2.

1 Non-Metallic Materials
Non-metals
Non-Metal is referred to the chemical elements which are volatile, insulated
to heat and electricity, and lack metallic attributes. Most of the non-metals
are gasses. In the periodic table, they are represented under Polyatomic
nonmetal, Diatomic non-metal, Noble gases. carbon, phosphorus, sulfur,
selenium, and iodine are solid non-metals. See the Periodic table below.

Source: www.extrudesign.com

Non-Metallic Materials are further classified into the following groups.

1.
1.
1. Ceramics and Glasses
2. Polymers
3. Composites
4. Semiconductors
Polymers
Thermoplastics
A polymer that can become moldable to specific heat and the get solidify
upon cooling is known as the thermoplastics. These thermoplastics can be
remolded or reshaped as many times as we want. so they are recyclable
polymers.

Thermosets
These are polymers that are capable to resist high temperatures. Once
thermosets get harden they will not be remolded or reshaped. So these are
not able to recycle. Capable of resistance to high temperatures.

Elastomers
The elastomer is a polymer that can be deformed under stress and regain
its original shape when the stress is removed. Simply a polymer which is
having an elastic property called the elastomer.

Ceramics
Ceramics are inorganic and nonmetallic compounds. Ceramics have high
strengths and hardness properties. The following examples give a quick
idea of ceramic materials. Examples of Ceramics are plates, tiles, toilets.
Not only in home appliances they are also can be used in so many other
industries like automobile industries, aerospace industries.
Ceramics are Further classified into two groups
•
o
▪ Crystalline ceramics
▪ Glasses
Crystalline ceramics
Crystalline ceramics are more brittle and harder than metals but when it
comes to the tensile strength of the crystalline ceramics, it is very less.
They tend to fail at very little stress.

Glasses
Glasses are also inorganic and non-metallic compounds. Glasses don’t
have the crystalline structure as Crystalline ceramics do. One special
property of the glasses is transparency.

Composite Materials
A composite material is a material formed from two or more materials to
attain required properties like high strength with light in weight. An example
of composite material is plywood. Plywood is a composite material from a
composite of different wood materials. Fiberglass is also one example of
the composite material from reinforced plastics.
Composite materials are Further classified into three groups.
1.
1.
1. Metal Matrix
2. Ceramic Matrix
3. Polymer Matrix
2.1.1 Ceramics and Glasses
Ceramics
Ceramics are classified as inorganic and nonmetallic materials that are
essential to our daily lifestyle. Ceramic and materials engineers are the
people who design the processes in which these products can be made,
create new types of ceramic products, and find different uses for ceramic
products in everyday life.
Ceramics are all around us. This category of materials includes things like
tile, bricks, plates, glass, and toilets. Ceramics can be found in products like
watches (quartz tuning forks-the timekeeping devices in watches), snow
skies (piezoelectric-ceramics that stress when a voltage is applied to them),
automobiles (sparkplugs and ceramic engine parts found in racecars), and
phone lines. They can also be found on space shuttles, appliances (enamel
coatings), and airplanes (nose cones). Depending on their method of
formation, ceramics can be dense or lightweight. They will typically
demonstrate excellent strength and hardness properties; however, they are
often brittle in nature. Ceramics can also be formed to serve as electrically
conductive materials, allowing electricity to pass through their mass or
insulators, materials preventing electricity flow. Some ceramics, like
superconductors, also display magnetic properties.
Ceramics are generally made by taking mixtures of clay, earthen elements,
powders, and water and shaping them into desired forms. Once the ceramic
has been shaped, it is fired in a high-temperature oven known as a
kiln. Often, ceramics are covered in decorative, waterproof, paint-like
substances known as glazes.

Ceramic Processing
Ceramic processing is used to produce commercial products that are very
diverse in size, shape, detail, complexity, and material composition,
structure, and cost. The purpose of ceramics processing to an applied
science is the natural result of an increasing ability to refine, develop, and
characterize ceramic materials.
Ceramics are typically produced by applying heat to processed clays and
other natural raw materials to form a rigid product. Ceramic products that use
naturally occurring rocks and minerals as a starting material must undergo
special processing to control purity, particle size, particle size distribution,
and heterogeneity. These attributes play a big role in the final properties of
the finished ceramic. Chemically prepared powders also are used as starting
materials for some ceramic products. These synthetic materials can be
controlled to produce powders with precise chemical compositions and
particle size.
The next step is to form the ceramic particles into the desired shape. This is
accomplished by adding water and/or additives such as binders, followed by
a shape forming process. Some of the most common forming methods for
ceramics include extrusion, slip casting, pressing, tape casting, and injection
molding. After the particles are formed, these "green" ceramics undergo a
heat-treatment (called firing or sintering) to produce a rigid, finished product.
Some ceramic products, such as electrical insulators, dinnerware, and tile,
may then undergo a glazing process. Some ceramics for advanced
applications may undergo machining and/or polishing steps to meet specific
engineering design criteria.

Ceramic Properties
The properties of ceramic materials, like all materials, are dictated by the
types of atoms present, the types of bonding between the atoms, and the
way the atoms are packed together. This is known as the atomic-scale
structure. Most ceramics are made up of two or more elements. This is called
a compound. For example, alumina (Al2O3) is a compound made up of
aluminum atoms and oxygen atoms.

