Dyslexia and the Learning of

a Foreign Language in
School: Where Are We
Going?
Margaret A. Crombie*
Faculty of Education, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK

The difficulties which many dyslexic students encounter in the

learning of the English language often extend to the learning of
a foreign language in school. Although this problem has been
acknowledged for some time, and although the learning of a
modern foreign language is a core element in the Scottish
curriculum, there has been little research into how modern
languages can be presented to offer the best learning
opportunities to dyslexic students. Dyslexic students are likely to
benefit from a multisensory approach to the learning of a
modern foreign language, and it seems likely that they will need
to utilize similar strategies to those used for learning their first
language. Strategies are discussed with a view to making
modern language learning more appropriate for students with
difficulties in learning. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons,
Ltd.

Keywords: dyslexia; modern languages; specific learning difficulties; curriculum;

differentiation; Scotland

INTRODUCTION

I
n a previous paper, Crombie (1997b) discussed the effects of dyslexia on
the learning of a modern foreign language in school. While there has
been much debate over the use of the term ‘dyslexia’, it is viewed here as
specific language difficulties, within a continuum from mild to extremely
severe, which are discrepant with performance in other areas. The research
was carried out in Scotland and therefore related to the Scottish education
system. The language studied was French, but it is likely that the difficulties
may extend to other foreign languages. The exact nature of problems
may vary dependent on the language being studied, with factors such as
* Correspondence to: Margaret A. Crombie, 10 Troon Drive, Bridge of Weir, Renfrewshire
PA11 3HF, UK.

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Dyslexia and the Learning of a Foreign Language 113

phonology, grammar and syntax causing different manifestations depen-

dent on the precise pattern and degree of dyslexic difficulties (Sparks,
Ganschow and Pohlman, 1989). Results of this and other studies (Sparks et
al., 1991; Ganschow, Sparks and Schneider, 1995) indicate that teaching
methodology may require reconsideration. In the present paper the author
examines the current situation on foreign language learning and discusses
where we might go from here.
Current government education policy states that all children in Scottish
schools should learn a modern European language in addition to their
mother tongue. The current European language learning programme ap-
plies to all children. Almost all pupils with learning difficulties should
participate (SOED, 1993). While few would debate the usefulness and de-
sirability to young people of learning a modern foreign language, few it
seems have found the secret of achieving success for all. While dyslexic
pupils exhibit considerable variability in their pattern of difficulties (Sey-
mour, 1994), there are nonetheless distinctive weaknesses in tasks which
involve language (Pumfrey and Elliott, 1990; Thomson and Watkins, 1990;
Miles, 1991). The general assumption that anyone who has learned to
speak her or his native language can also learn a foreign language has not
been substantiated (Dinklage, 1971; Crombie, 1997a,b; Ganschow, Sparks
and Javorsky, 1998). It is therefore important to examine where the com-
pulsory requirement of learning a second European language is taking us,
and further consideration must be given to appropriate and effective
teaching strategies that meet the needs of all pupils.
Dyslexia exists on a continuum of special educational needs (Pumfrey
and Reason, 1991), and therefore any study of dyslexia and language
learning must be set in the scene of language learning for all. For children
who have language learning problems, dyslexic or not, many of the issues
and possible solutions seem likely to be the same. The question of
whether language teaching is successful for the majority is therefore im-
portant, and it seems that in Scotland at present the answer must be in
considerable doubt (SCRE, 1999). Over the last 20 years there has been a
considerable drop in the number of pupils studying modern languages
beyond the compulsory stage. In investigating this decline, SCRE has
found a 56% drop in the number of pupils studying French to Higher
standard (i.e. to examination beyond the compulsory stage). At a time
when Europe may present greater employment opportunities than ever
before, we must look to making the teaching of modern foreign languages
as appealing as possible for all children. Findings from a previous study
involving dyslexic school pupils indicate that this group of young people
often encounter serious problems in learning modern foreign languages.
Therefore the establishment of appropriate teaching methodology is vital
to achieve maximum learning for all, especially those who, dyslexic or
not, find language learning difficult.
Reasons given for teaching a modern European language to all pupils,
including those with learning difficulties, are that it will improve motiva-
tion, open up access to culture, foster European identity, enhance under-
standing of the pupil’s mother tongue, improve cognitive learning, help
concentration, be a self-generating process, require little knowledge of a

