TEXT 

BOOK:
y R.C.Hibbeler, 2006, ”Structural Analysis”, Sixth Edition, 
Prentice Hall. 
ll

REFERENCES: 
y K.Leet, C.‐M. Uang,2002, “Fundamentals of Structural 
K L t  C M  U  “F d t l   f St t l 
Analysis”, McGraw Hill. 
y West, H.H., 1993, "Fundamentals of Structural Analysis", 
2nd ed, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
y Timoshenko, S.P., and Young, D.H., 19xx, "Theory of 
Structures , McGrawHill,
Structures", McGrawHill,
 Deflection of Beams and Frames
When a structure is loaded its elements deform
•When
•These deformations change the shape of the structure
•Although deformations are generally small,
small the designer
has to be able to estimate their magnitude to make sure
th do
they d nott exceedd the
th limits
li it given
i by
b the
th design
d i code d
•There are several methods to compute deflections in
beams and frames:
– Double integration method
– Moment area method
– Conjugate beam method
– Work/Energy methods
–Others
Oh
Importance of Beam
Deflections
A designer should be able to determine deflections, i.e

‰ In
I bbuilding
ildi codes
d ymax ≤ Lbeam/300.
/300

‰ Analyzing statically indeterminate beams involve the use of

various deformation relationships
 Derivation
of
Beam’s Elastic Curve Differential Equation
Beam Bending Strain
To understand the bending stress in an arbitrary
loaded beam, consider a small element cut from the
beam
b as shown
h in
i the
h diagram
di at the
h left.
l f The
h beam
b
type or actual loads does not effect the derivation of
bending strain equation. Recall, the basic definition
normal strain is

ε = ΔL/L

Using the line segment, AB, the length before and

after bending can be used to give

A' B ' − AB
ε=
AB

The line length AB is the same for all locations before bending. However, the
length A'B' becomes shorter above the neutral axis (for positive moment) and
longer below
below. The line AB and A A'B'
B can be described using the radius of curvature,
curvature
ρ, and the differential angle, dθ.
 BENDING DEFORMATION
OF A STRAIGHT MEMBER
Assumptions:
A) Plane section remains plane
B) Length of longitudinal axis remains unchanged
C) Plane section remains perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis
Fig. 6‐20 D) In-plane distortion of section is negligible

Fig. 6‐21
Poisson effects that cause εy & εz can be neglected. 
Recall assumption:  any deformation of cross‐section 
within its own plane can be neglected.
POISSON’S RATIO EFFECTS
Ki
Kinematics
ti
Kinematics
 AB = ρ .dθ

A' B ' = ( ρ − y ).
) dθ

( ρ − yy)).dθ − ρ .dθ
ε=
ρ .dθ
y
ε =−
ρ

This relationship gives the bending strain at any location as a

function of the beam curvature and the distance from the neutral axis.
However, this equation is of little use, and needs to be converted to
stress. Also, radius of curvature is difficult to determine at a given
b
beam location.
l i
Beam Bending Stress
The strain equation above can be converted to stress by using Hooke's law, σ = Eε,
giving,
σ = -Ey/ρ
Ey/ρ (1)

There is still the issue of not knowingg the radius of curvature,, ρ.

ρ If one thinks about
it, the radius of curvature and the bending moment should be related.
This relationship can be determined by
summing the moment due to the normal stresses
on an arbitrary beam cross section and equating
it to the applied internal moment.
moment This is the
same as applying the moment equilibrium
equation about the neutral axis (NA).

∑M NA =0

M = ∫ y.(− dF )
Beam Section Cut

M = − ∫ y.σ .dA
 For a positive moment, the top stresses will be in compression (negative stress) and the
bottom stresses will be in tension (positive stress) and thus the negative sign in the
equation. This equation can be changed by using equation (1),
E
M= ∫ .dA
2
y
ρ
It is interesting to note that the integral is the area moment of inertia, I, or the second moment
of the area. Many handbooks list the moment of inertia of common shapes .
A review of moment of inertia is given below in the next sub-section. Using the area
moment of inertia gives
g

M=EI/ρ
But the radius of curvature, ρ, is still there. But equation (1),
ρ = -Ey/σ , can be used again to eliminate ρ, giving,

