Eur. Phys. J.

Plus (2019) 134: 471

DOI 10.1140/epjp/i2019-12760-5
THE EUROPEAN
PHYSICAL JOURNAL PLUS
Regular Article

Application of an artificial neural network to predict the entrance

length of three-dimensional magnetohydrodynamics channel flow

Mohammad Hasan Taheri, Morteza Abbasia , and Mehran Khaki Jamei

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sari Branch, Islamic Azad University, Sari, Iran

Received: 11 April 2019 / Revised: 10 May 2019

Published online: 27 September 2019

c Società Italiana di Fisica / Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature, 2019

Abstract. In this paper, a feed-forward, back-propagation neural network was employed for modeling the
three-dimension magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) developing fluid flow. The aim of the study is to obtain a
correlation for calculating the entrance length by applying an artificial neural network (ANN). To collect
the data for training ANN, the numerical finite volume method (FVM) was conducted. The data were
collected including Reynolds number (Re) ranging from 500 to 1000 and Hartmann number (Ha) ranging
from 4 to 14 for a three-dimensional rectangular channel with four different aspect ratios (AR) in a three-
layer ANN for modeling the flow and computing the entrance length as a function of AR, Re and Ha. The
results obtained from the ANN, FVM and the proposed correlations were compared and it was observed
that the variation of the entrance length was different for each AR. Thus, two correlations were proposed
with the different range of the AR and Ha. The contours and vectors of the velocity along the channel
direction and for different cross-sections were illustrated. In addition, the effect of AR and Ha on the
entrance length and pressure loss was presented.

1 Introduction

The entrance length of a channel is defined as a distance from the channel inlet where the core velocity reaches 99%
of the fully developed velocity. Due to many industrial applications, the calculation of the hydrodynamic entrance
length and the proposal of a correlation to predict the hydrodynamic entrance length are still interesting for the
researchers. Examples include the cooling system of power plants, air conditioning channels, control of metals in the
casting industry, etc. Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) is a branch of the mechanical science which deals with the
interaction between the magnetic field and the moving conducting fluid. an MHD fluid flow can be observed in such
applications as metallurgy industry, reactor cooling systems, magnetic flowmeters, magnetic generators and pumps and
so on [1–12]. Like hydrodynamic flow, the entrance length for an MHD channel flow can be defined as an axial distance
from the inlet where the MHD flow becomes fully developed. However, it should be noted that the characteristics of
the MHD flow are different from the hydrodynamic flow, thus, the correlation used to estimate the hydrodynamic
entrance length cannot be used for computing the MHD entrance length.
Investigation of the MHD flow in the entrance region of channels was considered by researchers from the past
to the present. The first analytical and numerical investigations on the laminar MHD flow in the entrance length
were conducted by [13–20]. Generally, two analytical methods were used: the matching or asymptotic method and the
momentum integral method. In these researches, a laminar two-dimension conducting fluid flow in the entrance region
of a duct was considered and the governing equations including continuity, momentum and Ohms law with related
boundary conditions were introduced and then solved. For the numerical solution, the finite difference method was
used by [15,18,19].
Except [17], the other studies did not proposed any correlation to predict the entrance length. They depicted
some diagrams which showed the effect of the Hartmann number on the core velocity and pressure distributions. In
some studies [15,18], tables were provided which reported the amount of the entrance length for a different Hartmann
number.
a
e-mail: 1mortezaabbasi@gmail.com (corresponding author)
Page 2 of 12 Eur. Phys. J. Plus (2019) 134: 471

Fig. 1. Problem schematic.

