An alternative energy strategy for the

United Kingdom

Nuclear and Renewable Energy

0
Table of Contents

Introduction 2

Key international challenges of energy production 2

Key challenges of energy production in the United

Kingdom 5

Renewable technology 7
Location of the renewable technology
10
Social, economic and environmental challenges faced
by the chosen location 12

Nuclear technology
13
Location of the nuclear power station
15
Social, economic and environmental challenges faced
by the chosen location 16

Long term viability of the locations and

technologies chosen and potential new
technologies 17

List of References 19

Appendix A 23

Appendix B 27

Glossary 28

1
Introduction

Access to affordable energy is a vital element of economic growth and

development. The global energy sector is facing rising challenges in order to
meet the ever-increasing energy demand and manage supply risk while providing
worldwide welfare. This report aims to develop an alternative energy strategy for
the United Kingdom, focusing on low-carbon, particularly nuclear and renewable
technologies. Considering the key global and national challenges of energy
production and features of proposed technologies, will design most suitable
solutions for specific UK locations. An in-depth analysis of benefits and limitations
in economic, social and environmental terms, will allow the evaluation of their
role in the future energy mix.

Key international challenges of energy production

International organisations, including IEA, UN and EU actively address the issues

of energy production, unanimously highlighting three primary areas of focus:
climate change, energy security and economic development (IEA 2007, 2012,
UNFCCC 2014, EC 2009, 2013). The Kyoto Protocol, tackles the threat of climate
change by committing its Parties to internationally binding GHG reductions. As
shown in Figure1, particular regions put disproportional anthropogenic burden of
GHG,

Figure 1. Annual carbon dioxide emissions by region. Graph illustrates the growing
concentrations of CO2 due to the human activity since the industrial era. Developed
countries are primarily responsible for the current high levels of CO2 due to their
industrial activities and highly energy consuming economies. Sourced from: Carbon
Dioxide Information Analysis Center (2000)

2
therefore, Kyoto Protocol places heavier onus on developed nations, requiring
countries to meet their emissions targets (summarised in Figure 2), through
national measures and market-based mechanisms (UNFCCC 2014).

Kyoto targets

Country Target (1990-

2008/2012)
EU-15, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, -8%
Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Monaco, Romania, Slovakia,
Slovenia, Switzerland (-12%)
(UK)
US -7%
Canada, Hungary, Japan, Poland -6%
Croatia -5%
New Zealand, Russian Federation, Ukraine 0
Norway +1%
Australia +8%
Iceland +10%
Figure 2. Countries included In Annex B to the Kyoto Protocol for the first commitment
period and their emissions targets. Targets cover emissions of the six main GHG, namely:
Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). Based on: UNFCCC 2014

IEA (2013) seeks the solution to the environmental protection challenge in

improved energy efficiency, through investment in cleaner and cheaper
generation and higher share of renewables in the energy mix. Research suggests
that increased use of renewable energy can also contribute to tackling the
challenge of global energy access and security, in terms of diversified fuel
portfolio and decreased dependence on imports (EU 2009/28/EC Directive,
IEA 2013, EC 2013). Europe, being a net energy importer (EC 2013), is reliant on
foreign supply, thereby exposed to external market power. Increased domestic
energy generation from renewable resources would therefore mitigate the
vulnerability to price volatility. A diversified fuel mix, including renewable energy
generated locally could also contribute to the system flexibility and alleviate the
central shocks’ impact (IEA 2007).

Given the predicted rise in energy consumption, as shown in Figure 3 ,

3
 Figure 3. World energy consumption projections, 1990-2035 by region. Majority of the
increase comes from non-OECD, developing countries, driven by increasing population
and strong economic growth. Contrary, the OECD countries characterise by more mature
industry, slower predicted economic growth and diminutive demographic increase.
Sourced from: World Economic Forum 2013

it is essential for governments to seek innovative solutions and establish

legislative frameworks, as an access to reliable energy is vital for all economic
sectors (WEF 2013). On the European level, a range of policies has been
implemented to encourage the growth of low-carbon energy, including the EU
Climate and Energy “20-20-20” Package, setting targets of 20% reduction in
GHG emissions, raising the share of renewables to 20% and 20% efficiency
improvement, together with the EU-ETS Cap and Trade Scheme limiting the GHG
emissions (EC 2014). The EU recognises renewable energy’s potential to
contribute to the world’s supply, partially compensating for depleting fossil fuel
resources. Investing in innovative, sustainable and competitive energy also
creates an opportunity for economic development and responds to the energy
poverty issue. Furthermore, the EU through the Renewables Directive (2009)
encourages commercialisation of decentralised renewable energy systems, as
they positively impact local and regional development, employment and increase
long-term security of energy supply.