The atoms in ceramic materials are held together by a chemical bond. The
two most common chemical bonds for ceramic materials are covalent and
ionic. For metals, the chemical bond is called the metallic bond. The bonding
of atoms together is much stronger in covalent and ionic bonding than in
metallic. That is why, generally speaking, metals are ductile, and ceramics
are brittle. Due to ceramic materials' wide range of properties, they are used
for a multitude of applications. In general, most ceramics are:
•
o
 ▪
▪ hard,
▪ wear-resistant,
▪ brittle,
▪ refractory,
▪ thermal insulators,
▪ electrical insulators,
▪ nonmagnetic,
▪ oxidation resistant,
▪ prone to thermal shock, and
▪ chemically stable.

Types and Classification of Ceramics

Traditional Ceramics
Traditional ceramics are olden ceramics usually produced with naturally
occurring raw materials such as clays, quartz, feldspar. Often, traditional
ceramics are used to refer the ceramics in which the clay content exceeds
20 percent.
Traditional ceramics are further classified into the following types based on
their applications.

Whitewares
The name itself says whiteware! They are white in color, Results from the
use of purer raw materials, and firing at high temperatures so thus giving
sufficient strength and maturity. It may be glazed or unglazed depending
upon the need of the customer. We can further classify the whitewares into
the following categories
•
o
▪
▪
▪ Porcelain - Porcelain is a vitrified and a non porous ceramic
ware. It also translucent in nature. It is usually made up of
triaxial composition. A hard, translucent ware usually of the
triaxial composition, biscuit-fired at a low temperature and
 glost fired at a high temperature, or it may be once fired. The
body is non-porous and translucent.

•
o
▪
▪
▪ Sanitary ware - Sanitary ware is a type of ceramic ware,
which is made into larger pieces. It plays an important role
daily.
Example: Kitchen sinks, Bathtubs, Urinal Stalls, lavatories,
etc

Pottery
Pottery is a ceramic article usually made with clays; Pottery refers to old
ceramics. In traditional pottery, the articles are made using pottery wheels
for desired shapes and sizes. Here 12 tools are used for making ceramic
objects
Pottery can be made by Jiggering and Jollying process. In both of these
processes, we can make only symmetrical objects.
Jiggering process:
By this process, we can produce insulators, tableware, dinner wares, and
china dishes. In jiggering, we use a convex mold.

1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1. Wet clay is placed inside a convex mold.
2. Batting is done. Batting means a forming tool is
allowed to press the wet clay to provide an initial
rough shape.
3. The jiggering tool is heated to produce a final shape
by pressing the wet clay ( the purpose of heating the
tool is to avoid the sticking of clay in the tool; thus,
we can achieve a good efficiency)
This process applies to the fabrication of symmetrical flatwares like dinner
plates and saucers.
Jollying process
The jollying process is similar to that of the jiggering process, instead of
convex mold, concave mold is used to make the articles.
Hollowware like bowls, cups, pots, flower vases, jugs, and other symmetrical
objects can be produced by this method.

Refractories
Generally, “refractory is defined as an ability of a material to withstand high
temperature without undergoing any deformation.” It may be shaped or
unshaped. Unshaped refractories are known as MONOLITH (refractories in
powder form)
According to ASTM, the refractories are non-metallic materials having those
chemical and physical properties that make them applicable to structures or
components of the system exposed to the environment about 1538 degrees
Celsius.
According to JIS, Refractories are shaped materials that are durable at a
high temperature of about 1500 degrees Celsius, and unshaped materials
and insulating fire brick with a service temperature of about 1800 degrees
Celsius.

Abrasives
Abrasive is a material used for polishing, cutting, grinding, and making a
surface finish (for a smooth surface). Here rubbing action takes place
between a hard material and soft material, which leads to the removal of
extra or unwanted particles or grains from the soft material by friction.

Tiles
Now a day’s tiles play a major role in the field of construction. Tiles are
durable, Odourless, hygienic, fireproof, water-resistant, chemical
resistant, heat resistant, it has a long lifespan, easy to install and even cost-
effective too, this is the main reason for increasing usage of tiles in residential
as well as in commercial areas. Tiles are available in rectangular and square
shapes. They are available in different colors, patterns, and textures.
All tiles are ceramic tiles only, but they are differentiated as ceramic tiles and
vitrified tiles ( porcelain tiles which have nearly zero porosity)

Advanced Ceramics
Ceramics are considered to be pottery, refractory bricks, glasses, cement,
and abrasives. Not at all! Its usage is more than that. The last few decades
have seen the development of ceramics in various areas, and those
developments, in other words, are known as advanced ceramics.
Advanced Ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic, basically crystalline
material of rigorously controlled composition( control in grain size and shape,
phase distributions, and porosity) and manufactured with detailed regulation
from highly refined and characterized raw materials giving precisely specified
attributes. Advanced ceramics are also known as technical ceramics or
special ceramics, or high-performance ceramics. They are meant for
extreme conditions withstanding applications. For instance, highly resistant
to temperature, melting, wear, corrosion, etc.
They provide high electrical, thermal, dielectric, ferroelectric, piezoelectric,
ferromagnetic, electronic, semiconducting, superconducting, ionic, and
electro-optical properties that hatch their use in a wide range of
industries. Unlike traditional ceramics, it needs high pure raw materials some
time fine chemicals. It is mostly non-oxides.
Some of the advanced ceramic materials are
•
o
▪ Silicon