Maciulaitis and Loeffler [17] presented correlations for estimating the entrance length of an incompressible electri-
cally conducting MHD fluid flow in a two-dimensional constant area channel. The momentum-integral boundary-layer
analysis was used and the closed-form solutions were obtained for both the laminar and turbulent cases. They consid-
ered two different inlet velocity: the uniform and nonmagnetic fully developed velocity. Besides, the parabolic velocity
approximation was assumed for the velocity profile. However, Hwang et al. [15,18] who solved the same problem by
the finite difference methods, mentioned a mathematical difference between their results with [17].
In the following, Flores and Recuero [21] studied an MHD entrance flow in the same channel as the [17,18]. They
changed the inlet velocity condition and considered the normal velocity in addition to the axial velocity. The finite
difference was applied to solve the problem and the amount of the entrance length was tabulated for the Hartmann
number equalling 2.5, 4 and 10. They compared their results with [15,18] and found out their results are in good
agreement, for the Hartmann number below 20. In addition, they reported that for the Hartmann number bigger than
20, the characteristics of the flow may change. They finally proposed a correlation for computing the entrance length
whereas the Hartmann number is bigger than 20. Malekzadeh et al. [22] investigated the effect of the magnetic field
on the laminar MHD fluid flow characteristic in a pipe, experimentally and numerically. The numerical finite volume
method with second order central approximation was applied to discretize the governing equations and solving the
problem. The influence of the magnetic field on the skin friction, pressure drop and axial velocity profile were plotted
and a correlation for the entrance length of the MHD pipe flow was presented.
Zhang et al. [23], Kim et al. [12,24,25], Recebli et al. [26], Selimli et al. [27], Gedik et al. [28], Lima et al. [29],
Altintas et al. [30], He et al. [31] and Feng et al. [32] studied the effect of a magnetic field on the flow characteristics in
a two- or three-dimensional channel and pipe. The computational fluid dynamics (CFD) was used and the calculation
was achieved using ANSYS Fluent software by [26,27,30]. The velocity and pressure distribution in regard with the
magnetic field variation were investigated. Recebli et al. [26] mentioned the value of the hydrodynamic entrance length
or Selimli et al. [27] depicted all diagrams for a specific distance from the duct entrance which is not obvious whether
it is the entrance length or not. The effect of the magnetic field on the entrance length or proposing a correlation for
computing the entrance length of the MHD flow were not investigated in these studies.
As discussed above, many studies have also been conducted on the MHD flow over the sheet, in the channels
and pipes [33–41]. Considering advances in methodology and technology, various solving methods are applied such as
the finite volume method (FVM), the finite element method (FEM), the hybrid analytical-numerical method, using
computational software including Ansys Fluent, COMSOL, OpenFOAM, etc. Although there are plenty of researches
on the hydrodynamic flow in the entrance region which present correlations for calculating the entrance length [42–47],
in the field of the MHD flow in the entrance length and proposing correlations to compute the MHD entrance length,
there are few kinds of researches for two- dimensional (2D) flow [17,21,48] and there is no research for three-dimensional
(3D) flow.
Hence, the main objective of the present study is to employ an artificial neural network for modeling the laminar
MHD fluid flow in the entrance region of the 3D channel and propose a correlation to estimate the MHD entrance
length. In addition, the effect of the magnetic field on the flow characteristics will be investigated.

2 Problem statement
In the present study, a laminar developing flow in a three-dimensional channel is considered (fig. 1). The fluid is
conducting and a uniform imposed magnetic field is exerted on the channel which is perpendicular to the fluid flow
direction. The inlet velocity is uniform and the no-slip condition is considered on the channel walls. The magnetic
Reynolds number is assumed small enough, thus the induction magnetic field is neglected.
Eur. Phys. J. Plus (2019) 134: 471 Page 3 of 12

The governing equations including continuity and momentum following the heretofore assumptions are defined
as [27]
∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + =0 (1)
∂x ∂y ∂z
   2 
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂P ∂ u ∂2u ∂2u
ρ u +v +w =− + μf + + − σB 2 u (2a)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
   2 
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂P ∂ v ∂2v ∂2v
ρ u +v +w =− + μf + + (2b)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
   2 
∂w ∂w ∂w ∂P ∂ w ∂2w ∂2w
ρ u +v +w =− + μf + + − σB 2 w, (2c)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

where u, v and w are the velocity components, respectively, P is the pressure, ρ is the density, σ is the electrical
conductivity, B is the imposed magnetic field and μf is the dynamic viscosity.
The last term of the right-hand side of eqs. (2a) and (2c) is the Lorentz force term which is a volumetric resistance
force imposed on the moving conducting medium in the opposite direction. To obtain the Lorentz force term, the
following procedure is done.
From Ohm’s law we have [49]
 
J = σ E +V  ×B  , (3)

where E is the electrical field, V is the velocity field and J is the current density. In an MHD flow, the effect of the
electrical component on the fluid flow is small [49], hereupon it can be ignored. Therefore, eq. (3) can be simplified
and calculated as
 
 i j k 
   
J = σ V ×B  = σ  u v w  = i(σvBz − σwBy ) + j(σwBx − σuBz ) + k(σuBy − σvBx )
 
