Comprehensive Viva

As a textile engineer we have to know about the below topics:
 About textile fiber

 About fiber identification
 About yarn
 About the identification of warp and weft yarn
 About count
 About GSM
 About Apparel
 History of apparel industry
 Garments washing
 Fabric inspection
 Difference or properties of woven and knit fabric.
 About dye (Reactive, Direct, Disperse, Azoic, Sulphur, Vat, Acid , Basic dye)and their
application/ process
 About printing and printing process
 Function of wet processing ingredients
©By Abdur Razzak 1

Table of Contents
Textile Fiber ........................................................................................................ 3
Yarn .................................................................................................................... 9
GSM Measurement ........................................................................................... 15
Apparel ............................................................................................................. 16
Garments washing ............................................................................................ 26
Fabric inspection............................................................................................... 31
Fabric ................................................................................................................ 33
Dyeing .............................................................................................................. 35
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Textile Fiber
What is Textile?
According to old concept textile means “to weave” but according to modern concept textile
means everything that means weaving, knitting, dyeing, printing, spinning etc.
Fiber:
Fiber is a soft, flexible material that length will be thousands time higher than its diameter.
Generally fibers are used as a raw material of yarn. Sometimes fabric is directly produced from
fiber.
For example: Cotton, Jute, Silk, Wool, Polyester, Nylon, and Acrylic.
Textile fiber properties:
To be a textile fiber the fiber should have some features such as:
1. Certain length
2. Certain strength
3. Certain fineness
4. Crimp
Classification of textile fiber:
1. Natural fiber
2. Manmade/Synthetic fiber
Natural fiber:
1. Seed fiber(cotton & kapok)
2. Bast fiber(jute, flax)
3. Leaf fiber(sisal, hemp)
4. Animal fiber(wool, silk, camel, alpaca)
5. Fruit fiber(coir, coconut)
6. Mineral fiber(asbestose)
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Manmade/Synthetic fiber:
1. Semi synthetic fiber(viscose, rayon)
2. 100% or fully synthetic fiber
100% or fully synthetic fiber:
1. Polyester fiber
2. Polyamide fiber(nylon)
3. Acrylic fiber
4. Spandex fiber
What is spinning?
Spinning is a process by which plant, animal or synthetic fibers are twisted together to form
yarn.
Classification of cotton according to staple length:
Staple length (26-65mm): Including the fine lustrous fiber.
Example: Sea Island, Egyptian, American etc.
Staple length (12-33mm): Including medium strength & medium luster cotton.
Example: American upland
Staple length (9-26mm): Including coarse & low grade fibers.
Example: Bangladeshi, Indian etc.
Why cotton fiber strength increase due to wetting?
Cotton fiber strength greatly affected by moisture. Wet strength of cotton is 20% which is
higher than dry strength of cotton. So more wet more strength of cotton.
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Physical properties of cotton:
 Elongation: Cotton does not stretch easily. Its elongation (5-10%).

 Elasticity: (2-5%)
 Strength: 6 CN/Tex
 Effect of moisture: It has a regain of 8.5% & water absorbency (25-27%).
Chemical properties of cotton:
 Effect of acid: Cotton is attacked by hot dilute acids.

 Effect of alkalis: Cotton has an excellent resistance to alkalis
 Effect of micro- organism: Cotton is attacked by fungi & bacteria.
Chemical composition of cotton:
 Cellulose: 96%
 Pectin: 1.2%
 Moisture: 8.5%
 Wax/gum: 1.3%
What is the mechanism of cellulosic fiber?
 Primary wall: Primary wall is an outer protective layer & it contains wax, protein,
pectin as well as cellulose.
 Secondary wall: Secondary wall is almost full of pure cellulose at least 94%.
 Lumen: Lumen is a liquid and gummy substance. A mature cotton fiber has some little
lumen at the center.
Wool fiber: Wool is a protein fiber which collects from sheep, camel etc. Wool has natural
crimp & heat resistance properties. Shoulder provides the best wool.
Physical properties of wool:
 Elasticity: Good
 Moisture regain: It has a regain of 16%.
Chemical properties of wool:
 Effect of acid: Wool has an excellent resistance to acid.

 Effect of alkalis: Completely decomposed by alkalis.
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Silk: It is also a protein fiber which is collect from the cocoon of silk worm. Silk alive by eating
mulberry tree.
Physical properties of silk:
 Elongation: Its elongation (20-25%).

 Elasticity: (3-4%)
 Strength: (30-40) CN/Tex
 Effect of moisture: It has a regain of 11%.
Chemical properties of silk:
 Effect of acid: Decomposed slowly by acids.

 Effect of alkalis: Completely decomposed by alkalis.
 Effect of sunlight: Strength loss.
Spandex/Lycra: Spandex is a stretchy synthetic fiber or fabric known for its exceptional
elasticity because it can be stretched 4-5 times from its original length and also it can come
back to its original length after being released tension. It is strong, but less durable. This is
made from polyurethane polymer. Used especially for close-fitting sports clothing.Lycra its
brand name.
Acrylic fiber: Acrylic is a synthetic fiber which fiber forming substance is very long chain poly-
acrylonitrile polymer which consists of 85% acrylonitrile monomer and 15% co-polymer. Mainly
used into knit jersey, carpets, sweater etc.
What is polyester? Tell me its trade name?
Poly means “many” ester means “organic salt”. That means polyester means “many organic
salt”. It is usually composed of polyethylene terephthalate polymers (PET). Its trade name is
Dacron, Tetoron etc.
Physical properties of polyester:
 Plastic nature: Polyester filament is plastic as they elastic.