Silicon is also a popular type of ceramics and is often considered superior

because of its chemical properties. This Ceramic is very abundant as they
make up about 90% of the Earth’s crust. Sand And clays, which are used to
make common ceramics, are often based on silicon abide. For instance,
the silica ceramic is used to create fired bricks, and the kaolinite material is
used in making porcelains are silicate materials.
Properties of these types of Ceramics: This material has a brittle and hard
crystalline solid and a semiconductor.
Example of Uses: Extreme purity crystalline silicon like polycrystalline
silicon is used to make solar panels and semiconductor devices such as
integrated circuits. High-quality silicon minerals are used to create
ceramics, glass and are used as an aggregate in cement. They are
considered the most common raw materials utilized in the field of
construction.
•
o
▪ Silicon Carbide

Other types of ceramics are Silicon carbide, a high-quality semiconductor

material with carbon and silicon that naturally occurs as the extremely rare
mineral moissanite.
Properties: These types of ceramics are tough and extremely hard ceramic
and a semiconductor, which takes place in approximately 250 forms of
crystalline. This ceramic is naturally colorless but frequently colored by
impurities like iron. This shows low thermal development.
Example of Uses: This ceramic usually use in cutting tools, furnaces, brake
disks, abrasives, heating elements, as well as lighting, electrical power
systems. The natural type of silicon carbide is prized as a jewel because it
has the same appearance and hardness as diamonds. It is an artificial
substitute that is harder compared to zirconia.
•
o
▪ Titanium Carbide

This is heat resistance and a tough type of ceramic that has a black color.
Properties: The types of ceramics are heat resistance, extremely hard, and
corrosion and wear-resistant.
Example of Applications: These ceramics usually utilizes in tool bits,
machine parts, heat shields as well as watch mechanisms.
•
o
▪ Tungsten Carbide

This is a material manufactured with the same carbon and tungsten parts,
which are hard and dense.
Properties: These ceramics are dense, hard, tough, and strong with low
electrical resistivity.
Example of Applications: Industrial equipment, cutting tools as well as
sports equipment.

Each with their own special characteristics and properties, which is highly
efficient and economical. Conventional ceramics are processed by extrusion,
slip casting, pressing, jiggering, jollying, drawing, rolling, etc., where
advanced ceramics are processed by hot pressing, battery casting, and
pressure casting, etc.,
Ceramics and glasses are radically different materials than metals but are
close cousins to each other. Both typically exhibit high strength, high
hardness, high elastic modulus, unusually high chemical inertness, and are
electrical and thermal insulators. Ceramics are crystalline, while glasses are
amorphous. Hence, glasses progressively soften upon heating and never
melt, as such. Ceramics almost always exhibit high melting temperatures
and/or thermal stability.
Both ceramics and glasses are difficult to join to themselves, to each other,
and other materials (e.g., metals) because of their relative intolerance of
point loading and/or stress concentration, their chemical inertness, and
inability to wet or be wet by other materials, and because of the sensitivity to
thermal shock. A particular challenge is to ensure that any CTE difference
between a ceramic or glass and another material never exceeds about 15–
25%, or the more inherently brittle material in the joint will fracture.
Adhesive joining, chemical bonding, and welding (including brazing and
soldering) are often viable options for joining ceramics and glasses to
themselves, to each other, and even to other materials. Mechanical joining
is also possible, but great care must be taken to avoid stress concentrations
at fastening or attachment points. Integral mechanical attachments are used
for both ceramics and glasses, with rigid types and plastic types
predominating.
Glass-metal seals, including ones produced using only mechanical forces,
are technologically important, and four general techniques are (1) precision
fits or ground joints, (2) elastic compression fits, (3) deformation joints, and
(4) liquid metal seals. To be successful, both the metal and the glass used
to create glass-metal seals must have compatible but often complementary
physical and mechanical properties.

Sources:

http://www.acers.org/acers/aboutceramics.asp?id=outreach#Definition

www.laurelandwolf.com/blogs/types-of-ceramics

2.1.2 Polymers
Polymers
The word “Polymer” is derived from two Greek words, ‘Poly,’ which means
many (numerous), and ‘Mer,’ which means units. In basic terms, a polymer
is a long-chain molecule composed of many repeating units of identical
structure. We understand these identical structures as a unit made up of
two or more molecules, joining together to form a long chain.