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114 M. A. Crombie

pupil’s own language, initially generate confidence through short-term,

easily attainable primary objectives and facilitate visits abroad (Atkinson,
1992; Brown, 1992).
While all of these reasons seem admirable, a number of them may be
questioned. For example, there may be negative effects on motivation result-
ing from failure to learn a foreign language after considerable effort. Also
this failure may result in subsequent negative effects on cognitive learning,
concentration and confidence. For dyslexic pupils who are at risk of failure,
appropriate and timely assistance is essential if failure is to be minimized or,
whenever possible, avoided. In teaching English to dyslexic pupils, studies
indicate that what is good practice for dyslexic youngsters may be good
practice for most if not all learners, especially those with learning difficulties,
whether these difficulties are of a dyslexic nature or not (Ganschow and
Sparks, 1995). The purpose of this paper is to describe problems and issues
in teaching a modern foreign language to dyslexic youngsters, and to discuss
solutions that are likely to be beneficial to all those who find language
learning difficult.

THE PROBLEMS

There are a number of problems associated with dyslexia that seem likely to
affect the learning of languages. They include weakness in phonological
processing, poor working memory, poor auditory discrimination, confusion
over syntax, faulty auditory sequencing, poor self esteem, difficulties with
motor skill and automaticity, poor organizational skills, slow speed of
information processing, difficulties in object naming and limited attention
span (see e.g. Ganschow and Sparks, 1986; Snowling, van Wagtendonk and
Stafford, 1988; Gathercole and Baddeley, 1989; Rack, Snowling and Olson,
1992, Sparks et al., 1992; Miles, 1993; Griffiths, 1994; Crombie, 1995, 1997a,b;
Nicolson and Fawcett, 1995; Goswami, 1997).
When dyslexia is viewed as part of the ‘continuum of need’ (Pumfrey and
Reason, 1991), there are likely to be considerable numbers of pupils who
experience some of these problems. For children who are required to learn a
modern foreign language in the first four years of their secondary schooling,
when they are aged 12 – 16 approximately, there could be problems at some
stage (SOED, 1989, 1990). With the introduction of foreign language learning
in primary schools, many dyslexic pupils may have to learn a European
language before they reach a fair level of competency in their own language.
It would appear however that there has still been no major research in
Britain to evaluate how useful the learning of a second language is to the
group of dyslexic pupils for whom learning their own mother tongue has
proved a major obstacle.

ISSUES

There are a number of issues and questions which need to be addressed if a

resolution to the problems is to be found:

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Dyslexia and the Learning of a Foreign Language 115

Is It Appropriate to Withdraw a Pupil Who is Encountering Difficulties?

Withdrawing the young person from the modern language appeals to a
number of parents, and often to the children themselves. However, if
dyslexic students are deprived of opportunities to participate in learning a
subject that their peers find useful and which may be important for their
future, then we may fail to meet the needs of these students. On the other
hand, if able students are compelled to persist in learning a subject in which
they constantly fail, then they may become unmotivated. Emotional and
behavioural problems may result, with effects on the rest of the curriculum.
Careful and considered judgement must be exercised before decisions are
made. More importantly, initial methods of foreign language teaching must
be appropriate for all learners. The fact that modern foreign language
learning is not popular with a large number pupils beyond the compulsory
stage suggests that teaching methods are not meeting the needs of all
students.

Is Any One Language Easier to Learn than Another?

It may be that dyslexic children would find another European language that
is orthographically more similar to English easier to learn than French.
Languages such as Spanish and Italian may be easier for dyslexic pupils as
their phonology is more similar to English. For example, for pupils who may
just be coming to terms with the phonology of their own native language,
the fact that vowels consistently make the same sound, or that there are no
silent letters, could ease their learning. However, the usefulness and practi-
cality of this notion must be taken into account. Firstly, the language desired
must be taught in the school, and secondly, the pupil should foresee some
usefulness from learning the language.

If Failure is Encountered, Should a Dyslexic Student Persist in Trying to Learn?

It would seem that in the case of severely dyslexic pupils, initial experiences
of foreign language learning are manageable. However, as the demands on
memory become greater and the amount of vocabulary which the pupil
requires to know increases, memory becomes overloaded with subsequent
confusion and difficulty (Crombie, 1997b). Without a firm grasp of phonol-
ogy the pupil cannot fall back on props such as vocabulary lists or dictionar-
ies. Dictionaries are particularly problematic because of the sequencing and
working memory difficulties which dyslexic pupils often encounter. Not
only do dyslexic pupils find difficulties with letter order, they also find they
cannot remember the order even when they have practised many, many
times. It would seem likely therefore that as foreign languages are intro-
duced to pupils in primary schools, the quantity of vocabulary expected will
have reached a critical level by early in the pupil’s secondary school career.
This factor has implications for class and school management, and makes it
all the more important that effective methodologies are found to enable
pupils to cope.