 Hygroscopic nature: Polyester filament are hydrophobic because lack of polarity &
extreme crystalline structure.
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Chemical properties of polyester:
 Effect of bleaches: Not required bleaching if required so that is done by using sodium
chlorite.
 Dye ability: It is very difficult to penetrate dye molecules into the extreme crystalline
polymer. Disperse dyes are used to dye polyester fibers.
 Flammability: Burn slowly.
What is viscose: Viscose is a regenerated cellulosic filament fiber. Its solution is thick like
honey.
What is regenerated fiber: The fiber which we get by regeneration from its main origin?
Example: Viscose, Acetate, Wool, Silk, Rubber etc.
Viscose can be dissolve by (35-60)% formic acid, Residue like soft ash, smell like paper or wood
burn.
Tell me something about nylon fiber?
Nylon is a thermoplastic & first manmade organic textile fiber. Its forming substance is very
long chain polyamide.
What is cellulose?
It is a gummy substance which is present in cellulosic fiber like cotton, jute, flax etc. Here are
two types of cellulose such as pectin which is present is cotton and lignin which is present is
jute.
Micronaire value: The average weight of 1 inch length of fiber. It is a measure of fiber fineness
and maturity. An airflow instrument is used to measure to micronaire value. A micronaire of 3
or below is considered high micronaire and mature fiber.
Staple fiber: The fiber which has definite length like cotton.
Filament fiber: The fiber which has indefinite length like polyester.
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How can we identify fiber?
I. Burn test: Here we will identify the fiber sample by burning which help us to find out
that the fiber or yarn is 100% cotton, wool, polyester and acrylic or not.
II. Solubility test: Here we will identify the fiber sample by chemical treatment by using
different type of chemical which help us to find out that the fiber or yarn is 100%
cotton, wool, polyester and acrylic or not.
Explain the solubility of fiber and their color, smell?
Fiber Name Chemical Color Smell

Cotton/viscose (70-35)% S Grey Paper burn
Wool/Silk 5% OCL Greyish Hair skin burn
Nylon 20% HCL White Plastic burn
Polyester 100% Meta- White Plastic burn
Cresol
Acrylic/Spandex 100% Di-methyl Grey Light skin burn
form amide
Acetate 100% Acetate Grey Like chemical
acid
Moisture Regain of Fibers:
Fibre name Moisture Regain (%)
Cotton 8.5
Silk 11
Wool 16
Viscose Rayon 13
Acetate fibre 6.5
Nylon6, 6.6 4
Acrylic fibre 1-2
Polyester(PET) fibre 0.4
Jute 13.75
Flax and hemp 12.75
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Yarn
Yarn: Yarn is a product which has substantial length & relatively small cross section consisting
of fibers or filaments with or without twist.
Yarn count: Count is a numerical value by which we can define that how fine and coarse the
yarn is?
Two types of count;
 Direct system (Mass per unit length here length is fixed)

 In-direct system (Length per unit mass here weight is fixed)
Direct system count calculating formula:
N=
Example: Tex, denier, jute.
In-direct system count calculating formula:
N=
Example: Cotton (Ne), Metric (Nm), Worsted count.
What is Unit of Length & Weight (mass) in direct counting system?
Name of the System Unit of mass Unit of length
Tex Gm. Km
Denier Gm. 9km
Jute Pound(lb.) 14,400 yards (spindle)
What is Unit of Length & Weight (mass) in indirect counting system?
Name of the System Unit of length Unit of mass
Cotton (British or English) 840 yards(hank) Pound(lb.)
Metric 1Km 1Kg
Worsted 560 yards (hank) Pound (lb.)
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Count conversion:
For direct to direct system:
We know that for Direct to Direct system,
Unknown count Unit mass/ Unit length Given count Unit mass/ Unit length
Example:
Denier 1gm/9km Tex 1gm/1km
Denier Tex 1gm 9km/ 1gm 1km
Denier 9 Tex
For Indirect to Indirect system:
We know that for Indirect to Indirect system,
Unknown count Unit length/ Unit mass Given count Unit length/ Unit mass
Direct to Indirect system:
We know that for Direct to Indirect system,
Unknown count Unit mass/ Unit length 1/Given count Unit length/ Unit mass
Denier =
Tex =
Type of yarn according to length:
 Spun yarn: After twisting staple fiber which length we will get is called spun length.
 Filament yarn: It has indefinite length.
As a textile engineer you have to know some common units:
Units are given below;
1kg = 1000gm, 1lb = 453.6gm, 1km = 1000m, 1m = 1.0936yds, 1yds = 0.9144m, 16 ounces = 1lb,
1lb = 7000grains, 1 ounce = 437.5 grains, 1 gallon = 4.5 litter, 1kg = 2.204 lb.
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FLOW CHART FOR CARDED YARN
Input Process Function of M/C Output
Row cotton Blow Room To open the baled fiber into small tuft Lap
Lap Carding Individualized the fiber Card sliver
Card sliver Breaker Draw frame Straighten the fiber Drawn sliver
Drawn sliver Finisher Draw frame Improve fiber uniformity Drawn sliver
Drawn sliver Simplex Make thinner of drawn sliver & insert Roving
small amount of twist into roving
Roving Ring frame Draft the roving, twisted the drafted Yarn(cone)
strand & winding the yarn
Yarn(cone) Finishing Remove dirt Yarn