E I /(-Ey/σ ) = M
Simplifying and rearranging gives, This equation gives the bending normal stress, and is
My also commonly called the flexure formula. The y term
σ bending =− is the distance from the neutral
ne tral axis
a is (up
( p is positive).
positi e)
I
The I term is the moment of inertia about the neutral
axis.
Sk t hi Deflected
Sketching D fl t d Shapes
Sh off Beams
B
p
The deflected shape of a beam must be consistent with
y The restraints imposed by the support
y The curvature produced by the moment

Positive moment bends the beam 
P iti   t b d  th  b  
concave upward and negative 
moment bends the beam concave 
d
downward.d

+
Locating the Neutral Axis
If the cross section is symmetrical about the horizontal axis, then the neutral axis is
halfway between the top and bottom. However, for non-symmetrical beam, such as
a "T"
T cross section,
section the neutral axis is not halfway between the top and bottom,
bottom and
needs to be determined before the bending stress equation can be used.

The neutral axis is located at the centroid (geometric center) of the cross section.
section
Recall from Statics, the centroid can be found using two methods. The first is by
integration,

y= ∫ y.dA

∫ dA
The second, and more common method, is the method of Centroid for Arbitrary Shape
parts The beam cross section is split into geometric shapes
parts.
that are common (rectangle, triangle, circle, etc.). The
centroid of basic shapes can be found in handbooks,
eliminating the need for integration.
integration The centroid is

y= ∑ y .dA i i

∑ dA i Centroid Based on Sub-shapes

If there is a hole, then that area is considered to be negative, and the same equation
used As an example,
can still be used. example the diagram at the right would be

A1 y1 + A2 y2 − A3 y3
y=
A1 + A2 − A3

Area Moment of Inertia

Similar to the centroid, the area moment of inertia can be found by either integration or
by parts. The moment of inertia is also called the "second moment of the area" since that
g
describes the integration equation,
q ,

I = ∫ y .dA 2

When using this with the bending stress Moment of Inertia around Neutral Axis
equation, I is about the neutral axis and not using Integration
the x-axis
A more common method to find the moment of inertia is by parts. Like finding the centroid
( d to bbe ddone fi
(needs first),
) the
h object
bj is i split
li into
i smaller
ll basic
b i shapes.
h The
Th moment off inertia
i i
about the centroid of each part can be found in a handbook. Then the individual moment of
inertia's are moved to the neutral axis using the parallel axis theorem. For a particular sub-
shape, this gives

I NA−i = I i + A y 2
i i

where Ii is the moment of inertia about its own shape and

INA-i is the moment of inertia about the object's neutral axis.
All the moment of inertia terms can then be added together
to give,
g

INA = Σ INA-I
For the diagram at the rightt, the parts method gives, Moment of Inertia around
the Neutral Axis using Parts
I = (I1 + A1 y12) + (I2 + A2 y22) - (I3 + A3 y32)

Notice,, for a hole,, the moment of inertia is subtracted for

that shape.

Beam Deflection, y, and Slope, dy/dx
Beam Deflection  y  and Slope  dy/dx
Previously, beam stresses and strains were investigated and
various equations were developed to predict bending and
shear stresses. In addition to stresses, deflection and slope
are important and need to be calculated. This section (and
this chapter) will deal with various methods to calculate
beam deflections.

B
Beam Deflection
D fl ti Differential
Diff ti l E
Equation
ti
When a moment acts on a beam, the beam rotates and
deflects. The relationship between the radius of curvature, ρ,
and the moment, M, at any given point on a beam was
developed in the Bending Stress and Strain section as

1
ρ = M
EI
This relationship was used to develop the bending stress equation but it can also be used to
derive the deflection equation.
Recall from calculus,
calculus the radius of curvature for any point of a function,
function y = f(x),
f(x) is