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116 M. A. Crombie

Should Dyslexic Pupils Avoid the Reading and Written Elements of Modern
Language Learning?
In order to ‘help’ those who find learning difficult, many modern language
teachers believe that these pupils should avoid the reading and writing
elements of language learning and concentrate on speaking and listening at
the early stages of learning a foreign language. Reading and writing are the
areas that dyslexic children in particular find difficult; therefore many
teachers believe that to avoid these areas will be to avoid difficulties.
Advocates of this oral/aural approach consider it to be the more natural
means of communication, and suggest that concentration on speaking and
listening will enable children to understand the language being taught and
will enable children to communicate with others in the chosen language.
These assumptions however must be questioned (Sparks et al., 1991). Poor
working memory, faulty auditory sequencing and difficulties with object
naming can make retention and reproduction of vocabulary particularly
difficult for dyslexic young people. Poor auditory discrimination, poor
working memory, phonological processing difficulties and slow speed of
processing information are but a few of the problems that may make
understanding a foreign language difficult for some students. All of these
problems are well substantiated in the literature for first language acquisi-
tion in dyslexic children (Thomson, 1982; Jorm, 1983; Brady, 1986; Snowling,
1987; Gathercole and Baddeley, 1989; Rack, Snowling and Olson, 1992;
Sparks et al., 1992).

Should Modern Foreign Language Learning be Compulsory?

The difficulties that dyslexic pupils face in learning a foreign language have
only become real problems in countries where foreign language learning has
become compulsory. In some schools in the United Kingdom it is expected
that children (even those with difficulties) will learn two foreign languages.
Confusion over vocabulary and syntax that exists between English and one
foreign language can only be exacerbated by the learning of a second foreign
language.
Levine (1987) argues that those who have been unable to benefit from
foreign language teaching by conventional means should receive intensive
learning support. If this fails to meet with success, the struggle should not be
allowed to destroy their confidence in other areas. For those unable to learn
a foreign language, he contests, ‘It is certainly not worth sacrificing the
child’s academic career’ (p. 382). There may be a few children to whom this
statement might apply, but this can only be established by first providing all
pupils with the appropriate learning opportunities.

POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

While very little research has taken place into understanding foreign lan-
guage learning problems in the United Kingdom, American research may
indicate how we might best proceed. Ganschow, Sparks and Javorsky (1998)

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Dyslexia and the Learning of a Foreign Language 117

attest that success or failure in learning a foreign language is primarily

dependent on linguistic ability, and that first language skills play a critical
role in foreign language learning. Their Linguistic Coding Differences Hy-
pothesis (LCDH) proposes that poor readers and writers primarily have
problems with the structural aspects of foreign language learning but not
with semantic aspects. Phonology, orthography and syntax therefore are
likely to be problematic in the learning of second and subsequent foreign
languages. The LCDH further suggests that both foreign language and
native language learning depend on basic home language skill and that
‘problems with one language component (for example, phonological/ortho-
graphic processing) will have a negative effect on other components (for
example, vocabulary or syntax) of both native language and foreign lan-
guage acquisition’ (Sparks et al., 1998, p. 241).
In several studies, at-risk students were taught using a multisensory
structured language approach in learning Spanish, and although they did
not catch up with their peers, they made significant gains over a two year
period on measures of phonology/orthography and a foreign language
aptitude test when compared with traditional language instruction (Sparks
and Ganschow, 1993; Ganschow and Sparks, 1995; Sparks et al., 1997). While
the term ‘at risk’ is not used to refer specifically to dyslexic learners, it does
include them in the studies.

Self-esteem
Ganschow, Sparks and Javorsky (1998) argue that attitude problems and lack
of motivation are a result rather than a cause of foreign language learning
difficulties. For dyslexic pupils for whom the learning of their first language
has been problematic then, motivation and the maintenance of self-esteem
are likely to require consideration. It is therefore vitally important that
teachers and those who work with young language learners ensure that
everything possible is done to promote learning and eliminate failure.