 Bx By Bz 
= Jxi + Jyj + Jzk. (4)

Consequently, the Lorentz force is computed as

 
 i j k 
 
 =  Jx Jy Jz  = (Jy Bz − Jz By )i + (Jz Bx − Jx Bz ) j + (Jx By − Jy Bx ) k.
FL = J × B (5)
 
 Bx By Bz 

According to fig. 1, the magnetic field is only applied on the channel in y-direction (i.e., B = B(y)), hence, eqs. (4)
and (5) are simplified as
 
 i j k 
   
J = σ V  = σ  u v w  = i(−σwBy ) + k(σuBy ) = Jxi + Jzk
 ×B (6)
 
 0 By 0 

and  
 i j k 
 
 =  Jx 0 Jz  = (−σuB)i + (−σwB) k.
FL = J × B (7)
 
 0 By 0 

In addition, the boundary conditions related to the defined problem are introduced as

x = 0 → u = uin , v = w = 0, (8a)
y = 0, h & z = 0, b → u = v = w = 0, (8b)
∂u ∂v ∂w
x=L→ = = = 0, P = 0, (8c)
∂x ∂x ∂x
where L is the channel length, h is the channel height and b is the width of the channel.
Page 4 of 12 Eur. Phys. J. Plus (2019) 134: 471

Further, the aspect ratio (AR) and the hydraulic diameter (Dh ) are defined as
b
AR = , (9)
h
b×h AR
Dh = 2 = 2h , (10)
b+h 1 + AR
By introducing the non-dimensional parameters as
x y z u ρDh ρDh P
x = , y = , z = , u = , v = v, w = w, P = (11)
Dh ReDh Dh Dh uin μ μ ρu2in
and using eqs. (10) in eqs. (1)–(4), the governing equations are transformed to the dimensionless form as
∂u ∂v  ∂w
+ + = 0, (12)
∂x ∂y  ∂z 

 
∂u  ∂u

 ∂u

∂P  1 ∂ 2 u ∂ 2 u ∂ 2 u
u + v + w = − + + + − Ha2 u , (13a)
∂x ∂y  ∂z  ∂x (ReDh )2 ∂(x )2 ∂(y  )2 ∂(z  )2
  
 
 ∂v  ∂v  ∂v ∂P  1 ∂ 2 v ∂ 2 v ∂ 2 v
u +v +w =−  + + + , (13b)
∂x ∂y  ∂z  ∂y (ReDh )2 ∂(x )2 ∂(y  )2 ∂(z  )2
 
∂w ∂w ∂w ∂P  1 ∂ 2 w ∂ 2 w ∂ 2 w
u  + v   + w   = −  + + + − Ha2 w , (13c)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z (ReDh )2 ∂(x )2 ∂(y  )2 ∂(z  )2
whereas the Reynolds (ReDh ) and Hartmann numbers (Ha) are defined as, respectively [48,49]
ρDh uin
ReDh = , (14)
μf

σ
Ha = BDh . (15)
μf

Also, the boundary conditions (eqs. (8)) are converted to the dimensionless form as
x = 0 → u = 1, v  = w = 0, (16a)
    
y = 0, h/Dh & z = 0, b/Dh → u = v = w = 0, (16b)
L ∂u ∂v  ∂w
x = → 
= 
= = 0, P  = 0. (16c)
Dh ReDh ∂x ∂x ∂x

3 Numerical investigation
3.1 Artificial neural network (ANN)

The artificial neural networks (ANNs) inspired by the biological neural networks and computer science are represented
as a set of layers. These layers are categorized into three classes which are input, hidden, and output. The number
of neurons in the input layer equals the number of input variables and the number of neurons in the output layer
equals the number of outputs. The hidden layer is required only if the problem and the connections among the data
are non-linear [50].
In the present study, a three layer Feed-forward, Back-Propagation neural network including an input layer, one
hidden layer and an output layer is employed to model the three-dimension MHD fluid flow and computing the
development length. The Levenberg-Marquardt (LM) algorithm is considered for learning the ANN. The proposed
structure and the characteristics of the trained network are presented in fig. 2.
The neurons number of the input layer is equal to the input data. As a result, the number of input layer neurons
in the present study is equal to three. For the hidden layer, seven neurons and for the output layer, due to one output
data, one neuron is considered.
In addition, the log-sigmoid transfer function is considered for the hidden layer which can be expressed mathemat-
ically as [50,51]
1
g= , (17)
1 + e−k
Eur. Phys. J. Plus (2019) 134: 471 Page 5 of 12

Fig. 2. Structure of the proposed neural network.