( ) ⎤⎥⎦
3

⎡1 + 2 2
dy

ρ =
⎢⎣ dx
d 2y
dx 2
Kinematics of the cross section

•Plane section remains plane

•No shear deformation
Pl
Plane section
i always
l normall
to NA
 Sign Convention
y
M>0

y ' ' ( x) > 0

x

The deflection is measured from the y

original neutral axis to the neutral axis
of the deformed beam.
beam
M<0
The displacement y is defined as the
deflection of the beam y" ( x) < 0 x
 ds = ρdθ
1 dθ
∴ κ= = : Curvature (1)
ρ ds
dy ⎛ dy ⎞
tan θ = , θ = arctan⎜ ⎟ (2)
dx ⎝ dx ⎠
dyy
t θ ≈ θ : Slope
= tan Sl (3)
dx
θ 3 2θ 5
tan θ = θ + + + ⋅⋅⋅
3 15
if θ << 1, tan θ ≈ θ
dy
= tan θ : Slope (2)rpt.
dx

d 2 y dx d (tan θ ) dθ dθ
= = sec 2
θ
dx 2 ds dθ ds ds
dθ d 2 y dx
∴ = 2 cos 2 θ (a)
ds dx ds
dθ 1
where, = = κ : Curvature
ds ρ
 2 2
⎛ ds ⎞ ⎛ dy ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 1 + ⎜ ⎟
d
dx
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ dx
d ⎠

dx 1
= cosθ = (b)
ds [
1 + (dy / dx) 2 ]
1/ 2

dθ d 2 y dx dθ
1 d 2 y / dx 2
= 2 cos 2 θ κ= = =
ds dx ds
(a)
ρ ds
d 1 + (dy
d / dx [
d )2 ] 3/ 2
(4)

curvature ≡ 1
ρ = dθ
ds

curvature   :  the change in slope per unit length
of distance along the curve
dy/dx<<1 (dy/dx)2 ≈ 0

1 dθ d 2 y / dx 2
= = 1 d2y
ρ ds [
1 + (dy / dx) 2 ] 3/ 2
(4) rpt.
≈ 2
ρ dx
(5)

d2y M EI
= : Moment-Curvature Eq. (6) M= (..)rpt.
dx 2
EI ρ

dy d2y dM
y' ≡ , y' ' ≡ 2 , M ′ ≡ , etc (7)
dx dx dx

EIy ' ' = M : Moment-Cur

Moment Curvature Equation (8)
Solving the Deflection Differential Equation (Moment-Curvature Equation)
Th differential
The diff ti l equation
ti EIy
EI = M is i nott useful
f l by
b itself
it lf but
b t needs
d to
t be
b applied
li d to
t a beam
b
with specific boundary conditions. Generally, EI is constant and M is a function of the beam
length. Integrating the equation once gives,

EIy ' = ∫ M (x ).dx + C1

Integration again gives,
EIy = ∫∫ M ( x ).dx + C1.x + C2

The integration constants, C1 and C2, are determined from

the boundary conditions. For example, a pinned joint
requires the deflection, y, equals 0. A fixed joint requires
both the deflection, y, and slope, y´, equal 0. Each beam
section must have at least two boundary conditions.
Each beam span must be integrated separately, just like
when constructing a moment diagram. If the moment curve
is discontinuous,
discontinuous then a single equation cannot model the
deflection. Thus, each new support or load will start a new
beam section that must be integrated (ie. Each Beam Section
R i its
Requires it Own
O D Deflection
fl ti Equation).
E ti ) Each Beam Section Requires 
Examples of beam sections are shown at the right. its
Own Deflection Equation
Boundary conditions
F
A C B
yA = 0 yB = 0

F
yD = 0 D

θD = 0

Continuity condition： yC − = yC + A
P
B
C

Smooth condition： θC = θC
− +

yc
Boundary Conditions
Determining
D t i i the
th boundary
b d conditions
diti is
i usually
ll
the most difficult part of solving the deflection
q
differential equation. In pparticular,, boundary
y
conditions for multiple beam sections can be
confusing.

For multiple beam sections, many times the

boundary y between the sections creates a
boundary. These type of conditions are also called
"Continuity Conditions". For example, a point
f
force on a bbeam causes the
th deflections
d fl ti to
t be
b split
lit
into two equations. However, the beam's
deflection and slope
p will be continuous at the load
location requiring y1 = y2 and y´1 = y´2. These
conditions are needed to solve for the additional
i t
integration
ti constants.
t t

The table at the right

g summarizes most common
boundary (and continuity) conditions for beam Boundary Conditions for Beam Sections
deflection and slope.
The Integration Procedure

Integrating once yields to slope dy/dx at any point in the beam. 

