as a result, they do not form lint and frequently are used for drying
towels for dishes especially glassware.
 Linen fibers are also blended with cotton and rayon. In a blend linen fiber
will contribute certain of its desirable properties that other fibers may
lack.
 Cont.….
1. Apparel uses : Shirts, Parts, Skirts, Kids wear, Sarees, Formal gents wear,
Jackets, Scarf, Hand kerchief.
 Cont.….
2. Household Uses : Bed sheets, Pillow covers, Curtains, Table Cloth, Table mats,
Dish cloth towels, Napkins.

3. Miscellaneous Uses : Handkerchiefs, Scarves.

PROPERTIES COMMON TO ALL CELLULOSE FIBERS
END
Properties of Natural Animal Fibers
(wool and silk)
Wool fiber
 Wool fibers
 Wool is second most important fiber of animal origin. it is keratinous type of
protein base fiber.
 Wool fiber possesses a feature called ‘crimp’, which is permanent wave. and
fine wool are more crimpy.
 Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and other animals, including
cashmere and mohair from goats, qiviut from muskoxen, angora from rabbits,
and other types of wool from came lids.
 Wool mainly consists of protein together with a few percent lipids. Wool
protein is called keratin.

 A peptide bond is a chemical bond formed between two molecules when

the carboxyl group of one molecule reacts with the amino group of the
other molecule, releasing a molecule of water (H2O).
 Manufacturing Process of Wool

Sheep Fleece Skirting a fleece Sorting

Cleaning and Scouring

Carbonizing

Drying

Blending

Winding Spinning Roving Carding

Finishing
Manufacturing Process of Wool
 Felting of Wool

 Felting of wool is the irreversible shrinkage of the length, breadth and/or

thickness of the material.
 It is achieved by subjecting the wool textile material to agitation in
an aqueous solution.
 Whilst it is often an intended process, nevertheless, when it is not,
the tendency for wool to felt is a disadvantage of untreated woolen
articles of
clothing that require frequent laundering.
 When a wet, untreated wool textile material is agitated, as during laundering,
the wool fibers tend to move in a root ward direction.
 In actual fact, the root end of the fiber curls upon itself, causing a mass of
entangled fibers.
 At step 1, the fiber is in its original position.
 At steps 2-6, the fiber curls at the root end, drawing up
the tip end.
 Note that the fiber does not move much outside of
its
distance. Courtesy of reference.
 Felting of wool is significantly enhanced by heat, acid
or alkali.
 Heat will make the wet fiber more elastic and
plastic, easier and more likely to move, and to distort
and entangle itself with other fibers.
 Heat will also cause the fiber to swell more and this
effect is enhanced in acidic or alkali conditions.
 Increased swelling results in more inter-fiber contact
and increased interfiber friction
 Cont.….
Microscopically view of cotton fibers
 Classification of Wool
Classification of Wool By flees :
Different Types of Wool :
1. Normal wool.--------------- ( 6 to 8 years of sheep )
 Fine wool
2. Hagget wool ----------------( 12 to 14 years of sheep)
 Medium Wool 3.Pulled wool -----------------( 15-16 years of sheep)
 Long breeds wool 4. Cotty wool ------------------( very low quality sheep)
 Cross breeds wool 5. Tag lock wool --------------( Discolor sheep )
 Carpet wool 6. Dead wool ----------------- ( Nearly dead sheep)
7.Weather wool --------------( Collecting after one
collection)

Classification of Wool By :
Classification of wool by sheep:
 Marino wool ( First Class wool )
 Class two wool
 Class three wool
 Class four Wool
 Physical Properties of wool

Strength:
1. Wool is the weakest of the natural textile fibers.
2. Wool fiber is strengthened by the used of ply yarns.
3. A hard twisted two ply yarn may be regarded as an assurance of durability.
4. Tightly twisted single yarns also make a strong fabric.

Elasticity:
5. Depending upon the quality of wool, the fiber may be stretched from 25-30
percent of its natural length
2. This characteristic reduces the danger of tearing under tension.
3. This characteristic contributes to the free body movements.
4. The chemical treatment also gives better shape retention
 Cont.…..