(package)
FLOW CHART FOR COMBED YARN
Input Process Output
Row cotton Blow room Lap
Lap Carding Card sliver
Card sliver Pre Comb. Drawing Pre Drawn sliver
Pre Drawn sliver Lap former Lap
Lap Comber Combed sliver
Combed sliver Post Comb. Drawing Post Comb. Sliver
Post Comb. Simplex Roving

Sliver
Roving Ring Frame Combed Yarn
Combed Yarn Cone Winding Yarn

Flow process of rotor yarn:
Fiber
Blow room
Carding
Drawing(Draw
frame-1,2)
Rotor spinning
Some important definition is given below:
Lap: Lap is a compress layer or sheet of cotton, wool etc.
Sliver: Sliver is a loose, untwisted fibers produce in carding.
Roving: Roving is a collection of relatively fine fibrous strand used in the final process of
spinning.
Ginning: Ginning is a process for separating the seed from the cotton fiber.
Lint: Row cotton after ginning is called lint.
Linters: Row cotton still attached to the seed after ginning is called linters.
Importance of row cotton
 Row cotton represents at least (50-75) % manufacturing cost.

 And accounts for (80-90) % of the yarn quality.
Carding:
It’s the heart of spinning process by which individualization of fiber is done also remove dirt,
dust, neps etc.

What is combing?
Combing is a process by which we can separate short fiber below a pre-determined length. Its
main objective is to straighten/parallelization of the fiber.
Why we remove short fiber by comber machine?

The short fibers are removed because it can cause thick and uneven surface in the yarn as a
result it produces more hairiness.
What do you mean by hook fiber?

The undesirable bending of a fiber end is called hook fiber. It can be happen in carding machine
during web formation. It reduces the long fiber length. We can remove it by comber and draw
frame machine.
What do you mean by noil fiber?

The short fiber extracted during the combing action is known as noil. Noil percentage (10-20) %.
What is draft?
Draft is a process by which we can reduce the weight per unit length of sliver and make it
suitable for ring spinning system.
Brand name of cotton fiber:
Brand name Country
Pima USA
Raja CIS
Giza Egypt
Andy Australia
SUV in India
Delta Bangladesh

What is carded & combed yarn?
After combing which yarn we get is called combed yarn. There is no neps, hairiness, fault etc.
High quality yarn.
On the other hand carded is low quality yarn because it contains neps, hairiness etc.
Difference between Z & S twists yarn?
Middle portion of yarn look like the letter of Z is called Z-twist produce by ring spinning
machine. Yarn quality is high.
Middle portion of yarn look like the letter of S is called S-twist produce by rotor spinning
machine. Yarn quality is low.
What do you mean by 30, 40, 50,60,70,75 denier?
Weight of 9000 meter yarn is equal to (30, 40, 50, 60, 70, and 75) gm.
What do you mean by 30, 40, 50,60,70,75 Tex?
Weight of 1000 meter yarn is equal to (30, 40, 50, 60, 70, and 75) gm.
What do you mean by 30, 40, 50,60,70,75 Ne (Cotton count)?
Weight of (30, 40, 50, 60, 70, and 75) hank (840 yards) yarn is equal to 1 pound.
Yarn fault:
 Slub
 Hairiness
 Uneven
 Neps

GSM Measurement
What do you mean by GSM measurement?
GSM is a measurement of fabric weight. GSM means Gram per Square Meter that means
weight of one square meter fabric in gram. GSM is measured by GSM cutter by following
equation;
 GSM Sample weight Diameter constant
Here, diameter constant depends on the diameter of GSM cutter. Its formula is given below;
 Diameter constant
 For knitted fabric GSM x 0.91

 For Woven fabric GSM
How we can calculate below term?
Wales per inch: At first we will take a 10 inch fabric. Then unraveling the yarn and divided the
total yarn by 10 inch. So finally we get the wales per inch.
Course per inch: At first we will take a 5 inch fabric. Then unraveling the yarn and divided the
total yarn by 5 inch. So finally we get the course per inch.
Picks per inch: The number of weft threads per inch.
Ends per inch: The number of warp threads per inch.
What is stitch length? When we will straight a total loop then which length we will get this
length is called stitch length. Its unit is mm.
How can we identify warp and weft threads of a fabric?
 The direction of selvedge is wrap direction.

 In most cases EPI is more than PPI.
 Warp yarn is finer than weft yarn.
 Warp yarn contains size particle and relatively hairy.
 Weft yarns crimp percentage is more than warp.