Integrating twice yields to deflection y for any value of x.

x

The bending moment M must be expressed as a function of the coordinate x

before the integration

Differential equation is 2nd order,

order the solution must contain two constants
of integration. They must be evaluated at known deflection and slope
points (i.e. at a simple support deflection is zero, at a built in support both
slope and deflection are zero)
 y
L Examples
p
x M = − PL + Px
x
P d2y
PL EI 2 = M
P dx
d2y
@x=x EI 2 = − PL + Px
d
dx
dy x2
Integrating once EI = − PLx + P + c1
dx 2
dy
= 0 ⇒ EI (0 ) = − PL(0 ) + P
( 0)
2
+ c1 ⇒ c1 = 0
@x=0
dx 2
2 3
PLx x
Integrating twice EIy = − + P + c2
2 6 3
@ x = 0 y = 0 ⇒ EI (0 ) = −
PL 2
(0) + P (0) + c2 ⇒ c2 = 0
2 6
PL3
PLx 2 x3 @ x = L : y = ymax Δ max =
EIy = − +P 3EI
2 6
PL L2 L3 PL3 PL3
EIymax =− +P =− ⇒ ymax = −
2 6 6 3EI
 y
W kN per unit length
W
M = − (L − x )
2
x 2
x
WL2 WL L d2y
EI 2 = M
d2y W dx
2 EI 2 = − (L − x )
2
@x=x
d
dx 2

ddy W (L − x )
3
Integrating once EI = + c1
dx 2 3

W (L − 0 )
3
dy WL3
@x=0 = 0 ⇒ EI (0 ) = + c1 ⇒ c1 = −
dx 2 3 6

dy W WL3
= (L − x ) −
3
∴ EI
dx 6 6
 W (L − x ) WL3
4

Integrating twice EIy = − − x + c2

6 4 6

y = 0 ⇒ EI (0) = −
W (L − 0)4 − WL3 (0) + c ⇒ c2 =
WL4
@x=0 2
6 4 6 24

3 4
W WL WL
EIyy = − (L − x ) −
4
x+
24 6 24

Max. occurs @ x = L
W L4 WL4 WL4 WL4
EIymax =− + =− ⇒ ymax = −
6 24 8 8 EI

WL4
Δ max =
8 EI
 y x

L
WL WL
2 W
WL x 2
M= x − Wx
W
2 2
d 2 y WL x2
EI 2 = x −W
dx 2 2
dy WL x 2 W x 3
Integrating EI = − + c1
dx 2 2 2 3
L dy
Since the beam is symmetric
y @ x = =0
2 d
dx
2 3
⎛ ⎞
L ⎛ ⎞
L
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
L WL ⎝ 2 ⎠ W ⎝ 2 ⎠ WL3
@ x= EI (0 ) = − + c1 ⇒ c1 = −
2 2 2 2 3 24
dy WL 2 W 3 WL3
d
∴ EI = x − x −
dx 4 6 24
 WL x 3 W x 4 WL3
Integrating EIy = − − x + c2
4 3 6 4 24

WL (0 ) W (0 ) WL3
3 4

@ x = 0 y = 0 ⇒ EI (0 ) = − − (0) + c2 ⇒ c2 = 0
4 3 6 4 24

WL 3 W 4 WL3
∴ EIy = x − x − x
12 24 24

5WL4
Max. occurs @ x = L /2 EIymax =−
384

5WL4
Δ max =
384 EI
 y x
P
x

P L/2 L/2 P
2 L P 2
f 0< x<
for M= x
2 2
2
d y P L
EI 2 = x for 0 < x <
dx 2 2
dy P x 2
Integrating EI = + c1
dx 2 2
L dy
Since the beam is symmetric
y @ x = =0
2 d
dx
2
⎛ ⎞
L
⎜ ⎟
L P ⎝2⎠ PL2
@ x= EI (0) = + c1 ⇒ c1 = −
2 2 2 16
dy P 2 PL2
d
∴ EI = x −
dx 4 16
 P x 3 PL2
Integrating EIy = − x + c2
4 3 16