Resilience:
1. Wool fiber has a high degree of resilience.
2.Good quality wool is soft & resilient
3.Poor quality wool gives a harsh feeling.
4.Due to the high degree of resiliency,
wool fabric wrinkles less than some
others.
Effect of Heat:
3. Wool becomes harsh at 100˚C & begins to decompose at slightly higher
temperature.
4. It has plastic quality which helps to have shape at melting temperature.
Cont.….
 Chemical Properties:

Wool is a protein fiber and it has some chemical properties. Chemical Properties of
the wool fiber is given below:
 Effects of Acids: Wool is attacked by hot concentrated sulphuric acid and
decomposes completely. It is in general resistant to mineral acids of all strength
even at high temperature though nitric acids tend to cause damage by oxidation.
 Effects of Alkalis: The chemical nature of wool keratin is such that it is
particularly sensitive to alkaline substances. Wool will dissolve in caustic soda
solutions that would have little effects on cotton. Strong alkaline affect on wool
fiber but weak alkaline does not affect wool.
 Cont.….

 Effects of Organic Solvent: Wool does not affect in organic solvents.

 Effects of Insects: Wool affected by insects.

 Effects of Micro Organism: It affected by mildew if it remains

wet for long time.

 Dyeing ability: Wool fiber could be dyed by basic dye, direct dye and

acid dye.
 Uses of wool


Blankets
Clothes

Insulating products
Carpets
Woolen covers
are made for
appliances,
because of the
durability,
water and
flame
resistance
 Cont.….

 Wool is very resilient and its texture allows it to very quickly recover from
crushing or indenting caused by footsteps or furniture. This keeps the rug
looking new and fresh for longer periods of time .
 Wool has a natural ability to resist staining and soiling, a 30% higher rate of
stain resistance than even the best synthetic fibers. This is because of the
natural light lanolin that coats the surface of the wool.
 This coating helps stop dirt and stains from actually penetrating the wool
leaving any soiling on or near the surface. That’s why spills on wool is very
easy to clean.
END
Properties of silk fiber
 Introduction
 Silk is natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textile.
 The protein fiber of silk is mainly composed of fibroin and is produced by
certain insect larvae to form cocoon.
 The best known silk is obtained from cocoons of the larvae mulberry silkworm
bombyx more reared in captivity (sericulture).
 The shimmering appearance of silk is due triangular prism like structure of silk
fiber, which allows the silk cloth to refract incoming light at different angle,
thus producing different color
 Cont.….
 It is also called Queen of fibers
 It is a natural fiber of animal origin.
 Instead of being grown in the form of hair, it is produced by insects in the form
of continuous fine strand of fibers called as a filament to build cocoons.
 There are about 300-400 varieties of moth but only a few are profitable to
collect
Type of silk with silk worms
 The silk is obtained from the cocoons of certain caterpillars (larvae), they build
cocoons to protect themselves
a) Cultivated silk spun by bombyx mori silkworm
b) Wild silk spun by certain wild species of silk worm
Cont.….
 Cont.….
 Eggs are kept in hatching shed, which is closely regulated at 80 degree
faranite for about 8 to 10 days
 Finally tiny eggs are hatched in to larvae (caterpillars). At this point the
larva is about quarter of an inch
 Cont.
….
 Feeding period: once hatched, the larvae are placed in huge trays and fed
huge amount of chopped mulberry tree leaves
 Cont.….
 A second pair of glands near by secretes
a gummy binding fluid called sericin
 which binds two filaments (fibrions)
together steadily over the next 3 to 4
 days
the , rotate its body into a
silkworm fig a movement over some
300000
constructing a cocoon
times and producing about a
mile of silk filament
Cont.….
Cont.…
Cont.…
Cont.
….
Cont.….
Cont.….
Cont.…
Cont.….
Cont.…..
Cont.…..
Cont.….
Cont.….
Cont.…..
Cont.…..
Cont.……
 Applications of silk fiber :