Table 1. Mesh independence checking for different AR (Re = 1000, Ha = 4).

AR = 1.5 AR = 2 AR = 2.5 AR = 3
x×y×z ucm x×y×z ucm x×y×z ucm x×y×z ucm
40 × 15 × 20 0.1452 45 × 15 × 30 0.1653 45 × 15 × 36 0.1876 50 × 15 × 40 0.2016
80 × 20 × 25 0.1322 90 × 20 × 40 0.1485 100 × 20 × 45 0.1562 100 × 15 × 55 0.1621
160 × 25 × 30 0.1302 180 × 25 × 50 0.1336 200 × 25 × 60 0.1411 200 × 15 × 65 0.1367
320 × 30 × 40 0.1283 360 × 30 × 60 0.1304 400 × 30 × 72 0.1301 400 × 15 × 80 0.1292
600 × 30 × 40 0.1282 640 × 30 × 60 0.1304 800 × 30 × 72 0.1301 800 × 15 × 80 0.1292

where k is the input and g is the output data.

And for the output layer, the linear transfer function is considered which can be expressed mathematically as [50,
51]
g = k. (18)
In the artificial neuron proposed by McCulloch and Pitts, the hidden neurons received the information from the input
layer neurons which are multiplied by their weight value. Afterwards, the weighted information is summed with a bias.
The resulting sum is passed through a non-linear function and the final result is obtained. The following expression is
the mathematical model of McCulloch and Pitts’ proposed model [50]:
 n

g=f (we)i ki + θ , (19)
i=1

where f is the transfer function, we is the weight and θ is the bias.

3.2 Finite Volume Method (FVM)

To discretize the governing equations, the FVM is conducted suggested by [52]. The SIMPLE algorithm is used for
pressure-velocity coupling and the algebraic nonlinear resulting equations are solved by the Jacobi method which is
an iterative algorithm. In addition, a structured grid is chosen for all the computations.
For the convective term of the equation, the hybrid scheme and for diffusive term, the central difference scheme
are applied. In order to control the stability of the results, the residual error of iteration is calculated as

|unew − uold |
residual = , (20)
|unew |

where, in the present investigation, the residual is considered 10−5 . In fig. 3, the residual convergence versus iteration
is depicted.

3.3 Solution procedure

For solving the problem for four AR (i.e. 1.5, 2, 2.5 and 4) is considered and the numerical solution is conducted
for a specified range of the Reynolds and Hartmann number (300 < Re < 1300 and 2 < Ha < 9). To check the
Page 6 of 12 Eur. Phys. J. Plus (2019) 134: 471

Fig. 3. Iteration residual convergence.

Fig. 4. ANN performance.

accuracy of the obtained results, computations are carried out for different grid numbers. In table 1, the results of
mesh independence checking for four AR are presented. After conducting the numerical solution, 50 datasets are
obtained for each AR, i.e. 200 datasets are obtained generally, where the entrance length magnitude can be allocated
for the specified value of Reynolds and Hartmann numbers.
It should be noted that for each AR, the numerical solution spends a long CPU time. Indeed, applying a solution
will be helpful if it can develop the data in the shortest time while the solution precision remains acceptable.
Among the various solutions, using the artificial neural network (ANN) can be beneficial. The ANN uses parallel
processing for solving the problem, thus the solution time is significantly reduced whilst the accuracy of the results
stays reasonable.
Therefore, the datasets collected from the numerical solution are imported to the ANN as the input data and then
trained for modeling the problem and predicting the output data (i.e., the entrance length).
The optimal neural network is achieved when the mean square error (MSE) become minimized and remains almost
unchanged (fig. 4). Since the optimal ANN is modeled, the datasets are developed for a wide range of Reynolds and
Hartmann numbers using the ANN and thus, by applying the fitting tool, the correlation can be obtained.