4
Key challenges of energy production in the United
Kingdom

UK electricity generation, 2013

other fuels
1.6%

renewables
15.5% coal
35%

gas
28.5%

nuclear oil
18.6% 0.8%

Figure 4. Shares of the UK electricity generation, by fuel, 2012. Majority of the current
supply of the UK electricity comes from fossil fuel sources, followed by nuclear. Based
on: DECC 2013

The high share of conventional energy sources in the UK electricity mix, as

illustrated in Figure 4 , implies significant dependence on imports and exposure to
volatile fossil fuel prices. Therefore, a shift to indigenous sources in essential in
order to assure long-term availability of affordable supply. Current research
suggests that the UK may need 20GW of new electrical generation capacity by
2020 (DECC 2011: 5), as the majority of existing nuclear and coal-powered are
either retired or closed to meet EU emissions standards. Furthermore, the UK’s
future electricity system, comprising of more intermittent (i.e. wind) and
inflexible generation (i.e. nuclear), raises further challenges in terms of meeting
energy needs. Together with doubling in electricity demand by 2050 associated
with electrification of heat and transport (DECC 2011: 6) and depletion of
conventional resources, arising challenges drive the need for a new electricity
mix. Based on the international and European legislation, the UK government has
implemented various energy regulations and incentives, driven by the major
challenges of energy security and reliability, GHG reduction and economic growth
(GOV.UK 2014a). The Electricity Market Reform White Paper, published alongside
the Renewable Energy Roadmap, outlines a strategy to ensure diverse, low-
carbon and secure electricity to deliver long-term development and attract
investment, whilst minimising consumer costs (DECC 2011, 2013). The policy

5
aims to shift balance toward a wider energy mix, including both renewable and
nuclear sources, however the estimate suggests that up to £110 billion
investment in electricity generation and transmission, with incentives for new
and existing market participants, may be required by 2020. Nonetheless, the
economic profit of Electricity Market Reform is expected to amount over £9 billion
more than business as usual over the period 2010-30 (DECC2011: 6), as
investment in low-carbon, especially renewable energy, provides a basis for
business and growth and employment opportunities.

A target of 80% reduction in GHG emissions by 2050, under the 2008 Climate
Change Act, supported by system of carbon budgets introduced through The
Carbon Plan, requiring 34% emissions reduction by 2020 (HM Government
2011: 3), efficiently and sustainably drives the transition of the UK economy.

Three low-carbon pathways will therefore be enforced in order to achieve the

decarbonisation objective, namely renewable sources, nuclear power and carbon
capture and storage (CCS). In order to fulfil the EU2009/28/EC Directive, in line
with the 20-20-20 targets, the UK has committed to meet 15% of the national
energy demand from renewable sources by 2020 (HM Government 2009), mostly
through electricity, however the strategy also includes incentives for heat and
transportation, as illustrated in Figure 5 .

Figure 5. A potential scenario to reach 15% renewable energy by 2020. The chart breaks
down the 2020 renewable energy targets between technologies, in comparison to 2008
renewable energy use based on the ‘lead scenario’. Renewables are projected to satisfy
over 30% of electricity, 12% heat and 10% of transport. Sourced from: HM Government
2009

Figure 6 analyses the final shares of different renewable technologies in 2020,

based on The UK Renewable Energy Strategy’s ‘lead scenario’.

6
 Figure 6. Illustrative mix of technologies in lead scenario 2020 (TWh). According to the
Strategy, over two-thirds of the 30% renewable electricity could come from onshore and
offshore wind, with a contribution from hydro, bioenergy, marine and other small-scale
technologies. 12% heat goal could be met through sustainable biomass, biogas, solar
and heat pumps. 10% of the UK road and rail transport energy could come from
renewable sources. Sourced from: HM Government 2009

Renewable technology

The current UK renewable strategy involves deployment of 24-32 TWh onshore

and 33-58 TWh offshore new wind generation by 2020 (DECC2011: 14). An
alternative proposed in this report suggests continued use of the UK’s most
abundant renewable energy source – wind, however shifts a significant part of
the generation capacity offshore. Figure 7 illustrates the technical principles of
wind power generation.