➢ Home textile

Decorative curtains

Upholstery

Silk throws and pillows
➢ Apparel textile

Silk sarees

Decorative outerwear
➢ Medical textile

Absorbent pad

Wound contact layer
END
Properties of Mineral fiber
(Asbestos)
 Mineral fiber
 The only naturally occurring of mineral fiber – Asbestos
 Asbestos fibers are silicate compound which contain silicon and oxygen in
their molecular structure.
 The crystal in these fibers forms a long, thin and flexible fiber when separated
 Cont.….
Properties of Asbestos fiber
 Resistance to fire or inflammable
 Poor thermal and heat conductor
 High tensile strength and flexible
 Insoluble in water
 their colors depend on the types and the composition of the asbestos which is
depends on the amount of iron.
Properties of asbestos fiber composite
The mechanical properties depends on;
i)The orientation of the fiber In axial orientation, the composite shows the higher
tensile strength while in radial orientation, the composite shows the higher
compressive strength
ii) The percentage of fiber mass fraction The increase in the volume of fiber,
increase the impact resistance of the polymer
Processing and extraction of asbestos fiber
1st step - Mining process – open-pit mining
extracts the rock or minerals from the earth by remove it from an open
pit or borrow.

2nd step - Milling process

 extraction of the fiber from the ore
 separation and degradation of fiber according to its length

Dry milling Wet milling

The fiber extraction were done by The asbestos is dispersed through
crushing the ore using different series of the water and not being dried until
crushing machine and pass to vacuum the separation process of fiber
aspiration on a vibrating screen was completed
 Application of asbestos fiber
 Used in making fireproof materials and also insulation products (thermal and
electrical)
 Widely used for the fabrication of papers and felts for flooring and roofing
products.
 Develop products for the automotive, electronic, and printing industries.
 Cont.…..
Asbestos Hazard :
 Asbestos fibers come out of the fabric, float in air and if inhaled,
they get fixed in the lungs causing respiratory problems and cancer.
Due to this possible health hazard, nowadays asbestos is not so
widely used. Many countries have even banned its use.
Important properties of fibers: polyester, nylon,
acrylic, spandex, viscose rayon
 SPINNING METHODS
MELT SPINNING
 In melt spinning, the fiber-forming substance is melted for extrusion
through the spinneret and then directly solidified by cooling in an air
stream

Key requirements: Ease of melting,

melt stability and optimum melt
viscosity

Examples: Nylon, Polyester

 Cont.…..

WET SPINNING

Example: Viscose rayon

DRY SPINNING
Key requirements: Polymer solubility &
Examples: Acetate, Acrylic solution viscosity
properties of viscose Rayon-
Regenerated cellulosic
fiber
 Viscose Rayon
 Viscose Rayon is the oldest commercial man-made fiber.
 Viscose rayon is the naturally regenerated cellulosic fiber that can be made
from naturally occurring cellulosic based material. (such as cotton linters,
wood pulp etc.).
 It can be found in cotton-like end uses as well as silk-like end uses. Due to its
fine silk-like properties, it is also known as “Artificial Silk
Viscose rayon fiber manufacturing process
Cont.….
Cont.….
Cont.…..
Cont.…..
Cont.….
Cont.….
Cont.….
Cont.
….
Cont.
….
Properties of synthetics fiber (polyester,
Nylon, Acrylics and Spandex)
 Polyester fiber
 Polyester is a chemical term which can be broken into poly, meaning many, and
ester, a basic organic chemical compound.
 Polyester is a man made synthetic fiber
 This fiber is synthetic textile fiber of high polymers which are obtained by
esterification of dicarboxylic acids, with glycols or by ester exchange reactions
between dicarboxylic acid esters and glycols.
 Properties of polyester fiber
Macro structure of polyester
 Length: It can be made in both staple and filament form.
 Fiber diameter: 12 to 25 mm
 Length width ratio: 2000:1
 Appearance: Smooth
 Color: Generally white
 Cross section: Generally have round cross section but may be triangle, oval
and rectangle shaped