P (0 ) PL2
3

@x=0 y=0 ⇒ EI (0 ) = − (0) + c2 ⇒ c2 = 0

4 3 16

P 3 PL2
∴ EIy = x − x
12 16

PL 3
Max. occurs @ x = L /2 EIymax =−
48

PL3
Δ max =
48EI
Beam’s Elastic Curve Differential Equation
B ’  El ti  C  Diff ti l E ti
2
d y M
2
=
dx EI
But,

V= dM
dx

q= dV
dx
Example
A mechanical assembly system moves sensitive electronic
parts from one location to another using a small cantilever
beam. The beam has two sections as shown in the diagram.
The
Th electronic
l i parts will
ill only
l be
b located
l d on the
h extended
d d
section of the beam. The deflection of the beam tip is
critical in the assembly process.
What is known:
A solid steel beam supports electronic parts over half of the
beam.
beam
The parts have an average weight per area of 0.04 N/mm2.
The steel stiffness, E, is 200 GPa.
The two beam parts are rigidly connected
connected. Cantilever Beam Used to 
The beam is attached to the delivery mechanism and the move Electronic Parts
connection can be assumed to be fixed.
Question :
What is the deflection of the beam tip?
Approach :
•Modify the area load to a linear load.
•Determine the moment of inertia and the moment equations for both beam sections.
•Identify the boundary conditions.
•Integrate the moment equations to find the deflection equations.
The deflection at the beam tip can be determined by first
findingg the moment equations
q and then integrating
g g those
equations. There are actually two moment equations,
one for each half, since the load and beam structure is
not continuous.
continuous Four boundary conditions will be
needed, two for each beam section.

Moment Equation and Diagram Beam Loading

To determine beam deflections is to integrate the moment equation. This requires that the
momentt equation
ti isi known
k b f
before starting
t ti theth integration.
i t ti Thi can be
This b done
d b cutting
by tti eachh
beam section and developing a moment equation as a function of the beam location, x.
For the cantilever beam, there are two sections, the first one is from point A to B and the
second is from point B to C. Making a cut in the first sections and solving for the moment and
shear at the cut surface gives,

V1 = -0.48x N
M1 = -0.24x2 N-mm

The second cut in section 2 gives

V2 = -24.0
24 0 N
M2 = -24 (x - 25) N-mm
= -24x + 600 N-mm
Moment Equation and Diagram
To determine beam deflections is to integrate the moment
equation. This requires that the moment equation is known
before starting the integration. This can be done by cutting
each beam section and developing a moment equation as a
function of the beam location, x.

For the cantilever beam, there are two sections, the first one
is from point A to B and the second is from point B to C.
M ki a cutt in
Making i the
th first
fi t sections
ti andd solving
l i for
f the
th
moment and shear at the cut surface gives,

V1 = -0.48x N
M1 = -0.24x2 N-mm

The second cut in section 2 gives

V2 = -24
24.00 N
M2 = -24 (x - 25) N-mm
= -24x + 600 N-mm

The equations are plotted at the right. Moment and Shear Diagrams
Beam Properties
B  P i

3mm
The moment of inertia for a rectangular cross 
section gives, 
12mm
I1 = 12(3)3/12 = 27.0 mm4
I2 = 16(5)3/12 = 166.7 mm4

The material stiffness, E, is given as
5mm
E = 200 GPa
     G = 200×10
  9 N/m
/ 2 (1 m/1000
(  / mm))2
= 200,000 N/mm2 16mm
Integrating Moment Equations
The deflection of any beam can be found by integrating the basic moment differential 
equation, 

EIy´´ = M

However, each section must be integrated separately. Integrating section AB twice 
However  each section must be integrated separately  Integrating section AB twice 
gives, 
(200,000)(27) y = ∫ (−0.24 x + 600)dx
'

5.4 ×106 y ' = −0.08 x 3 + C1

5.4 × 106 y ' = −0.02 x 4 + C1 x + C2

Recall, y is the deflection and y´ is the slope of the beam. The constants of integration, 
C1 and C2,, must be determined from the boundary conditions (see below).
y ( )

Integrating the second beam section BC, gives
(200,000)(166.7) y ' = ∫ (−24 x + 600)dx

33.33 ×106 y ' = −12 x 2 + 600 x + C3

33.33 ×106 y = −4 x3 + 300 x 2 + C3 x + C4

Boundary Conditions

There are four constants of integrating that 
need to be defined. This requires four 
boundary conditions. 