Apparel
Apparel Manufacturing: The process by which we can produce apparel.
What is the history of apparel industry in Bangladesh?
 In 1960 Riaz garments established which export only local garments. But in 1973 it
changed its name to Riaz Garments Ltd. & started to export by selling 10,000 pieces of
shirt to France.
 In 1979 Desh garments Ltd. establish which the first joint venture industry in
Bangladesh.
 In 1980, Young one (49%) & trexim (51%) equity formed a company named young one
Bangladesh which exported padded & non padded jackets to Sweden.
 In 1982 there were only 47 apparel industries.
 But 1984-85 there were 587, & 1999 there were 2900 apparel industry in the country.
 Now the number of apparel industry in Bangladesh is 6,600.
 Average growth rate of garment export is 22%.
What is the difference between textile and garments?
Textile meaning everything relating to fabric.
Garments: Garments refer to the product which generally wears that means it covers/protect
human-body.
Clothing: Clothing refers to the finish piece of fabric that can be used for the purpose of body or
bed.
Sewing: Sewing is a process by which we can join the fabric by the use of needle and thread. Its
main purpose is to produce seam.
Seam: Seam is a line of joining fabric or a stitch line where fabrics are joined together which is
done by various fabric arrangements.
Properties of a good seam:
 Smooth fabric joints.

 Even stitches.
 Stitch should be in required areas.
 Stitch variation is not allowed.
 Achievement of strength, elasticity, Durability, security and comfort.

Seam types: We have 8 types of seam.
Stitch types: We have six types of stitch that are given below;
Stitch class-100(Single thread chain stitch)
Stitch class-200(Hand stitch)
Stitch Stitch class-300(Lock stitch)
Stitch class-400(Multi-thread chain stitch)
Stitch class-500(Over edge stitch)

Sewing problem:
Stitch class-600(Covering chain stitch)
 Open seam
 Broken stitch
 Skip stitch
 Seam pucker(Wrinkle appearance on the seam line)

What are the garments manufacturing sequence?
Idea generation
Design / Sketching
Pattern Design
Sample Making
↓
Production Pattern
Grading
Marker Making
Spreading
Cutting
Sewing
Finishing
Final Inspection
Packing & delivery

Pattern: Pattern is a hard paper is which we draw different parts of a garment according to its
measurement. It also include seam allowance, trimming allowance, dirt’s, and pleats. Pattern is
used to cut fabric.
Two types of pattern:

1) Block pattern: Block pattern indicates the original pattern. It is made on the basis of
standard body measurement without any design or style.
2) Working pattern: Working pattern is derived from the flat or modeling methods with
sewing, trimming, design & style.
Some important definition related to pattern making that is given below;
 Darts: Darts means to eliminate excessive fabric in a pattern so that it can be formed
into 3 dimensional.
 Grain line: Pattern pieces normally carry a line is called grain line. It can be length wise
direction or parallel to the warp or wale which determined by the designer.
 Drill holes: Drill holes are small holes into the pattern especially in pocket which
indicate the other components should be superimposed.
 Notches: Notches are cut into the pattern which indicate a point that the other
garment component to be jointed together.
How can we make a pattern by digitizing system?

 At first a base pattern must be digitized in the system & select each corner of the
pattern. After this the line of the pattern will be show on the screen. Finally we get the
pattern.
To make a pattern which instruction you have to maintain?

 Name of the pattern (Sleeve)
 Style( 2637)
 Size( M)
 Grain direction( )
 Balance mark( After sewing the exact length of the pattern)
 Seam allowance( The line of joining of fabric)

Marker making: Marker is a thin paper in which all the pattern pieces are arranged so that
we can get different size garments with minimum fabric wastage. Generally marker is placed on
the fabric which will be cut for sewing. We have 8 types of marker.
Objectives of marker making:
 Marker is used as a cutting guide for fabric.

 Reduced fabric wastage by using marker.
 It saves time and cost.
What is marker efficiency?
Marker efficiency is the ratio between the area covered by pattern pieces in the marker & the
total area of the marker paper. It is expressed by %. Marker efficiency may be (80-85) % and its
length may be (400-750) cm.
Tell me the factors which influencing marker efficiency?
 Marker length: More length more marker efficiency.

 Fabric characteristics: Usually symmetrical fabric provides higher marker efficiency
than non- symmetrical fabric.
 Size of the garments: Smaller & larger size of the garment lead to less marker efficiency
& medium size of the garment gives higher efficiency.
 Marker width: More width more marker efficiency because easier to marker plan.
What are marker mode/ planning?
Marker mode is determined by the symmetry & directionality of fabric.
There are four type of marker mode.
I. Nap-either-way: In this way just maintaining grain line.

II. Nap-one-way: In this way just maintaining one direction.
III. Nap-up & down way: In this way one side can be place on the marker in one direction &
another side placed in opposed direction.
IV. Group way: In this way just maintaining side to side direction that means the garment
are laid together.
What will be the lay height of a fabric?
Normally height of the lay/fabric is limited up to maximum six inches high. But 4 inch to 5 inch
height of the lay is safe. Which depends on thickness of fabric? Single jersey fabric ply is ( 100-
120), rib & double jersey is (50-60).

Interlining: Interlining is a layer of fabric inserted between the two layers of a garment. It is
also considered as an accessory.
Why we use interlining?
 To retain actual shape of the garments components.

 To make the garments beautiful, strong & attractive.
 To get better hand feel & performance.
What is lining?
It is the outer layer of garments which is used into back moon, water proof jacket etc.
Why polyester coated interlining is ideal interlining?
 It is both that means dry cleanable & water washable.

 This type of resin can be applied in all kinds of fabric.
What should be the required time, temperature & pressure for fusing?
 Time: Fusing time should be control between (5-20) s.