7
Figure 7. Diagrammatic explanation of the technical principles of wind power generation.
1. Wind causes blades to rotate, using the kinetic energy of wind. 2. Spinning shaft
turns generator to produce electrical energy. 3. Transformer increases voltage for
transmission to substation. Electricity converted from DC to AC. 4. Electricity transmitted
via power grid over long distances, or connected directly to the mains power, or
connected to a battery bank. Based on BBC (2009)

The analysis of the benefits and limitation to the wind power generation, as
shown in the Figure 8 ,

Wind power
Benefits Limitations
Free and renewable energy source Intermittent
Impact: High Impact: High
Abundant (location dependent Wildlife distribution
Impact: High Impact: Medium/Low
No carbon emissions associated with Interference:
operation – the only emissions come - electromagnetic
from manufacturing, construction and - aircraft
maintenance Impact: Medium
Impact: High
Low water consumption Noise
Impact: Medium Impact: Low
Utilising an indigenous energy source Visual impressions
decreases the nation’s dependence on Impact: Low
imported fuel
Impact: High
Allows for generation in remote locations
Impact: Medium
Operation at local or large scale
Impact: Medium
Allows the use of land beneath
Impact: Medium
Figure 8. Analysis of wind power advantages and disadvantages. Based on: PIF 2013.
Own impact rating

8
shows that advantages outweigh costs and was deemed most suitable for the
United Kingdom, as the UK wind power resources are among the largest in
Europe (GOV.UK 2014b). The proposed strategy is to use small to medium scale
wind turbines onshore and shift large-scale generation offshore. Onshore
generation could involve co-operatively owned turbines, enabling local
communities derive tangible benefits from the feed-in tariff schemes. Current
research suggest that it is more feasible to utilise very large-scale wind
generation offshore (Boyle 2012:347), hence the focus of this report. However,
as illustrated in Figure 9 , deployment of offshore technologies implies a
significant cost increase.

Figure 9. Estimated levelised cost of new electricity generating technologies in 2016.

Figures in 2009$/MWh. Offshore power generation involves higher costs than onshore
due to the higher specification materials, harsher environment, lower accessibility for
maintenance and higher electrical connection costs. Sourced from: IER (2011).
Explanation based on Boyle (2012: 346)

Nonetheless, wind speeds at sea are generally higher and more consistent than
on land (Boyle 2012: 346). Furthermore, shifting large-scale wind farms offshore,
where the planning constrains are less demanding, would improve economic
viability, as more energy can be captured from a single platform. It would also
address the issue of land use and public attitude to large-scale wind generation,
often opposed. To make the technology sustainable in the long-term, it is
essential to drive development, construction and operations costs down to
£100/MWh by 2020. Investment in innovation, developing supply chain,
minimising investment risk, access finance and ensuring cost-effective grid
investment are the priority actions in order to develop economically-viable
offshore power generation (DECC 2011: 48).

9
Location of the renewable technology

Over 20 offshore wind farms with 3308 MW capacity (GOV.UK 2014b), currently
make the UK a global leader, with potential to deploy over 40 GW by 2030, an
equivalent of all UK domestic energy consumption. This report, contrary to the
CCC advice to limit offshore wind to 13GW by 2020 (DECC 2011: 43), assumes
the cost reduction would allow the industry to unlock the full potential of UK
offshore resources and market-based approach to the generation enable
exploiting new commercial opportunities. Adequate siting of the offshore
developments is a crucial requirement in ensuring their long-term sustainability.
The planning process requires therefore making balanced decisions, taking
account of the needs of the community and other sea users as well as the impact
on the environment, marine and bird life (GOV.UK 2014b). All the maps used in
determining the location can be found in the Appendix A to this report.

Figure 10 illustrates the location for a new offshore development proposed.