The first two conditions are due to the fixed 
joint at the right end. This requires both the 
deflections, v, and the slope, v´, to be zero. 
These are listed in the table at the right as 
conditions 1) and 2).

Another two conditions can be identified at 
A th  t   diti    b  id tifi d  t 
the joint between beam sections 1 and 2.
Since the beam is continuous, the beam 
deflection and slope on either side of the 
joint must be equal. This gives the third and 
,
fourth condition, as listed in the table. Four Boundary Conditions
Determining Constants
With the four boundary conditions defined, four equations can 
now be constructed which will allow all four constants to be 
determined. 
determined  

Generally, boundary conditions can be applied so that only one 
constant is present in a given equation. However, sometimes 
 i    i     i   i  H   i  
two or three equations will need to be solved simultaneously. 

Boundary Condition 2)  v´2 = 0 at x = 100 mm

33.33×106 y´ = ‐12x2 + 600x + C3
33.33×106 (0)    12(100)2 + 600(100) + C3
(0) = ‐12(100)
C3 = 60,000 N‐mm2

Boundary Condition 1)  v2 = 0 at x = 100 mm
33.33×106 y = ‐4x3 + 300x2 + C3x + C4
33.33×106 (0) = ‐4(100)3 + 300(100)2
+ 60,000(100) + C
 6 ( )   C4
C4 = ‐5.0×106 N‐mm3

Four Boundary Conditions
 y´1 = y
Boundary Condition 4)  y  y´2 at x = 50 mm
at x   50 mm

0.08 x 3 + C1 − 12 x 2 + 600 x + C3
=
5.4 ×106 33.33 ×106
− 0.08(50)3 + C1 − 12(50) 2 + 600(5) + 60,000
=
5.4 ×106 33.33 ×106

C1 = 19,720 N − mm 2

Boundary Condition 3)  y1 = y2 at x = 50 

mm Four Boundary Conditions
− 0.02 x + C1x + C2 − 4 x + 300x + C3 x + C4
4 3 2
=
5.4 ×106 33.33 ×106

− 0.02(5) 4 + 19,720(50) + C2 − 4(50)3 + 300(50) 2 + 60,000(50) − 5 × 106

=
5.4 ×106 33.33 ×106

C2 = −1,145,000 N − mm3
Final Deflection Equations

q
The final deflection equations for both beam sections 
are

= ‐3 704×10‐99x4 + 0.003652x ‐

y1 = ‐3.704×10 + 0 003652x ‐ 0.2120 mm 
0 2120 mm 
applies for 0 ≤ x ≤ 50

y2 = ‐1.2×10
  ‐77x3 + 9.0×10
  ‐6
6x2 + 0.0018x ‐
  8   0.15 mm
 
applies for 50 ≤ x ≤ 100 

The maximum deflection at the tip (x = 0) is Final Deflection Curve
yxx=00 = ‐0.2120 mm
Example
Beams commonly have distributed loads over 
only sections of the total beam, similar to the 
beam shown in the diagram. In this case, what is 
the deflection of the far right end (point C)?

Assume the modulus of elasticity, E, is equal to 10 
Assume the modulus of elasticity  E  is equal to 10 
GPa.

Solution Partially Loaded Beam 

There are two basic ways to solve this problem using integration. First, the moment in
both beam sections, AB and BC, can be determined, and then integrated using two
boundary conditions for each span.
span

A second, and easier method, would be to find the rotation angle at B, and then just 
extrapolate the deflection from B to C  This is possible since there are no loads on the 
extrapolate the deflection from B to C. This is possible since there are no loads on the 
beam section BC and thus there will be no bending. The section BC will rotate, but it 
remain a straight line. Of course, the rotation at B still needs to be determined by 
i
integrating the moment equation, but it is only one equation instead of two equations 
i  h     i  b  i  i   l     i  i d  f    i  
needed in method 1. 
Due to symmetry, each of the two supports will carry half 
the load, giving,