4 Results and discussion

In the present study, the ANN is employed for modeling the development of the MHD fluid flow in a three-dimension
rectangular channel and estimating the entrance length. In table 2 the results of the ANN model and numerical solution
are compared. It can be observed that the ANN is successfully modeled as the MHD flow.
Eur. Phys. J. Plus (2019) 134: 471 Page 7 of 12

Table 2. Comparison of ANN results versus numerical solution.

Lem
ANN FVM Ha Re AR
0.185 0.184 8 1200 1.5
0.389 0.400 2 1150 2.0
0.122 0.120 5 470 2.5
0.188 0.197 7 650 3.0

Applying the fitting, the correlations to predict the entrance length of the 3D MHD channel fluid flow for each AR
are achieved as follows:
Lem 0.03
AR = 1.5 → = ,
Dh ReDh 1 + 0.15Ha2
Lem 0.0435
AR = 2.0 → = ,
Dh ReDh 1 + 0.22Ha2
Lem 0.033
AR = 2.5 → = ,
Dh ReDh 1 + 0.11Ha2
Lem 0.04
AR = 3.0 → = , (21)
Dh ReDh 1 + 0.1Ha2
To generalize the proposed correlation, the suitable correlation is proposed as a function of AR in addition to being
a function of the Reynolds and Hartmann numbers. Hence, by introducing the hydraulic diameter as
b×h
Dh = 2 (22)
b+h
and by rewriting eq. (22) in terms of AR, the relation of the hydraulic diameter and AR can be obtained as

b×h h h× b
AR
Dh = 2 × =2 h
b
= 2h . (23)
b+h h 1+ h
1 + AR

Now, the general correlations for computing the entrance length of a three-dimensional MHD fluid flow in a rectangular
channel as the function of aspect ratio (AR), Reynolds number (Re) and Hartmann number (Ha) by employing the
artificial neural network (ANN) are proposed as
⎧
⎪
⎪AR ≤ 2, Ha < 10
⎪
⎨   
Lem 0.05 Re 2AR
→ = (24)
⎪
⎪ h 1 + 0.22Ha2 1 + AR
⎪
⎩
AR > 2, Ha ≤ 10
⎧
⎪
⎪ AR ≤ 2, Ha ≥ 10
⎪
⎨   
Lem 0.038 Re 2AR
→ = (25)
⎪
⎪ h 1 + 0.22Ha2 1 + AR
⎪
⎩
AR > 2, Ha > 10

In fig. 5 the comparison of the results obtained from eqs. (21), (24), (25) versus the ANN results are demonstrated.
It can be observed that due to the different behavior of the entrance length with AR and Ha, the proposed correlations
should be presented with two ranges of AR and Ha in order to better compute the entrance length.
Moreover, the results obtained in the present investigation are compared with other studies in these fields. Because
no investigation has been conducted providing a correlation for calculating the entrance length in three-dimension
MHD fluid flows, the comparison is made with similar studies for hydrodynamic 3D fluid flows. As presented in
table 3, three studies are considered.
Ahmad and Hassan [47] proposed an empirical relation for estimating the hydrodynamic entrance length of a
square micro and macro channel. Besides, Galvis et al. [46] presented a correlation for computing the hydrodynamic
entrance length of the rectangular microchannel.
Page 8 of 12 Eur. Phys. J. Plus (2019) 134: 471

Fig. 5. Comparison of the results obtained from the ANN and proposed correlations.

Table 3. Validation of the proposed correlations (Ha = 0).

Lem /h

AR Re Ahmad [47] Galvis [46] Ma [42] Present study

1.5 500 44.46 – 37.24 30

2 500 44.46 – 38.16 33.33

2.5 500 44.46 – 37.53 35.71

3 500 44.46 – 36.62 37.5

2 40 3.71 3.09 0.8 2.02

3 40 3.71 3.09 0.78 3

The correlation is presented for an aspect ratio ranging from 1 to 5 whilst for the Reynolds number is less than 50.
In addition, Ma et al. [42] presented a correlation for calculating the microchannel hydrodynamic entrance length for
the Reynolds number ranging from 1 to 1000 whilst the aspect ratio ranges from 1 to 10, using the Lattice Boltzmann
simulation. It can be seen that the amounts of the entrance length obtained from the proposed correlations are in
agreement with other studies.
Eur. Phys. J. Plus (2019) 134: 471 Page 9 of 12

Fig. 6. Velocity contours along the channel in different cross-sections.