 Temperature: Temperature should be maintained between (150-175) .
 Pressure: Pressure should be uniform & sufficient during fusing.
Why polyester fiber thread is ideal than cotton?
Polyester is generally strong, durable, and colorfast because it is made from filament but it has
a problem that is, this thread is not soft so there is a change to tear the fabric. On the other
hand cotton thread is soft but not so strong if we compare with polyester because it is made
from spun yarn.
Merchandising:
Garments merchandising means buying raw materials, accessories, producing garments,

maintaining required quality and exporting the product within schedule time.
The person who is related in merchandising is called merchandiser who handles the foreign
buyers and acts as a seller.
Finally we can say that merchandisers are the bridge between industry and the buyers.

Flow chart of merchandising:
Contact with buyer (Collect news from EPB)
Receive enquiry sheet (Where indicate target price, measurement, what type of goods he/she
wants etc.)
Sample develop
Consumption of material
Costing of material with CM (Price coding)
Negotiate with buyer
Order sheet receive (Where all information should be include such as color, size, carton,
measurement, amount of garments etc.)
Receive master L/C
Booking fabric and accessories
Open back to back L/C (Booking fabric and accessories with the help of master L/C maximum
70%)
Sample approving
Receive fabric and accessories
Swatch card making and approval (Where we will attach all garments sample so that every
sector can use same goods)
Approval for bulk production
Pre-production meeting (PPM) [Where 4 person should be present PM, merchandiser, buyer,
Quality person]
Start bulk production with test cutting
Line inspection
Ex-work
Pre-shipment inspection (PSI)
Shipment

 Test cutting: Bulk production start with test cutting that means making small
amount of product such as from 1, 00,000 piece to 200 piece garments.
 Pre and post order merchandising: Pre order merchandising is before master L/C
receive and than post order merchandising.
 SOP (Standard Operating Procedure): They provide it so that we cannot change
product. To ensure same goods.
Basic quality of a merchandiser:
 Good command in ‘’English’’ because you have to negotiate with foreign buyer.
 Adequate knowledge on technical term such as SOP, GSP, PPM, PSI, CM, CMT etc. for
accurate and efficient communication with buyer.
 Good knowledge on fiber, yarn, fabric, dyeing, printing, finishing, embroidery, dyes and
chemicals, color fastness, accessories, garments production etc.
 Good knowledge on garments inspection system.
 Must be known about computer literacy-mail, and internet.
 Right consumption and costing knowledge.
 Order getting ability.
Consumption: Quantity of raw materials for making complete garments such as amount of
fabric, sewing thread, button, label, and other accessories.
Costing: Amount for making a complete garment.

There are two costing process;
a) Direct cost: Direct costs are the costs that are directly involve to the production of a
specific goods.
Example: Fabric cost, accessories cost, labor cost etc.
b) Indirect cost: Indirect costs are the costs that are not directly involve to the production
of a specific goods. Indirect costs are (15-20) %.
Example: Labor transport cost, electricity cost, security, building rent etc.
Causes of seam pucker?

 Unequal stitch on fabric
 Fabric dimensional instability
 Sewing thread tension

Counting of button:
Button is counted by Gross (G) or Great Gross (GG).
1 Gross = 12 dozen = 12 x 12 = 144 pcs.
1 Great Gross = 12 Gross = 12 x 12 x 12 = 1728 pcs.
N.B: 12 x 1 dozen (12 pcs) = 12 x 12
Textile care symbol:

Convert ‘’Tex’’ number to ‘’Ticket’’ number:
‘’Ticket’’ number = x3
AQL
AQL: Maximum percentage of defect that can be accepted on a particular sample size.
Test
Chemical test (All color fastness & shrinkage test) Visual test
IPC PPC Du.PC FRI
IPC: Initial production check such as fabric fault
PPC: Pre-production check such as pattern, marker fault
Du.PC: During production check such as sewing fault
FRI: Final random inspection such as finished garments fault
Garments defects:
Three types of defects aree present in garments. That are given below;
1. Critical defects: The defects which is unsafe, hazardous for the end user is called critical
defects. Example: Needle break, azo group etc.
2. Major defects: The defects which reduce the functionality,usability, marketability of the
garments. Example: Any stitching problem, button problem etc.
3. Minor defects: The defects which are not affected the garments but it can damage
product quality. Example: Joining of label problem,spot etc.
Sample: Sample is a reference garments which is done by designer. If required any correction
such as style, design, measurement, size sample are made. We have at least 11 sample.
Why shrinkage takes place?
Due to tension and swelling of yarn.

Garments washing
Washing: Washing is a chemical process by which we can remove the impurities like dirt, dust,
spot, soil mark etc. from garments. Those are attached during manufacturing garments such as
during cutting we can see lot of dust on the other hand during sewing we can see oil spot on
the garments.
Objects of garments washing:

1) To develop softness in garments
2) To introduce fading effect
3) To create new fashion
Limitations of garments washing:

Like other processes the garments washing is also not without some limitations. They included
as below-
 Garments size change

 Size material is partly removed

Flow process of garments washing:
Batch
selection
(70, 80,
and 90) kg
Loding into
machine
Washing (Normal washing,

pigment washing, caustic
washing etc.)
Softening
Hydro
extraction
Drying
Quality
checking
Send to
garments
finishing