Stated, a polymer is a long-chain molecule that is composed of a large

number of repeating units of identical structure. Those monomers can be
simple — just an atom or two or three — or they might be complicated ring-
shaped structures containing a dozen or more atoms.
A polymer is a large molecule or a macromolecule, which essentially is a
combination of many subunits. The term polymer in Greek means ‘many
parts’. Polymers can be found worldwide, from the strand of our DNA, a
naturally occurring biopolymer, to polypropylene, which is used throughout
the world as plastic. Polymers may be naturally found in plants and animals
(natural polymers) or maybe human-made (synthetic polymers).
Different polymers have some unique physical and chemical properties due
to which they find usage in everyday life.
Polymers are all created by polymerization, wherein their constituent
elements, called monomers, are reacted together to form polymer chains,
i.e., 3-dimensional networks forming the polymer bonds. The type
of polymerization mechanism used depends on the type of functional
groups attached to the reactants. In biological contexts, almost all
macromolecules are either completely polymeric or are made up of large
polymeric chains.

Classification of Polymers
Polymers cannot be classified under one category because of their
complex structures, different behaviors, and vast applications. We can,
therefore, classify polymers based on the following considerations.

Classification of Polymers based on the Source of

Availability
There are three types of classification under this category, namely,
Natural, Synthetic, and Semi-synthetic Polymers.
Natural Polymers:
They occur naturally and are found in plants and animals—for example,
proteins, starch, cellulose, and rubber. To add up, we also have
biodegradable polymers, which are called biopolymers. The easiest way to
classify polymers is their source of origin. Natural polymers are polymers
which occur in nature and are existing in natural sources like plants and
animals. Some common examples are Proteins (which are found in
humans and animals alike), Cellulose and Starch (which are found in
plants), or Rubber (which we harvest from the latex of a tropical plant ).
Semi-synthetic Polymers:
They are derived from naturally occurring polymers and undergo further
chemical modification, such as cellulose nitrate and cellulose
acetate. Semi-Synthetic polymers are polymers obtained by making
modifications in natural polymers artificially in a lab. These polymers are
formed by chemical reaction (in a controlled environment) and are of
commercial importance. Example: Vulcanized Rubber ( Sulphur is used in
cross bonding the polymer chains found in natural rubber) Cellulose
acetate (rayon) etc.
Synthetic Polymers:
These are human-made polymers. Plastic is the most common and widely
used synthetic polymer. It is used in industries and various dairy products—
for example, nylon-6, 6, polyether’s, etc. Synthetic polymers are polymers
which humans can artificially create/synthesize in a lab. Industries
commercially produce these for human necessities. Some commonly
produced polymers that we use day to day are Polyethylene (a mass-
produced plastic that we use in packaging) or Nylon Fibers (commonly
used in our clothes, fishing nets, etc.)
Types of Synthetic Polymers
Low-Density Polyethylene
Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) polymers are among the most common
types of synthetic organic polymers, often found in households. LDPE is a
thermoplastic made from the monomer ethylene. One of the first polymers
to be created was produced in 1933 by Imperial Chemical Industries using
a high-pressure process via free radical polymerization. It is manufactured
the way method today. LDPE is commonly recycled, with number 4 as its
recycling symbol. Despite competition from more modern polymers, LDPE
continues to be an important plastic grade.
High-Density Polyethylene
High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) or polyethylene high-density (PEHD) is
a polyethylene thermoplastic made from petroleum. It takes 1.75 kilograms
of petroleum (in terms of energy and raw materials) to make one kilogram
of HDPE. HDPE is commonly recycled, with number 2 as its recycling
symbol.
Polypropylene
Polypropylene (PP), also known as polypropene, is a thermoplastic
polymer used in a wide variety of applications, including packaging and
labeling, textiles, stationery, plastic parts and reusable containers of
various types, laboratory equipment, loudspeakers, automotive
components, and polymer banknotes. An additional polymer made from the
monomer propylene is rugged and unusually resistant to many chemical
solvents, bases, and acids.
Polyvinyl Chloride
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) is the third-most widely produced plastic, after
polyethylene and polypropylene. PVC is used in construction because it is
cheaper and stronger than traditional alternatives such as copper or ductile
iron. It can be made softer and more flexible by adding plasticizers, the
most popular of which are phthalates. In this form, PVC is used in clothing
and upholstery, electrical cable insulation, inflatable products, and many
applications to replaces rubber.
Polystyrene
Polystyrene (PS) is an aromatic polymer made from the monomer styrene,
a liquid petrochemical. One of the most popular plastics, PS, is a colorless
solid that is used, for example, in disposable cutlery, plastic models, CD
and DVD cases, and smoke detector housings. Products made from
foamed polystyrene include packing materials, insulation, and foam drink
cups. It is very slow biodegradation is a focus of controversy, and it can
often be found littered outdoors, particularly along shores and waterways.
Nylon
Nylon, a family of synthetic polymers known generically as polyamides,
was first produced on February 28, 1935, by Wallace Carothers at
DuPont’s research facility. Nylon is one of the most commonly used
polymers. The amide backbone present in nylon causes it to be more
hydrophilic than the polymers discussed above. Notice that your nylon
clothing will absorb water, for instance; this is because nylon can engage in
hydrogen bonding with water, unlike the pure hydrocarbon polymers that
make up most plastics.
Teflon
Teflon (Polytetrafluoroethylene or PTFE) is a synthetic fluoropolymer of
tetrafluoroethylene and has numerous applications. PTFE is a solid, high-
molecular-weight compound consisting entirely of carbon and fluorine.
PTFE is hydrophobic: neither water nor water-containing substances can
interact with PTFE. PTFE is used as a non-stick coating for pans and other
cookware because it has very low friction with other compounds. It is very
non-reactive, partly because of the strength of carbon-fluorine bonds, so it
is often used in containers and pipework for reactive and corrosive
chemicals. Where used as a lubricant, PTFE reduces friction, wear, and
energy consumption of machinery. Although the widespread belief that
Teflon is the result of NASA space projects is not true, it has been used by
NASA.
Thermoplastic Polyurethane
Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) is any of a class of polyurethane plastic.
It has many useful properties, including elasticity, transparency, and
resistance to oil, grease, and abrasion. Most of these properties are
resultant of the fact that TPU is hydrophilic and can react with water.
Technically, TPU is a thermoplastic elastomer consisting of linear
segmented block copolymers made of hard and soft segments.