Cross-sectional view
Longitudinal view  Circular
Structure less, uniform diameter, rod-like
appearance
 Cont.….
Physical properties of polyester
 Shape: Controlled by manufacturers
 Luster: Controlled from semi bright to dull.
 Specific gravity: 1.38 g/cm
 Moisture Regain: 0 to 0.4% at standard condition due to having extremely
crystallinity and lack of polarity.
 Tenacity (dry/wet): 7-8 gm/denier for high tenacity filament,
4.5-5.5 gm/denier for normal tenacity filament and 3.5-4 gm/denier for staple
fibers
 Elongation: 8-11% for high tenacity, 15-30% for medium tenacity and 25-45%
for staple fiber
 Bending recovery: Good
 Elasticity : Good
 Abrasion resistance: Not good. Abrasion resistance of normal polyester is less
than that of high tenacity one.
 Resiliency: very good.
 Cont.…
Chemical properties polyester
1.Effects of moisture: Polyester absorbs only a very small amount of
moisture and the tenacity and elongation are unaffected by moisture.
2. Effects of bleaches: Not affected by oxidizing and reducing bleaches.
3.Effects of acids: Polyester fibers are highly resistant to mineral and
organic acids. Weak acid can not effect on them even on boiling. Strong
mineral acid such as H2SO4 can only hydrolyze them on boiling for hours
together.
4.Effects of alkali: Polyester is very much resistant to alkalis. Only strong
hot alkalis results in a slow thinning of the diameter by saponification.
5. Effects of organic solvents: Resistant to all dry cleaning solvents.
6. Dye ability: Disperse dye and some pigments can be used for coloration.
7. Effects of sunlight: Have good resistance to sunlight but becomes weak
when expose in sunlight for long time.
 Cont.…
Thermal properties of Polyester
 Polyester fiber is the most thermally stable synthetic fiber. If heat
setting is not done properly then shrinkage occurs. At high
temperature polyester melts and burns.
 Softening temperature: 69oc
 Melting temperature: 250-265oc
 Sticking temperature: 230-240oc
 Ironing temperature: 135oc
Biological properties of Polyester
 Polyesters have good resistance against micro organisms, larvae,
fungi, mildew and moulds.
 uses of Polyester
1. As apparel: Men’s wear, women’s wear, children’s wear, trousers, skirts,
suits, jackets, blouses and every form of clothing are made by polyester
fibers.
2.As blended fabrics: Polyesters are widely used in blends with cotton,
wool, acrylic, nylon etc. fibers for making quality fabrics. Blends with cotton
and virgin wool are very popular. They are often referred to as the "classical
blend". This is normally a combination of 55% polyester and 45% wool.
3. As home furnishings: Carpets, curtains, draperies, sheets, pillow covers,
wall coverings, upholstery etc. are made of polyester fibers.
4.As industrial use: Polyester fibers are used in manufacturing of tire cord,
power belt, ropes, tarpaulin, nets, hoses, conveyor belt etc. It is also used in
making floppy disk, liners etc.
 Use of polyester higher than any other synthetic fiber
• This is due to low cost, more durable, no fading, easy care, no ironing.
Properties of Nylon fiber
 Nylon fiber
 Nylon was the first synthetic fiber made by man with out using any natural
materials.
 Nylon is a generic designation for a family of synthetic polymers known as