Teaching Phonemic Awareness

The term ‘phonology’ can be taken to mean not only the ability to pronounce
words in native and foreign languages, but also the ability to learn sound/
symbol (phoneme/grapheme) correspondences in the language being
learned. It includes therefore the ability to discriminate between sounds and
to report the constituent sounds within words. This ability to identify and
report sounds is often referred to as ‘phonemic awareness’. Dyslexic children
require the explicit teaching of phonemic awareness before they can assimi-
late and understand their first language. In the same way the explicit
teaching of the phonology of a foreign language may benefit their learning of
another language (Sparks et al., 1991). This may include specific training in
listening for sounds, and identifying them in words in the same way as this
is done in English. Visual clues however are also needed to provide a
memory hook. Just as dyslexic students benefit from pictures as an ‘aide
memoire’ in English, so they may benefit in a modern foreign language.

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118 M. A. Crombie

Use of Multisensory Techniques

Highly structured cumulative multisensory teaching programmes work well
for first language learning (Gillingham and Stillman, 1956; Hickey, 1977;
Crombie, 1997a, 1999). While perfection in reading and writing may be
unattainable for the dyslexic child, nonetheless it cannot be overstated that
learning by hearing, seeing, saying and writing may provide the greatest
chance of success, especially when these processes interact simultaneously.
Fundamental components of language such as grammar, semantics and
phonology should be taught in a systematic way (Sparks et al., 1991; Gan-
schow, Sparks and Schneider, 1995). To make learning multisensory, no
channel of learning should be excluded. These recommendations are in line
with what Scottish curricular documents for primary and the early stages of
secondary schools (The 5 – 14 Programme) advise: that the four attainment
outcomes of language are in constant interaction and should be developed in
a balanced and progressive manner. Writing is seen as having ‘an important
function in supporting language acquisition’ (SOED, 1993, pp. 2–3).

Additional Time for Children to Process Information

The time taken by dyslexic pupils to tackle phonological tasks too has
implications for teaching. Just as dyslexic students often require time to
process instructions given in English, they may require additional time to
process a different language (Myer and Ganschow, 1988; Crombie, 1997b).
While it is important that students hear the language at the speed it is
actually spoken, in the early stages of learning it may be important to slow
the speed of language presentation to allow those who process more slowly
a chance to understand.

Differentiation
‘Differentiation could be defined as a planned process of intervention in the
classroom to maximize potential, based on individual needs’ (Edwards, 1998,
p. 38). Differentiation needs to be planned for children at different levels,
and should enable all pupils to demonstrate what they can achieve. When
work is effectively differentiated, all pupils should experience satisfaction in
their learning. Differentiation can take various forms: for example when
assessing listening skills, differentiating material by task may involve some
pupils in writing their responses while another group draw them, and yet
another put their answers onto audiotape. In a group assignment, good
readers and writers can present the reading and written elements of the
presentation while the less able language learners make an oral or artistic
presentation. Differentiation by outcome happens during oral work as teach-
ers accept varying levels of response to questions and activities knowing that
not all pupils are able to produce the same answers. Teachers’ responses to
written work can similarly be suited to the known abilities of the pupil, in
such a way that all pupils feel their work is being valued. Spelling al-
lowances where appropriate can be made (Ganschow, Sparks and Javorsky,
1998). Sensitivity is required on the part of the teacher to ensure that

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Dyslexia and the Learning of a Foreign Language 119

marking criteria do not deter the pupils from presenting their best efforts,
even though these may not match other pupils (Edwards, 1998). Homework
may also need to be differentiated. Differentiation however does not need to
take place all the time, and the multisensory teaching which suits the
dyslexic learner may prove helpful to others as well.

Modelling
Dyslexic students could have a model of written work from which to copy
or check. This can involve the use of vocabulary cards, each with words
written on them. Dyslexic students can sequence the cards into sentences,
and use as a model from which to copy. It may not be possible for dyslexic
students to produce significant written work owing to the problems they
have. Any written homework must be checked before it is sent home,
because even when students have a model from which to copy, they may
make mistakes. Teachers need to be aware of this so that they can ensure
accuracy. Picture and word cards (words on one side and vocabulary on the
other) are an effective method of presenting vocabulary. Where possible, this
should be supported by a tape to give the correct pronunciation of the
vocabulary words.

Video Presentation
Video is an excellent means of presenting material in an authentic way to
students. Subtitles are essential to offer maximum learning. It has been
found that in many European countries, dyslexic students are less dyslexic in
English than they are in their first language (Miller-Guron and Lundberg,
1997). In most European countries except Britain, English language television
is readily available with subtitles. As most young people spend a consider-
able amount of time watching television, it seems likely that television is
benefiting foreign language learning of English for European students. As
European language programmes are not readily available to British children,
this means that European students bring to their language learning a dimen-
sion which is not generally found in the United Kingdom. While it may be
that dyslexic students will not benefit much from the reading of the subtitles
if their reading is weak, even a small amount of information gained may still
be worthwhile.