Classification of Polymers based on the Structure of the

Monomer Chain
This category has the following classifications:
Linear Polymers
The structure of polymers containing long and straight chains fall into this
category. PVC, i.e., polyvinyl chloride, is largely used for making pipes, and
electric cables are an example of a linear polymer. These polymers are
similar in structure to a long straight chain which identical links connected.
The monomers in these are linked together to form a long chain. These
polymers have high melting points and are of higher density. A common
example of this is PVC (Poly-vinyl chloride). This polymer is largely used
for making electric cables and pipes.
Branched-chain Polymers
When linear chains of a polymer form branches, such polymers are
categorized as branched-chain polymers, such as Low-density
polythene. As the title describes, these polymers' structure is like branches
originating at random points from a single linear chain. Monomers join
together to form a long straight chain with some branched chains of
different lengths. As a result of these branches, the polymers are not
closely packed together. They are of low density having low melting points.
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) used in plastic bags and general-purpose
containers is a common example.
Cross-linked Polymers
They are composed of bifunctional and trifunctional monomers. They have
a stronger covalent bond in comparison to other linear polymers. Bakelite
and melamine are examples in this category. In this type of
polymers, monomers are linked together to form a three-dimensional
network. The monomers contain strong covalent bonds as they are
composed of bi-functional and tri-functional in nature. These polymers are
brittle and hard—Ex:- Bakelite (used in electrical insulators), Melamine, etc.

Other Ways to Classify Polymers

Classification Based on Polymerization

•
o
▪
▪ Addition Polymerization: Example, poly ethane, Teflon,
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The repeated addition of monomer
molecules forms these types of polymers. The polymer is
formed by the polymerization of monomers with double or triple
bonds (unsaturated compounds). Not that there is no
elimination of small molecules like water or alcohol in this
process. (no by-product of the process). Besides, polymers
always have their empirical formulas the same as their
monomers. Example: ethene n(CH2=CH2) to polyethylene -
(CH2-CH2)n-.
▪ Condensation Polymerization: Example, Nylon -6, 6,
perylene, polyesters. These polymers are formed by
monomers' combination, eliminating small molecules like
water, alcohol, etc. The monomers in these types of
condensation reactions are bi-functional or tri-functional in
 nature. A common example is the polymerization of
Hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid. To give Nylon – 66,
where molecules of water are eliminated in the process.

Classification Based on Monomers

•
o
▪
▪ Homomer: In this type, a single type of monomer unit is
present—for example, Polyethene.
•
o
▪
▪ Heteropolymer or co-polymer: It consists of different types of
monomer units. For example, nylon -6, 6

Classification Based on Molecular Forces

Intramolecular forces are the forces that hold atoms together within
a molecule. In Polymers, strong covalent bonds join atoms to each other in
individual polymer molecules. Intermolecular forces (between the
molecules) attract polymer molecules towards each other.
Note that the properties exhibited by solid materials like polymers depend
largely on the strength of the forces between these molecules. Using this,
Polymers can be classified into 4 types:
•
o
▪
▪ Elastomers:

These are rubber-like solids weak interaction forces are present—for

example, Rubber. Elastomers are rubber-like solid polymers that are elastic
in nature. When we say elastic, we basically mean that the polymer can be
easily stretched by applying a little force. The most common example of
this can be seen in rubber bands(or hair bands). Applying a little stress
elongates the band. The polymer chains are held by the weakest
intermolecular forces, hence allowing the polymer to be stretched. But as
you notice, removing that stress also results in the rubber band taking up
its original form. This happens as we introduce crosslinks between the
polymer chains, which help it retract its original position and take its original
form. Our car tires are made of Vulcanized rubber. This is when we
introduce sulfur to cross bond the polymer chains.
•
o
▪
▪ Fibers:

Strong, tough, high tensile strength and strong interaction forces are
present—for example, nylon -6, 6.
In the classification of polymers, these are a class of polymers that are
thread-like in nature and can easily be woven. They have strong inter-
molecule forces between the chains giving them less elasticity and high
tensile strength. The intermolecular forces may be hydrogen bonds or
dipole-dipole interaction. Fibers have sharp and high melting points. A
common example is that of Nylon-66, which is used in carpets and apparel.
The above was the general ways to classify polymers. Another category of
polymers is that of Biopolymers. Biopolymers are polymers which are
obtained from living organisms. They are biodegradable and have a very
well defined structure. Various biomolecules like carbohydrates and
proteins are a part of the category.
•
o
▪
▪ Thermoplastics:

These have intermediate forces of attraction—for example, polyvinyl

chloride. Thermoplastic polymers are long-chain polymers in which inter-
molecule forces (Van der Waal’s forces) hold the polymer chains together.
When heated, these polymers are softened (thick fluid-like) and hardened
when they are allowed to cool down, forming a hard mass. They do not
contain any cross bond and can easily be shaped by heating and using
molds. A common example is Polystyrene or PVC (which is used in making
pipes).
•
o
▪
 ▪ Thermosetting polymers:

These polymers greatly improve the material’s mechanical properties. It

provides enhanced chemical and heat resistance—for example, phenolics,
epoxies, and silicones. Thermosetting plastics are polymers which are
semi-fluid in nature with low molecular masses. When heated, they start
cross-linking between polymer chains, hence becoming hard and infusible.
They form a three-dimensional structure on the application of heat. This
reaction is irreversible in nature. The most common example of a
thermosetting polymer is that of Bakelite, which is used in making electrical
insulation.

Structure of Polymers
Most of the polymers around us are made up of a hydrocarbon
backbone. A Hydrocarbon backbone is a long chain of linked carbon and
hydrogen atoms, possibly due to carbon's tetravalent nature.
A few examples of a hydrocarbon backbone polymer are polypropylene,
polybutylene, polystyrene. Also, there are polymers which, instead of
carbon, have other elements in their backbone. For example, Nylon, which
contains nitrogen atoms in the repeated unit backbone.

2.1.3 Composites
Composite Materials
Composite materials (also called composition materials or shortened
to composites) are materials made from two or more constituent materials
with significantly different physical or chemical properties. When combined,
they produce a material with characteristics different from the individual
components. The individual components remain separate and distinct
within the finished structure. The new material may be preferred for many
reasons: common examples include materials that are stronger, lighter, or
less expensive when compared to traditional materials.
 Source: Types-of-composite-materials.png (850×419) (researchgate.net)

A composite material is composed of two or more components combined to

allow the materials to stay distinct and identifiable. Both components add
strength to a composite, and the combination often compensates for
weaknesses in the individual components. Composites are not the same as
alloys, such as brass or bronze. Alloys are formed in such a way that it is
impossible to tell one component from the other. Some common composite
materials include concrete, fiberglass, mud bricks, and natural composites
such as rock and wood.

Composites based on size and shape of

reinforced

Particle-reinforced composites
These materials availability is more and cheap and thus widely used
composites
They are again two kinds of composites based upon reinforcement or
strengthening mechanism
a) Dispersion-strengthened
b) Particulate-reinforced or large particle composites.
The term “large” indicates that particle-matrix interactions cannot be treated
on the atomic or molecular level.
Load interaction
•
o These reinforcing particles tend to restrain the movement of the
matrix phase in the vicinity of each particle.
o In essence, the matrix transfers some of the applied stress to the
particles, which bear a fraction of the load.
o The degree of reinforcement or improvement of mechanical behavior
depends on strong bonding at the matrix–particle interface.

Dispersion-strengthened
•
o
▪
▪ In this, particles are comparatively smaller and are of 0.01-
0.1μm in size.
▪ Strengthening occurs at the atomic/molecular level, i.e., the
mechanism of strengthening is similar to precipitation
hardening in metals.
 ▪ This involves interactions between the particles and
dislocations within the matrix.

Load interactions
•
o
▪
▪ Matrix bears the major portion of an applied load,
while dispersoids hinder/impede the motion of dislocations.
▪ Thus, plastic deformation is restricted such that yield and
tensile strengths, and hardness improve.

How is this different from precipitation[FAQ1] hardening?

•
o
▪
▪ In the dispersed strengthening, particles are chosen to be
unreactive, because of this, the strength is retained at elevated
temperature for elongated times
▪ But whereas in the case of precipitation-hardened alloy, upon
temperature rise, dissolution of precipitation phase occurs,
which decreases the strength.

Examples
•
o
▪
▪ Thoria (ThO2) dispersed Ni-alloys (TD Ni-alloys) with high-
temperature strength.
▪ SAP (sintered aluminum powder) – where the aluminum matrix
is dispersed with tiny alumina flakes (Al2O3).

Particulate-reinforced composites
•
o
▪
▪ Contain comparatively coarse particles in large amounts.
▪ Designed to produce unusual combinations of
properties rather than to improve the strength.
 ▪ Concrete
▪ This is the most familiar large-particle composite, which is
composed of cement (the matrix), and sand and gravel (the
particulates for reinforcement)
▪ The two most familiar concrete
▪ Portland
▪ Aggregate is gravel and sand.
▪ Mainly used in construction activities.
▪ Asphaltic cement
▪ Composed of 5% asphalt/bitumen cement and 95%
aggregates (stone, sand, and gravel)
▪ Used primarily as a paving material

Fiber-Reinforced Composites(FRC)
•
o
▪ These are Strong, stiff but brittle fibers are Incorporated into a
softer and more ductile matrix.
▪ This would provide improved strength and other mechanical
properties and strength-to-weight ratio.