10
Figure 10. Location for the potential new offshore development (Shaded light blue), with
respect to the currently planned projects. The zone is located within the UK Continental
Shelf in the southern North Sea off the coast of Norfolk (East), between the Round 3
Hornsea and East Anglia zones. Map based on: RSPB 2010

The new location could cooperate with the Round 3 developments, contributing
to the 33GW of planned generating capacity. The proximity to other zones would
allow utilising the existing transmission infrastructure and grid connection,
radically decreasing the capital costs. Wind speeds of average 9.1-9.5 m/s and
relatively shallow water depth (10-19m), could enable 5000MW additional
electricity, around 70% of the nearby East Anglia capacity (EAOWL 2012),
throughout numerous individual wind farm projects within the proposed zone.
According DECC (2011), the capex for this sort of development would amount
£2,699/kW (medium estimate) in 2015, therefore a £13,5bn investment could

11
provide enough clean energy for 2.8 million homes (see Appendix B).
Interconnection of vast energy generating clusters, would allow benefiting from
the economy of scale and enable possibility of exporting surplus energy to
mainland Europe. It is however logistically challenging, but essential to adjust
the wind farm design to the marine routes in this area. The location, falling under
the SEA2 zone regulations, would have to find a balance between the economic
activity, offshore energy resources and successful environmental protection,
involving all the relevant stakeholders at each stage of development.

Social, economic and environmental challenges faced by the

chosen location

Due to the very larger size of the proposed zone it is necessary to examine its
wider implications including the cumulative effect associated with development of
neighbouring areas. Figure 11 below presents a detailed analysis of social,
environmental and economic challenges faced by the chosen location.

Challenges
Social Landscape, Seascape The wind farm would not be visible from the
and Visual Amenity shore – minor significance
Marine archaeology Multiple ship and aircraft wrecks within the
surrounding sites, possibility of unknown sites
– moderate significance
Manpower Skilled manpower needed during the
construction, operation and maintenance
phases, possibility of outsourcing - minor
significance
Environmental Sea life disruption and Wind turbines presence, noise and vibrations
displacement: may have a significant impact on bird
ornithology, benthic species that will vary seasonally. Wind turbines
habitats, marine may prevent passage for birds – cumulative
mammals impact of moderate significance
Fish resource Underwater noise has potential to be
disruption, including detrimental to fish species, however the
species of commercial cumulative impact is expected to be of minor
importance and significance
conservation interest
Economic Commercial fisheries Exclusion of some areas from fishing activity –
cumulative impact of moderate significance
Shipping and High levels of shipping within the zone,
navigation navigational collision risk – high significance
Infrastructure and Zone includes telecoms and oil and gas
other marine activities infrastructure (pipelines). Potential major
significance impact of national importance
during construction phase, however avoidable
Technological Innovation in high capacity and resistance
challenges turbines needs, requires significant investment
- high significance
Construction risks Requires substantial capital investment and
(project-related) involves a degree of return on investment
uncertainty - high significance
Figure 11. Analysis of the social, environment al and economic challenges faced by the
chosen location. Based on: EAOWL 2012 (the assessment of the neighbouring sites)

12
Nuclear technology

According to the current UK energy strategy, nuclear power should continue to

play a vital role in the future energy mix, alongside other low-carbon
technologies. However, in order to provide low-carbon, affordable and
dependable energy, the industry must overcome some significant challenges.
These include safety and security across the whole fuel cycle, competitiveness of
nuclear power with other technologies and successful decommissioning and
waste disposal. Effective and efficient deployment of nuclear power would
contribute to employment, social and economic development, potentially enable
international energy trading (HM Government 2013:3) and diversify the national
fuel portfolio in the long term. Figure 12 illustrates the principle technical features
on nuclear power generation.

Figure 12. Diagrammatic explanation of the technical principles of nuclear power

generation. Nuclear rods use the fission energy – splitting atoms create controlled chain
reaction producing energy. Nuclear fuel rods, going up and down control the
temperature to create steam from boiling water. Stream, circulating in a closed system
drives turbine connected to a electro–magnetic generator generating electricity. Based
on: Pansini and Smalling 2006: 13

Nuclear power has therefore an indisputable potential to satisfy the global

demand for continuous, reliable supply of electricity on a large scale,
simultaneously contributing to the decarbonising efforts. Figure 13 examines the
benefits and disadvantages of nuclear power, in both economic and
environmental terms.