Chemical used in washing:
Chemical name Function

Enzyme 1. To reduce hairiness from garments.
2. To produce fading effect on the
garments.
3. To increase the performance next
process.
Detergent(Soap) 1. To remove impurities.
2. To increase the spreading and wetting
ability of water so that washing
chemical can penetrate easily.
Caustic soda, NaOH 1. To produce less color fading effect on
the garments.
2. To control the pH of the washing
solution.
Acetic acid,CH₃COOH 1. To neutralize the garments.
2. To restore the garments from bacteria.
Bleaching powder, H2O2 1. Remove natural grey color and
produce a white effect.
2. To produce fading effect on the
garments.
Softener(silicone) 1. To increase smoothness of the

garments.
2. To improve slippery effect on the
garments.
Soda ash, Na2CO3 1. To produce effective bond between
washing chemical and garments.
2. To reduce hydrolysis of washing
chemical.
Potassium permanganate,KMnO4 To develop final color during steaming.
OBA,TiO2 To increase the brightness on garments.
Sodium hydrosulphite, Sodium metasulphite To neutralize the garments.
Anti-Back staining agent: The basic problem For reducing back staining in de-sizing and
in enzymatic washing of denim is back- garment processing specially for denims.
staining of detached indigo dyes on fabric Additives (Magnesium and aluminum oxide)
surface. Back staining mainly occurs during are used as back staining agent.
de-sizing or stone washing or enzyme stone
washing.

Equipment used in washing:
Washing machine Hydro-extractor
Drying machine
Pin attached
Sand paper Pumic stone

Type of washing:
 Wet process (Acid wash, bleach wash, enzyme wash etc.)

 Dry process (Sand blasting, grinding, destroying, whiskering etc.)
Washing faults:
1) Back staining mainly occurs during stone and enzyme wash.
2) Uneven washing due to pH control especially during enzyme wash. Standard pH for
washing is (4-7.5).
3) Fabric damage due to more blowing angle, over blasting during sand blasting, P.P spray
and over grinding. Blowing angle should be (10-20) .
4) Crease mark can tales place due to more machine RPM. Standard RPM for washing
machine is (28-32).
5) Color shade variation for improper use of washing chemical.
Difference between garments dyeing and garments tinting?
Garments dyeing Garments tinting

Garments’ dyeing is a process by which we Garments tinting is overdyeing on finish fabric.
can apply color on grey garments after
making the garments by grey fabric.
Pre-treatment is required. Pre-treatment isn’t required.
Large amount of dyes is used. Small amount of dyes is used.
To create fading effect and change the out- To increase out-look appearance.
look appearance on the garments.
Pumic stone: Pumic stone collect from the volcanic action which is given during washing ½ of
fabric weight.
SMV: Standard Minute Value. It is a standard time for completing a process by using best
possible method. Pre-determined calculated time.
SAM: Standard Allowed Minute. SAM is SMV + Allowance. Actual calculated time.

Fabric inspection
Fabric inspection is a process by which we can detect the fault into finish fabric. It is done
randomly by taking 10% fabric from total fabric.
Objectives of fabric inspection:

 To detect the fault into finish fabric.
 To take decision that we will used this fabric or not for cutting after inspection.
 To determine the quality of fabric that means the fabric is A grade, B grade or C grade.
 Minimize the wastage.
 Increase product quality and productivity.
For inspection 4.0 point system is best because we allow here fewer faults.
What is 4.0 point system?

It is called 4-Point System because it assigns with 1, 2, 3 and maximum 4 penalty points for
defects according to the size, quality and significance of the defect. No more than 4 penalty
points is assigned for any single defect. Defect can be measured either length or width
direction.
Principle of 4.0 point system:

If penalty point per 100 sq. yards is less than 40 then the fabric is accepted on the other-hand if
penalty point is more than 40 then the fabric is not accepted for cutting.
Working procedure of 4.0 point system:

Suppose we have 1000 fabric roll, so we need to be select 10% fabric roll randomly that means
100 rolls from total fabric that means from 1000 rolls.

Procedure:
 At first take a fabric roll.
 Then spread it on cutting table.
 After that identify fabric faults and put on it arrow sticker that can be red or white.
 Measure the length of each fault. Example are given below;
1. Slub = 2.5’’
2. Shadding = 19’’
3. Hole = 1’’
 Score the penalty point, to do this we should follow the table;
Defect length Penalty point

0’’-3’’ 1
Over 3’’-6’’ 2
Over 6’’-9’’ 3
Over 9’’ 4
For hole, Up to 1’’ 2
Over 1’’ 4
Formula of 4.0 point system:
Penalty per 100 sq. yards =

Fabric
Weaving process:
Yarn collect from spinning mill Weft yarn
Winding/Pre winding (Cone, pirn winding etc.)
Warping
Sizing (Warp yarn)
Drafting/Drawing (Passing of yarn through drop wire/heald eye)
Denting (Passing of yarn through reed)
Looming
Weaving
Woven fabric: Plain fabric (Shirt, Muslin cloth), Twill fabric (Jeans 2/2, Gabardine 2/10), Satin
fabric (Ribbon, Curtains, and Gowns), Braid fabric (Matt, Lace Ropes).
Knitting process:
Yarn collect from spinning mill
Cree-ling (Place the yarn into creel)
Feeding the yarn into m/c by positive feeder, tension device, yarn guide etc.
Set the m/c as per design & GSM
Finally knitting the fabric in tabular form
Withdraw the fabric & weighting
Inspection
Knitted fabric:
Weft knit: Single jersey fabric/plain knitting (T-shirt, Hosiery), Double jersey fabric/Rib (Collar,
Cuff, Socks), Interlock (Sportswear, Trouser, Underwear).
Warp knit: Net, Lingerie, gloves, eveningwear etc.