Load interaction
•
o
▪
▪ The matrix material acts as a medium to transfer the load to the
fibers, which carry most of the applied load.
▪ i.e., fibers carry most of the load
▪ The matrix also protects fibers from external loads and the
atmosphere.
▪ Apart from the fibers' properties, the mechanical properties of
FRCs depend on the degree to which an applied load is
transmitted to the fibers by the matrix phase.
▪ Other factors that affect the mechanical properties of FRCs are
▪ Length of fibers
▪ Their orientation
▪ Volume fraction in addition to the direction of external load
application
Influence of fiber length on composite strength
•
o
▪
▪ The below figure shows a small fiber that is not throughout the
matrix where the matrix deforms around the fiber such that
there is virtually no stress transference and little reinforcement
by the fiber.

•
o
▪
▪ So, some critical fiber length is necessary for effective
strengthening and stiffening of the composite material.
▪ This critical length (lc) is dependent on
▪ The fiber diameter d
▪ It’s ultimate (or tensile) strength(σf)

Influence of fiber orientation and concentration

•
o
▪
▪ Reinforcing fibers can be introduced into the matrix in any
orientation.
▪ If the fiber is short and randomly oriented, then.
▪ Can be easily introduced into the matrix
 ▪ Exhibit relatively isotropic(same in all directions) behavior in
the composite
▪ If the fiber is a long and continuous unidirectional arrangement,
then.
▪ Exhibit anisotropic properties

Below are some of the orientation examples:

Continuous fiber composites
•
o
▪
▪
▪
▪ The reinforcement fibers are continuous from one end of the matrix to
the other end.

•
o
▪
▪
▪
▪ Maximum strength and reinforcement are achieved along
the alignment (longitudinal) direction.
▪ In the transverse direction, fiber reinforcement is virtually
nonexistent: fracture usually occurs at relatively low
tensile stresses.
 ▪ In the other directions, the reinforcement is between the
above two extremes.

Discontinuous and aligned fiber composites

•
o
▪
▪
▪
▪ Although reinforcement efficiency is lower, these are
commercially gaining an important place.
▪ E.g., Chopped glass fibers, carbon, and aramid
discontinuous fibers in many applications.
Discontinuous and randomly oriented fiber composites

•
o
▪
▪
▪
▪ The reinforcement efficiency of these fiber composites is
difficult to calculate and is usually characterized by a
parameter known as fiber efficiency parameter, K.

Structural composites
•
o
▪ Properties of these composites depend on the properties of the
constituents and the geometrical design of various structural
elements.
▪ Two classes of these composites widely used are
Laminar composites

•
o
▪
▪ These are composed of two-dimensional sheets/layers that
have a preferred strength direction.
▪ These layers are stacked and cemented together according to
the requirement.
▪ General materials used in their fabrication are metal sheets,
cotton, paper, woven glass fibers embedded in a plastic matrix,
etc.
▪ E.g., thin coatings, thicker protective coatings, claddings,
bimetallic, laminates.

Applications: Designed to increase corrosion resistance while retaining

low cost, high strength, or lightweight.

Sandwich structures

•
 o
▪
▪ As in the figure, these consist of thin layers of a facing material
joined to a lightweight filler(core) material.
▪ Neither the filler material nor the facing material is strong or
rigid, but the composite possesses both properties. Example:
corrugated cardboard.
▪ The faces
▪ Bear most of the in-plane loading and also any transverse
bending stresses.
▪ General face materials are Al-alloys, fiber-reinforced
plastics, titanium, steel, and plywood.
▪ The core serves two functions –
▪ Separates the faces and resists deformations perpendicular
to the face plane
▪ Provide shear rigidity along planes that are perpendicular to
the faces.
▪ General core materials are foamed polymers, synthetic
rubbers, inorganic cement, balsa wood.

Applications: Roofs, floors, walls of buildings, and in aircraft for wings,

fuselage, and tailplane skins.

Composite Materials based on Matrix

A fiber-reinforced composite (FRC) is a high-performance composite
material made up of three components - the fibers as the
discontinuous or dispersed phase, the matrix acts as the continuous
phase, and the fine interphase region or the interface.
The matrix is basically a homogeneous and monolithic material in which a
fiber system of a composite is embedded. It is completely continuous. The
matrix provides a medium for binding and holding reinforcements together
into a solid. It offers protection to the reinforcements from environmental
damage, transfers load, and provides finish, texture, color, durability, and
functionality.
Types of Composite Matrix Materials
There are three main types of composite matrix materials:
•
o Ceramic matrix - Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are a
subgroup of composite materials. They consist of ceramic fibers
embedded in a ceramic matrix, thus forming a ceramic fiber
reinforced ceramic (CFRC) material. The matrix and fibers can
consist of any ceramic material. CMC materials were designed to
overcome the major disadvantages such as low fracture toughness,
brittleness, and limited thermal shock resistance, faced by the
traditional technical ceramics.