polyamides
 The nylons are generally tough, strong, durable fiber useful in wide range of
textile applications.
 In nylon the repeating units contain chain of carbon atoms.
 There are various types of nylon depending on the nature of those chains.
 Examples Nylon-6 and Nylon-6,6
Cont.…..
Cont.
….
Cont.….
 Cont.……
Nylon 6
 Also known as polycaprolactam.
 It is a semi crystalline polyamide.
 Unlike most other nylons, nylon 6 is not formed by condensation polymer,
but instead is formed by ring-opening polymerization.
 Cont.….
Properties of Nylon 6
 Nylon 6 fibers are tough, possessing high tensile strength, as well as elasticity
and luster.
 They are wrinkle proof and highly resistant to abrasion and chemicals such as
acids and alkalis.
 The fibers can absorb up to 2.4% of water, although this lowers
tensile strength.
 The glass transition temperature of Nylon 6 is 47 °C.
 As a synthetic fiber, Nylon 6 is generally white but can be dyed to in a solution
bath prior to production for different color results.
 Its tenacity is between 6 and 8.5 gm/den with a density of 1.14 gm/cc.
 Its melting point is at 215 °C and can protect heat up to 150 °C on
average.
 Cont.…..
Application of Nylon 6
 Nylon 6 is widely used for gears, fittings, and bearings, in
automotive industry for various parts, and as a material for power
tools housings.
 it is used as thread in bristles for toothbrushes, surgical sutures, and
strings for acoustic and classical musical instruments, including
guitars, sitars, violins, violas, and cellos.
 It is also used in the manufacture of a large variety of threads,
ropes, filaments, nets, and tire cords, as well as hosiery and knitted
garments.
 It can also be used in gun frames, such as those used by Glock,
which are made with a composite of Nylon 6 and other polymers.
 Cont.….
Nylon 6,6
 Nylon 6,6 is a type of polyamide or nylon.
 Nylons come in many types, and the two most common for textile and
plastics industries are nylon 6 and nylon 6,6.
 Nylon 6,6 is a linear condensation polymer made of two monomers each
containing 6 carbon atoms, hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid, which
give nylon 6,6 its name.
 Cont.….
Properties of Nylon 6,6
 Shape: Controlled by manufacturers
 Luster: Bright to Dull
 Strength: 5.0-8.8
 Elongation: Good
 Elasticity: 100%
 Density: 1.1g/cm
 Moisture: 4%
 Dimensional stability: Excellent
 Resistance to acids: resistance is
poor
 Alkalis: moderate
 Sunlight: Generally affects
 Insects: Normally damages
 To heat: Self extinguishing
 Cont.……
Applications of nylon 6,6
 Nylon 6,6 is used in fibers for textiles and carpets and molded
parts.
 It is also used in airbags, apparel, and for carpet fibers.
 It is used to make 3D structural objects by injection molding
which is used in auto application such as radiator end tanks,
rocker covers, air intake manifolds, oil pans and numerous
other structural parts such as ball bearing cages and electro-
insulating elements.
 Nylon 6,6 is also a popular guitar nut material.
 Nylon 6,6, especially glass fiber grades can be effectively
fire retarded with halogen free products.
 Uses of Nylon
 Articles made from nylon, such as socks, ropes, tents, toothbrushes,
car seatbelts, sleeping bags, curtains and umbrellas etc.