Non-woven process:
Raw material (Fiber that can be collect directly or from polymer)
Carding ( Card sliver)
Batt formation ( Sheet web)
Bonding ( Needle punching)
Apply resin by spray
Heating
Non-woven (Roll form)
Non-woven fabric: All types of bags, Baby diapers, Bandage, Caps, Carpets, Shoe covers, Draw
strings. Tapes, Table cloths etc.
Properties of woven and knit fabric.
Woven fabric is made of two set of yarn as a result its structure is compact so no possibility of
shrinkage.
Knit fabric is made of one set of yarn as a result its structure is imbalance, so there is possibility
to shrinkage.

Dyeing
Dyeing: Dyeing is a process by which we can produce color on the fabric surface. Dyeing can be
done on the whole fabric surface where only one color is used.
Application of Dyes
Name of Dyes Application
Acid dye Manmade fiber (Nylon),
Natural fiber (Silk, Wool)
Basic dye Jute, Acrylic
Vat dye Manmade fiber (Viscose),
Natural fiber (Cotton, Silk, Wool)
Disperse dye Nylon, Polyester, Acrylic, Tri-acetate, Di-acetate
Direct Dye Manmade fiber (Viscose),
Natural fiber (Cotton)
Reactive dye Cotton, Wool, Silk, Viscose, Nylon
Sulfur dye Cotton, Viscose
Mordant dye Cotton, Wool, Silk
Pigment Cotton, Manmade fiber
N.B
1. Acid, basic & disperse dye is not suitable for cotton.

2. Direct, disperse, basic & sulfur dye is not suitable for wool& silk.
3. Vat, direct, reactive & sulfur dye is suitable for cotton.
4. Disperse dye is suitable for mam-made fiber.
5. Reactive dye is suitable for cellulosic fiber.

Reactive dye:
Reactive dye is a dye that can react directly with the fabric that means a chemical reaction
happens between the dye and the molecules of the fabric. As this dye at first react with the
fabric and then produce color that’s why it is permanent dye.
Why reactive dye is best for cotton dyeing?
 Reactive dye is suitable for cellulosic fibers and produce permanent color by covalent
bond between dye and fiber.
 Reactive dyes have good fastness properties.
That’s why reactive dyes are most commonly used for dyeing cotton fiber.
Dyeing mechanism of reactive dye:

The dyeing mechanism of material with reactive dye takes place in 3 stages:-
 Exhaustion of dye in presence of electrolyte or dye absorption.

 Fixation under the influence of alkali.
 Wash-off the unfixed dye from material surface.
What is direct dye?
Direct dye is water soluble anionic dye.
Why it is anionic dye? It is anionic dye because in reaction the anionic part is take place.
Why direct dye is so called direct dye?
Direct dyes have direct affinity towards cellulosic fiber (cotton, viscose) & it can be applied
directly in fiber without help of any assistant.
What is self-leveling direct dye?
These dyes are capable of dyeing without help of any other chemical.
What is after treatment?
After treatment is a process which is applied for increasing for fastness properties of dyed
material after dyeing.
Which type of factor is responsible for the dye exhaustion of fiber?
Time, Temperature, material liquor ratio, etc.

What is vat dye?
Vat dyes are water insoluble cationic dye.
Why it is so called vat dye?
The dye is named from the container vat that’s why it is called vat dye.
You know that vat dye is water insoluble so how can we soluble it?
We can make the soluble of vat dyes by applying strong reducing agent (Hydrose) by vating
process.
Which type of dye we use in denim industry?
Most of the denim industries of our country use vat dye because of rubbing fastness properties.
Tell me some properties of vat dyes?
 Washing & perspiration properties of vat dyes are so good.

 Light fastness properties of vat dyes are extremely good.
What is acid dye?
Acid dyes are water soluble anionic dye.
Which types of fiber we can dye by acid dye?
By acid dye we can dye protein fiber like wool, silk etc. because it has direct affinity towards
protein fiber.
What is basic dye?
Basic dyes are water soluble cationic dyes.
Which types of fiber we can dye by basic dye?
By basic dye we can dye bast fiber like jute, acrylic fiber because it has direct affinity
towards this fiber.

Some dyeing faults are given below;
Technical deficiency/fault of reactive dye:
Hydrolysis of dye: Hydrolysis is the main problem in dyeing with reactive dye. The reaction of
dye with water is called hydrolysis. It is happen when the dye solution kept for long time.
Remedies of deficiency: Wash the fabric with soap and soda ash at right temperature.
Technical deficiency/fault of sulfur dye:
Bronziness and tendering: Bronziness and tendering is the main problem when dyeing with
sulfur dye. It can be happen when the material are kept for long time into dye bath. It also can
be due to excessive heat, dyestuff and presence of ion as an impurity.
Remedies of deficiency: Treatment the dyed fabric with dilute solution of S at 30
Technical deficiency/fault of disperse dye: Levelness dyeing is the main problems when dyeing
with disperse dye.
Remedies of deficiency: Treatment the dyed fabric with leveling agent.
Why curing is done after printing?
Curing' prints means making them permanent, so that the fabric cannot be washed. The main
objective of curing is to increase the color fastness.
Why there is increase in luster of yarn after mercerization?
We know that cotton fiber swells in strong caustic soda solution, which change its cross section
from kidney shape to almost circular shaped. As a result lumen becomes smaller and cell wall
becomes greater for this reason strength of cotton fiber increased also fabric surface become
fine and light reflectance on fabric is consistently that’s why luster increased.
Printing: Printing is a process by which we can produce color on the fabric surface at some
specific place according to its design. Printing is applicable only for fabric where single or multi-
color can be used only one side of fabric.
Stripping: Stripping is a process by which we can remove color from fabric surface by sodium
hydrosulphite.