Nuclear power

13
 Advantages
-no CO2 emissions through
operation
-no pollutants emission
-doesn’t require much space,
Environmental
Disadvantages
-environmentally challenging disposal of
the radioactive waste
-in the event of an accident or fuel leak, a
serious threat to health, life and the

water access for turbines environment

cooling is the only
determinant
-small volume of waste
- risk of an accident during
transportation, a possible target of
terrorist attacks
-atmospheric emissions of radon during
mining
-water contamination (surface and ground
water) during mining

- low fuel, operation and - high capital cost

maintenance cost -costly disposal of the nuclear waste
-the most concentrated form -high costs of decommissioning
Economic

of energy – reduced
transportation cost
-reliable
-abundant fuel and long-term
supply

Figure 13. Advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power. Based on: Hore-Lacy (2012)

The capital cost and development time of a new nuclear power stations are
relatively high, but can be compensated by low O&M cost, illustrated in Figure 9 ,
hence the overall cost of energy conversion is competitive to the conventional,
fossil fuel-based generation. Marginal contribution of fuel cost to the overall price
of electricity, results in nuclear power’s resistance to large fuel price fluctuations.
Also, the EIA projections of increasing gas prices over next decades, encourage
nuclear technology’s competitiveness (Hore-Lacy 2012: 24).

Based on these principles, the UK plans to develop 16GW of new nuclear power,
over 8 sites by 2025 (GOV.UK 2014c), illustrated in Figure 14, utilising EPR and
AP1000, Generation III+ PWRs designs based on existing LWR technologies
(HM Government 2013).

14
 Figure 14. Sited of existing and proposed nuclear power stations In the UK. Sourced
from: GOV.UK2014c

Location of the nuclear power station

The Hickley Point C site, was through this report deemed most suitable for a new
nuclear development to satisfy UK energy needs. The new location would replace
the aging infrastructure and help to supply energy to the South, where most
needed. To provide a steady, reliable energy supply, in the 60 years of
generation planned through this project, it is essential to employ cutting-edge
technical solutions. Two EPR reactors at HPC, the first new generation type in the
UK, will be capable of generating 3,260MW electricity for 5mln homes, whilst
providing safety, economic and operational improvements over previous designs
(NAMRC2013, EDF2014). Also, placement of this development alongside existing
generators and grid connection would drive down the initial expenditure and
allow a timely deployment by the demand peak in 2025. The proximity to sea will
provide good cooling water supply, and closeness to ports decrease the fuel
transportation expenditure. Furthermore, lack of large-scale renewable
development in Somerset reinforces the need for providing a reliable energy
supply for the nanotech industry in Bristol area. The local economy at HPC has
low productivity and employment growth (DECC2011), therefore the need for
25,000 workers during the construction phase and 900 permanent positions
during operation will revitalise the labour market in the area.

15
Social, economic and environmental challenges faced by the
chosen location

Hinkley Point C has excellent potential to contribute to both local and national
economic development, however it is essential to address the challenges
analysed in Figure 15, to ensure the highest security and sustainably throughout
the operation.

Challenges
Social Local residents’ life HPC located in a rural and sparsely populated
quality area – direct impact of minor significance
Workforce Local economy will positively benefit from the
job creation, however it may be challenged to
provide local skilled workforce. New
employment opportunities for 1,900 Somerset
residents – impact of major significance
Public services and As a result of large workforce required, the
accommodation local area will be challenges to provide
adequate public services including education,
healthcare and leisure– moderate
significance
Additional traffic EDF anticipates an increase in traffic during
construction phase, M5 motorway
improvements will be required – moderate
significance
Community opposition Development HPC has been a subject to
community opposition as a nuclear power
generation and the health and safety threats –
major significance
Environmental Noise and vibration Greatest potential for impact of short-terms
activities during construction phase and from
the road traffic – minor significance
Air quality During construction phase, some dust,
particles and CO2 produced. Emissions from
operation and decommissioning predicted not
to have a significant impact on health and
environment –minor significance
Soil and land use Plant located on a poor or moderate quality
agricultural land, does not require large space
– minor significance
Ground and surface Very little evidence of chemical contamination
water – minor significance
Geology and land Area used during construction HPA and HPB,
contamination there is no significant radiochemical
contamination present, however costly and
challenging waste disposal – major
significance
Radiological Area has been a subject for radiological
screening for years, no evidence of significant
radiological contamination – minor
significance
Marine/ Coastal Cooling water intake and discharge, new-built
Geology and ecology sea wall- may have moderate impact. The
fish habitats in the area may be moderately
affected by the water temperature changes
(mitigation plans aim to prevent a loss of 14
marine species)
Economic Investment Required investment expected to amount
£16bn – major significance
Electricity price Electricity price generated at HPC expected to