 It is used for making fabrics in textile industry

 Nylon is a high strength fiber. It is used for making fishing nets,

ropes,parachutes and type cords.
 Cont.…..
General Characteristics of nylon fiber
 Functional group is amide.
 Light in weight.
 Incredible tensile strength.
 Great stretch ability.
 Varies in luster.
 Durable and elastic.
 Easy to wash and can dye.
 High resistance to insects, fungi and chemicals.
 Abrasion resistance.
 Melts instead of burning.
 Cont.
…..
Modern use of nylon
 Clothing: footwear, Velcro, carpet fiber.
 Auto-parts: petrol tanks, gears, bearing.
 Abseiling gears: sling and ropes.
 Sports items: basketball netting, racquet strings, fishing lines.
 Strings: musical instruments.
 Medical equipment: filtering media in sterilizing and sutures.
Properties of Acrylic Fibers
 Acrylic Fiber
 Acrylic fibers are formed from copolymers containing greater than 85%
acrylonitrile monomer units, whereas mod acrylic fibers contain 35%–85%
acrylonitrile units.
 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN):- Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) is a synthetic, semi crystalline
organic polymer resin, with the linear formula (C3H3N)n.
 Cont.…….
Microscopic view of acrylic fibers

Longitudinal View Cross-Sectional View

Smooth surface, uniform
diameter, rod-like • Rounded or Dumbbell
appearance, some types shaped
with
irregularly spaced
striations
 Properties of Acrylic Fibers
 Acrylic has a warm and dry hand like wool. Its density is 1.17 g/cc as
compared to 1.32 g/cc of wool. It is about 30% bulkier than wool. It
has about 20% greater insulating power than wool.
 Acrylic has a moisture regain of 1.5-2% at 65% RH and 70 deg F.
 It has a tenacity of 5 gpd in dry state and 4-8 gpd in wet state.
 Breaking elongation is 15% ( both states)
 It has a elastic recovery of 85% after 4% extension when the load is
released immediately.
 It has a good thermal stability. When exposed to temperatures
above 175 deg C for prolonged periods some discolouration takes
place.
 Acrylic shrinks by about 1.5% when treated with boiling water for
30 min
 Cont.…..
 It has a good resistance to mineral acids. The resistance to weak
alkalis is fairly good, while hot strong alkalis rapidly attack acrylic.
 Moths, Mildew and insects do not attack Acrylic.
 It has an outstanding stability towards commonly
bleaching
agents.
 Outstanding wick ability & quick drying to move moisture from
 body surfaceaesthetics for wool-like, cotton- or blended
Flexible
like, appearance
 Easily washed, retains shape
 Dye able to bright shades with excellent fastness
 Superior resistance to sunlight degradation
 Advantage of acrylic fibers
 Due to its wicking ability and other characteristics, the fabric
designers all over world are opting acrylic fabrics for manufacturing
garments for all seasons.
 Not only, the acrylic fabrics are high in performance but also they
have a luxurious feel and they also drape very well.
 They are lightweight but have more bulk. This is due to their quality
of lower specific gravity.
 They are comfortable to wear due to high moisture management.
 Dyes can be easily applied to them and they are colorfast.
 They are odor and mildew resistant too.
 In cold weather acrylics provide excellent insulation and warmth
without any extra weight.
 Uses of Acrylic Fiber

 Socks, hats, gloves, scarves, knit

garments, sweaters, Coats Blankets and
shoe soles
 Home furnishing fabrics: carpets and
rugs
Properties of Spandex fiber
 Spandex fiber
 Polyurethane is spandex. Polyurethanes are called
polyurethanes because in their backbones they have a urethane linkage

 Spandex or elastin is a synthetic fiber known for its exceptional elasticity

 spandex fibers are manufactured in four different ways- melt
extrusion, reaction spinning, solution dry spinning, and solution wet spinning
 Properties of Spandex fiber
 Can be stretched to almost 500% of its length.
 Lightweight, soft, smooth, supple and more durable
 Can be easily dyed and they also resist damage by body oils,
perspiration, lotions or detergents
 No damage from "needle cutting“
 Abrasion resistant
 Can be found in both, clear and opaque lusters
 Cont.….
Physical properties of spandex fiber
1. cross section : spandex filaments are extruded usually from circular
orifices
2. Density: the density of spandex filaments ranges from 1.15 to 1.32
g/cc, the fibers lower density being based on the raw materials
(polyester)
3. Moisture regain: the moisture of fibers from which the surface
finish has been removed lies between 0.8 and 1.2%
4. Length :it can be of any length. May be used as filaments or staple
length
5. Color: it has white or nearly white color
6. Luster: it has usually dull luster
7. Strength: low strength compared to the most other synthetics fiber
8. Elasticity : elastic properties are excellent. This is the outstanding
characteristics of the fiber
9. Heat : the heat resistance varies considerably amongst different
degrades over 300 F
 Cont.….
Chemical properties of spandex fibers
 Acid: good resistance to most of acids unless exposure is over
24 hours
 Alkalis: good resistance to most of the alkalis
 Organic solvents : offer resistance to dry cleaning solvents
 Bleaches : can be degraded by sodium hypo chloride
 Dyeing: a full range of colors is available. Some types are more
difficult to dye than others
 Uses of Spandex

 Fashion wear: Such

fashion wear readily
adapts to your body
shape, and leaves you
brimmingwith
confidence.
 exercise apparel
 swimsuits
 socks
 underwear
 surgical hose
 support hose
 motion capture suits
 Home furnishings
End