Singeing: Singeing is a mechanical process by which we can remove hairy fiber from fabric or
yarn surface by burning or heating process.
Objectives of singeing
 To remove hairy fiber from fabric surface

 To improve the quality of fabric
 To clean & increasing smoothness of fabric
 Increasing luster & fabric strength
By drop test we can say that singeing takes place or not.
Bio-polishing: Bio-polishing is a chemical process by which we remove hairy or loose fiber

from fabric surface by the enzymatic action of cellulose.
Objectives of bio-polishing
 To remove hairy or loose fiber.

 To make the fabric softer & smoother.
 To reduce the pilling tendency of cloths.
Limitation: Fabric will be weak after bio-polishing process.
De-sizing: De-sizing is the first process of finishing that means to remove the sizing materials
from the warp yarn as well as woven fabric.
Objectives of de-sizing
 To remove size material from fabric surface.

 To improve the water absorbency of woven fabric.
What is the modern de-sizing process?
Enzymatic de-sizing: It is an enzymatic process where amylase enzyme is used to remove the
size material from yarn as well as fabric by enzymatic action.
By iodine test we can say that de-sizing takes place or not.

Flow chart for textile wet processing
Woven fabric collection from weaving industry
Woven fabric inspection
Singeing
De-sizing
Scouring
Bleaching
Dyeing Mercerizing Printing
Finishing
Final inspection
Finish fabric delivery into garments industry
Do you know why is so called universal bleaching agents?

 Both protein & cellulosic fiber can be bleaching.
 Further scouring isn’t required because it is done at high temperature.
 Permanent whiteness is produce.
 Fiber damage is less.
What is color fastness?

Color fastness refers to the resistance of color to fade or bleed of dyed or printed textile
materials to various type of influence such as water, washing, rubbing, light, perspiration etc.
What is grey scale?

Grey scale is a numerical scale which contains a series of pairs of neutrally colored chips, which
showing increasing contrast between colors.
There are two types of grey scale;

 Grey scale for color change.
 Grey scale for staining.

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As a textile engineer we have to know about the below topics:

 About textile fiber

©By Abdur Razzak 1

©By Abdur Razzak 2

Textile fiber properties:

Classification of textile fiber:

1. Seed fiber(cotton & kapok)

2. Bast fiber(jute, flax)

3. Leaf fiber(sisal, hemp)

4. Animal fiber(wool, silk, camel, alpaca)

5. Fruit fiber(coir, coconut)

©By Abdur Razzak 3

1. Semi synthetic fiber(viscose, rayon)

2. 100% or fully synthetic fiber

100% or fully synthetic fiber:

Classification of cotton according to staple length:

Staple length (26-65mm): Including the fine lustrous fiber.

Example: Sea Island, Egyptian, American etc.

Example: American upland

Staple length (9-26mm): Including coarse & low grade fibers.

Example: Bangladeshi, Indian etc.

Why cotton fiber strength increase due to wetting?

©By Abdur Razzak 4

 Elongation: Cotton does not stretch easily. Its elongation (5-10%).

Chemical properties of cotton:

 Effect of acid: Cotton is attacked by hot dilute acids.

Chemical composition of cotton:

What is the mechanism of cellulosic fiber?

Physical properties of wool:

Chemical properties of wool:

 Effect of acid: Wool has an excellent resistance to acid.

©By Abdur Razzak 5

Physical properties of silk:

 Elongation: Its elongation (20-25%).

Chemical properties of silk:

 Effect of acid: Decomposed slowly by acids.

What is polyester? Tell me its trade name?

Physical properties of polyester:

 Plastic nature: Polyester filament is plastic as they elastic.

©By Abdur Razzak 6

Example: Viscose, Acetate, Wool, Silk, Rubber etc.

Tell me something about nylon fiber?

©By Abdur Razzak 7

Explain the solubility of fiber and their color, smell?

Fiber Name Chemical Color Smell

Fibre name Moisture Regain (%)

Acetate fibre 6.5

Acrylic fibre 1-2

Polyester(PET) fibre 0.4

Flax and hemp 12.75

©By Abdur Razzak 8

Two types of count;

 Direct system (Mass per unit length here length is fixed)

Direct system count calculating formula:

Example: Tex, denier, jute.

In-direct system count calculating formula:

Example: Cotton (Ne), Metric (Nm), Worsted count.

What is Unit of Length & Weight (mass) in direct counting system?

Name of the System Unit of mass Unit of length

Denier Gm. 9km

Jute Pound(lb.) 14,400 yards (spindle)

What is Unit of Length & Weight (mass) in indirect counting system?

Name of the System Unit of length Unit of mass

Cotton (British or English) 840 yards(hank) Pound(lb.)