The velocity contours for different cross-sections of the channel are plotted in fig. 6. The development of the flow can
be observed. It can be seen that the velocity near the inlet is almost uniform, due to uniform inlet velocity assumption.
By development of flow across the channel, the velocity distribution is also developed. Due to no-slip conditions on the
walls, the velocity on the walls equals zero. Besides the velocity has its maximum value in the center of the channel.
The boundary layers are growing from each wall and the velocity development continues until the boundary layers are
reached together at a specified distance from the channel inlet. After that the velocity contour becomes unchanged
and the flow is fully developed. This distance is called the entrance length.
For a better physical sight, the velocity vector and contours along the channel axis and fluid flow direction are
illustrated in fig. 7. As can be seen, the velocity vectors of the MHD flow are flattened if compared with the conventional
non-MHD flow. This happens due to the effect of the Lorentz force which is the volumetric resistance force.
The effect of Ha and AR on the entrance length is depicted in fig. 8. As expected, the entrance length declines as
the Ha increases. As defined in eq. (15), the Hartmann number is the ratio of the Lorentz force to viscous force. The
increase in the Hartmann number value is meant to increase the Lorentz force. As known, the Lorentz force is the
resistance force exerted on the flow in the opposite direction. Hence, the augmentation of Ha leads to decreasing the
entrance length. However, the augmentation of AR leads to an increase in the entrance length.
Table 4 presents the effect of AR and Ha on the dimensionless pressure loss. It can be seen that the dimensionless
pressure loss of the MHD flow is greater than the non-MHD flow, due to the Lorentz resistance force which acts in the
opposite direction of the MHD fluid flow. Moreover, the increase of the AR leads to a decrease in the dimensionless
pressure loss.
Page 10 of 12 Eur. Phys. J. Plus (2019) 134: 471

Fig. 7. Velocity vectors and contours along the channel (Re = 100, Ha = 5).

Fig. 8. Effect of Ha and AR on the entrance length.

Table 4. Effect of Ha and AR on the dimensionless pressure loss.

P/ρu2in
Re Ha AR = 1.5 AR = 2 AR = 2.5 AR = 3
0 7.19 7.37 6.88 6.65
1000
4 9 8.08 7.6 7.13

5 Conclusion

In the present study, a 3D MHD fluid flow in a rectangular channel was modeled using a three layer feed-forward, back-
propagation neural network. The artificial neural network (ANN) was conducted to obtain correlations for estimating
the entrance length. For providing the data as an ANN input, the numerical finite volume (FVM) method is applied
for a different range of Reynolds numbers from 500 to 1000, Hartmann numbers from 4 to 14 and four different aspect
ratios. Two correlations were proposed for computing the entrance length of the 3D MHD fluid flow in the rectangular
Eur. Phys. J. Plus (2019) 134: 471 Page 11 of 12

channel, due to the different behavior of the entrance length as the aspect ratio changes. It was concluded that the
entrance length reduces when the Hartmann number increases. However, the augmentation of the aspect ratio leads
to an increase in the entrance length. The contours and vectors of the velocity in different cross-sections and along
the channel were demonstrated. It was seen that the velocity vectors were flattened in comparison with the non-MHD
flow. In addition, the effect of the aspect ratio and Hartmann number on the pressure loss were investigated. It was
observed that the pressure loss in the MHD fluid flow is greater than non-MHD fluid flow. Besides, the pressure loss
declined as the aspect ratio increases.

Nomenclature
AR Aspect ratio L Channel length (m)
B Magnetic field (T) Lem Entrance length (m)
b Channel width (m) P Pressure (Pa)
Dh Hydraulic diameter (m) Re Reynolds number
E Electric field u x-velocity component (m/s)
f Transfer function V Velocity field (m/s)
FL Lorentz force (N/m3 ) v y-velocity component (m/s)
g Output data w z-velocity component (m/s)
h Channel height (m) we Weight of neural network
Ha Hartmann number σ Electrical conductivity (Ω · m−1 )
J Density of electric current (A/m2 ) μf Dynamic viscosity (Pa · s)
k Input data θ Bias

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