o Metal matrix - Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are composite

materials that contain at least two constituent parts – a metal and
another material or a different metal. The metal matrix is reinforced
with the other material to improve strength and wear. Where three or
more constituent parts are present, it is called a hybrid composite. In
structural applications, the matrix is usually composed of a lighter
metal such as magnesium, titanium, or aluminum. In high-
temperature applications, cobalt and cobalt-nickel alloy matrices are
common. Typical MMC's manufacturing is basically divided into three
types: solid, liquid, and vapor. Continuous carbon, silicon carbide, or
ceramic fibers are some of the materials that can be embedded in a
metallic matrix material. MMCs are fire-resistant, operate in a wide
range of temperatures, do not absorb moisture, and possess better
electrical and thermal conductivity. They have also found applications
to be resistant to radiation damage, and to not suffer from
outgassing. Most metals and alloys make good matrices for
composite applications.

o Polymer matrix - Polymer matrix composites (PMCs) can be divided

into three sub-types, namely, thermoset, thermoplastic, and rubber.
Polymer is a large molecule composed of repeating structural units
connected by covalent chemical bonds. PMC's consist of a polymer
matrix combined with a fibrous reinforcing dispersed phase. They are
cheaper with easier fabrication methods. PMC's are less dense than
metals or ceramics, resist atmospheric and other forms of corrosion,
and exhibit superior resistance to electrical current conduction.
Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Composites
•
o
▪
▪ The stable form of crystalline carbon at ambient conditions is
graphite.
▪ Carbon fibers are not totally crystalline but are composed of
both graphitic and noncrystalline regions.
▪ To obtain high strength, the graphite's layer planes have to be
aligned parallel to the axis of the fiber in the matrix.

Properties:
•
o
▪
▪ These are having the highest specific strength of all reinforcing
fiber materials, even at elevated temperatures.
▪ Carbon fibers are not affected by moisture or a wide variety of
solvents.

Applications:
•
o
▪
▪ Utilized extensively in sports and recreational equipment
(fishing rods, golf clubs)
▪ Filament-wound rocket motor cases, pressure vessels, and
aircraft structural components
▪ Both military and commercial, fixed-wing and helicopters (e.g.,
as a wing, body, stabilizer, and rudder components).

Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) Composites

•
o
▪
▪ The composition of the glass that is most commonly drawn into
fibers (sometimes referred to as E-glass)
 ▪ The surface characteristics of glass fibers are essential
because even minute surface flaws can deleteriously affect the
tensile properties.

Properties:
•
o
▪
▪ Despite having high strengths, they are not very stiff and do not
display the rigidity necessary for some applications.

Applications:
•
o
▪
▪ Automotive and marine bodies, plastic pipes, industrial
floorings, and containers

Aramid Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites

•
o
▪
▪ Aramid fibers are high-strength, high-modulus materials
•
o
▪
▪ They are especially desirable for their outstanding strength-to-
weight ratios, which are superior to metals.
•
o
▪
▪ Examples of aramid are Kevlar and Nomex.

Properties:
•
o
▪
▪ These fibers have longitudinal tensile strengths compared to
other fibers, but they are relatively weak in compression.
 ▪ Even though the aramids are thermoplastics, they are resistant
to combustion and stable to relatively high temperatures.

Applications:
•
o
▪
▪ The aramid fibers are most often used in composites having
polymer matrices; common matrix materials are the epoxies
and polyesters.

Composite Matrix Material Applications

The following are common application areas of composite matrix materials:
•
o
▪ Electrical moldings
▪ Decorative laminates
▪ High-performance Cookware
▪ Sealants and gaskets
▪ Heatshield systems (capable of handling high temperatures,
thermal shock conditions, and heavy vibration)
▪ Components for high-temperature gas turbines such as
combustion chambers, stator vanes, and turbine blades
▪ Brake disks and brake system components used in extreme
thermal shock environments
▪ Components for slide bearings under heavy loads requiring high
corrosion and wear resistance
▪ Carbide drills are made from a tough cobalt matrix with hard
tungsten carbide particles inside.
▪ Components for burners, flame holders, and hot gas ducts

Other important composites

Carbon-Carbon composites
•
o
 ▪ One of the most advanced and promising engineering material is
the carbon fiber- reinforced carbon-matrix composite, often termed
a carbon-carbon composite
▪ as the name implies, both reinforcement and matrix are carbon
▪ Properties like high-tensile moduli and tensile strengths that are
retained to temperatures over 2000 C

Applications:
•
o
▪
▪ Rocket motors, as friction materials in aircraft and high-
performance automobiles
▪ For hot-pressing molds, in components for advanced turbine
engines
▪ As ablative shields for re-entry vehicles.

Hybrid composites
•
o
▪ This is obtained by using two or more different kinds of fibers in a
single matrix.
▪ The glass–carbon hybrid is one such example,e which is stronger
and tougher has higher impact resistance.
▪ In case of failure, the carbon fibers are the first to fail, at which
time the load is transferred to the glass fibers.

Sources:

William D. Callister, Jr.David G. Rethwisch: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, Wiley
publication, 2014

NPTEL material science material by Satish Vasu Kailas (IISc)