Making Learning Fun

Activities and games carried out in the target language are vital to increase
the pleasure that can be gained from language learning. Early learning
activities, such as following instructions to touch their heads, feet, etc., can
offer not just vocabulary reinforcement, but opportunities for overlearning
and repetition which will increase all-round competence. Physical move-
ment and exercise can play a significant role in enhancing learning generally
and increasing the multisensory nature of the language experience (Hanni-
ford, 1995; Dobie, 1996). Overlearning through repetition of activities is a key
principle in first language teaching for dyslexic students (Miles, 1989; Augur

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120 M. A. Crombie

and Briggs, 1992), and the avoidance of boredom is vital if interest and
motivation are to be maintained. The use of games and activities which offer
opportunities for overlearning in an attractive and enjoyable multisensory
way can give the reinforcement necessary and can still be fun for the
students (McColl and Thomas, 1997).

Making Learning Realistic

All children need to have experiences which they can personally relate to
their lives. While it may be relatively easy to teach pupils to respond when
asked for their age in another language, the reality of going to a European
country is that they will seldom be asked this in casual discourse. They will
however have to find their way from one place to another, buy food in the
shops, order food in a restaurant and offer money and check change. It is
important to teach children the skills they will require to survive and
communicate effectively in a foreign country.

Metacognition
Metacognition, which is essentially thinking about thinking, can be vital to
enable young people to maximize their learning (Reid, 1998). Just as
metacognition is important to learning generally, so it is important to
modern foreign language learning (Myer and Ganschow, 1988; Schneider,
1999). Students need to know how they learn best and be able to apply what
they know. They need to know which learning strategies work for them; for
example, they need to know about visual and auditory mnemonics and be
able to choose which type will work best for them. They need to know the
best technique for practising spelling. The desirability of using a LOOK,
SAY, COVER, WRITE and CHECK routine will for many be vital if they are
to remember spellings in any language (Bryant and Bradley, 1985).

Paired Learning
Paired reading, writing and spelling are strategies which most teachers
know and use; yet they are seldom used to help in modern language
learning. Schools that do use these techniques find them helpful (Topping,
1995). In any mainstream secondary school there may be a handful of
students who have reached a high standard in their modern language and
who will pursue it into higher education. If these students have any extra
time in their timetables or can offer part of a lunch break, this can often help
younger struggling students.

Information Technology
The potential of information technology is huge, and yet few teachers and
schools are currently making use of this potential. The computer is not just
a tool that can be used to reinforce teaching of a foreign language. It can be
used for a whole variety of activities. Opportunities to have an e-mail pal as
well as a pen pal are challenging, and accessing information in the language

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Dyslexia and the Learning of a Foreign Language 121

being taught for subjects other than languages must surely be another
challenge. For students who find reading and typing hard, help and support
will be required. The potential of voice-to-text and text-to-voice technology
is gradually coming into use, yet there are many teachers, schools and
students who are not yet aware of its potential (Crombie and Crombie, 2000).

Support to Foreign Language Teachers

The importance of support to foreign language teachers as well as their
students must be recognized. Classroom teachers need the help and support
of specialists who understand students’ difficulties and how these may be
ameliorated. This need has been recognized by the Scottish Office, which
recommends that ‘for the class teacher with little or no experience or training
in providing for pupils with special educational needs, these tasks will be
formidable. The SEN specialist’s role will then be to provide whatever
assistance the class teacher requires in order to come to terms with these
new aspects of his/her role’ (SOEID, 1996, Section 1, p. 14). The report also
suggests that where a number of class teachers can be gathered together,
then staff development can be conducted on a whole-school or area basis.

CONCLUSION

The effect of failure to successfully learn a foreign language on a dyslexic

student who may have experienced considerable failure throughout his or
her learning can be to cause a lack of motivation and a lowering of
self-esteem. Experimental work is needed to determine if the previously
mentioned techniques found successful for pupils with difficulties in first
language learning will indeed be successful in the modern language class-
room. While work is under way to encourage teachers to reflect on current
practice (e.g. SCRE, 1999), the long-term effectiveness of various techniques
for the learning of modern languages can only be established by further
research. Where this concerns dyslexic students, it must not become the
preserve of special needs staff. Effective provision for all will require modern
language teachers to collaborate with special needs staff to find the most
effective solutions.

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