16
 amount £92,5/MWh, twice the current
wholesale electricity price – major
significance
EDF (foreign Lack of domestic incentives schemes for
ownership) nuclear energy, therefore all new nuclear
development are owned by foreign companies.
Little Government control over the electricity
prices – major significance
Figure 15. Figure Analysis of the social, environment al and economic challenges faced
by Hinkley Point C development. Based on: EDF 2011

Long term viability of the locations and technologies

chosen and potential new technologies

The proposed strategy aims not only to meet the immediate needs but also
provide tong-term energy security. The offshore wind farm proposed could be
deployed relatively quickly, enabling energy generation in less than 5 years. This
would bring immediate benefits in terms of carbon reduction and added capacity;
however, the ecological limitations would be most significant in this period. In
the medium, 5-25 years term, it would still contribute to climate change
mitigation and sustainable growth. Nevertheless, the proposed location would
need to undergo a decommissioning or modernisation, as its lifespan is designed
for 20 years. The advantage of offshore production is the ability to easily
increase capacity, and the production zones partitioning would allow gradually
retrofitting ageing turbines. The Crown Estates leases are granted for 50 years,
so the proposed solution has good long-term generation potential. Extending the
lifespan of the proposed location would however require application of new
technologies, e.g. floating platforms or novel two-bladed turbines, potentially
decreasing levelised costs by 35%. A range of potential solutions could be
implemented in the monitoring, maintenance and control systems, reducing
stress on turbines and increasing their lifespan and efficiency. Thus, both location
and technology have very good long term potential through utilising a renewable
energy source, however its intermittence is a significant drawback.

The only short term implications of the planned nuclear technology would arise in
the development stage, as the power plant would not be deployed in less than 5
years time. The socio-economic benefits for the local area would cover
employment possibilities and economic revival. In the medium term, when HPC
would start generation, it could replace other decommissioned plants, supplying
reliable, low-carbon energy. During his period, evolving challenges include safe
and secure operation of the power plant and inflexibility of nuclear generation.
The 60 years of expected lifespan would provide long-term energy supply for
both domestic and industrial sectors and allow the country reach its
environmental targets. Furthermore, use of nuclear energy would mitigate the
impact of ever-increasing electricity costs for decades ahead, producing 7% of
the UK total energy at HPC (BBC 2013) once the project is completed in 2023. It

17
is however likely that more advanced technologies need to be explored in order
to ensure a steady growth and competitiveness of nuclear energy. This would
include new fission technologies such as Generation IV, small modular reactors,
evolutionary LWR’s of thorium-based generation (WNA 2014).

The combination of the renewable and nuclear methods proposed through this
report would therefore provide the UK with a good energy mix, utilising
indigenous renewable resources and dependable nuclear fuel. Efficient use
thereof would bring the UK economy tangible benefits in the short, medium and
long term. It is therefore vital for the UK Government to take adequate actions in
order to meet the challenges of climate change, energy security and economic
development.

18
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20
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Appendix A

Annual mean wind speeds offshore at 100m above the sea level.

Sourced from: BERR 2008

23
Offshore Wind Activity in United Kingdom Waters.

Sourced from: RSPB 2010

24
Marine routes within the considered zone.

Sourced from: Open Sea Map 2014

25
 UK bathymetry map.

Sourced from: DEFRA 2010

26
Appendix B

Method for calculating the offshore wind farm capex

Installed capacity: 5,000MW

Capex: £2,699/kW

Calculation: 5,000,000kW x £2,699/kW = £13,495,000,000

(Based on DECC 2011)

Method for calculating the household equivalent:

Hours in the year: 8760

Installed capacity: 5,000MW

Capacity factor – based on operational Vattenfall offshore windfarms: 30%+

Average annual UK household electricity consumption: 4,700 kilowatt hours

(kWh)

Calculation: (MW) x 1000 x 0.3 x 8760/4700 = household equivalency.

!"#$
5,000MW x 100 x 0.3 x = 2,8 million
%"$$

(Based on: EAOWZ 2014)

27
Glossary

CCC Committee on Climate Change

CCS Carbon Capture and Storage
EC European Commission
GHG Greenhouse gasses
HPC Hinkley Point C
LWR Light Water Reactor
O&M Operation and Maintenance
PWR Pressurised Water Rector

28