Ay = By = 3(2)/2 = 3 kN

The moment equation for the first span, AB, is found by 
cutting the span at distance x from the left, and 
summing moments. This gives, 
i    Thi   i  

M1 + 3x(x/2) ‐ 3x = 0
M1 = 3x ‐ 1.5x2 kN‐m 

q p ,
Now that the moment equation is known for the span, it 
can be integrated once to find the beam rotation, and a 
second time for beam deflection,  Beam Support Reactions 
''
EIy1 = M 1

EIy1' = ∫ (3 x − 1.5 x 2 )dx EIy1 = ∫ (1.5 x 2 − 0.5 x3 + C1 )dx

= 1.5 x 2 − 0.5 x 3 + C1 = 0.5 x3 − 0.125 x 4 + C1 x + C2

The deflection, y1, for the span AB is know at x = 0 and x = 2 m. Using 
these two boundary conditions, gives

y1(x=0) = 0 = 0.5 (0)3 ‐ 0.125 (0)4 + C1 (0) + C2 ==> C2 = 0 

y1(x=2) = 0 = 0.5 (2)3 ‐ 0.125 (2)4 + C1 (2) + 0  ==> C1 = ‐1

Thi   i  th  b
This give the beam rotation as 
  t ti    

EIy' = (1.5x2 ‐ 0.5x3 ‐1) kN‐m2

The beam moment of inertia, I, is

I = 83(4)/12 = 170.7 cm4 = 170.7e‐8 m4
and 
EI = (10e9 N/m2)(170.7e‐8 m4 ) = 17.07 kN/m2

The beam rotation at B (x
(x=2)
2) is 

y'(x=2) = (6 ‐ 4 ‐1)/EI
 (1 kN m2)/(17.07 kn‐m
= (1 kN‐m )/(17 07 kn m2) 
= 0.05858 radians
The final deflection at C can be determined by noting that that beam rotation at B is 
also the slope at B. The final deflection is just the angle (or slope) times the distance, 

δC = θ d
=0.05858 (2 m) 
= 0.1172 m 

Beam Deflection at Point C
 2

0 1

-0,000366

Deformed shape, Comb: CASE1, Units: kN-m

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li b
Integration of Load 
g
Equation 
In the previous sections, Integration of the Moment Equation, was shown how to
known This section will
determine the deflection if the moment equation is known.
extend the integration method so that with additional boundary conditions, the
deflection can be found without first finding the moment equation.

Moment‐Shear‐Load Relationships
When constructing moment shear diagrams, it was 
When constructing moment‐shear diagrams  it was 
noticed that there is a relationship between the moment 
and shear (and between the shear and the loading). That 
relationship can be derived by applying the basic equations 
to a typical differential element from a loaded beam 
(shown at the right). First, summing the forces in the 
vertical direction gives
i l di i   i
ΣFy = 0 
V ‐ ((V + dV) ‐
) w(x) dx
( ) + 0.5 (dw) dx
5( ) = 0 

Both dw and dx are small, and when multiplied together 

gives an extremely small term which can be ignored  
gives an extremely small term which can be ignored. 
Assuming (dw)(dx) = 0, and simplifying gives,
dV Differential Element from Beam
= − w(x)
( )
dx
Next, summing moments about the right side (can be anywhere, but an edge is 
g g 3 g
easier) and ignoring the 3rd order terms gives

ΣMright edge = 0 

‐M + (M + dM) ‐ V dx + [w(x) dx][0.5 dx] = 0 

Again, 2nd order terms such as dx2, are assumed extremely small and can be 
ignored. This gives
dM
=V
dx
N t   it l "V" i
Note, capital  V  is shear and not deflection
  h   d  t d fl ti

Extending the Deflection Differential Equation
Recall, the basic deflection differential equation (Moment‐Curvature 
Equation) was derived as 

d2y
EI 2 = EIy'' = M
dx
Thi    b   bi d  ith dM/d = V to give
This can be combined with dM/dx  V t   i

EIy ''' = V ( x) shear‐deflection equation

This equation assumes E and I are constant along the 
g y
length of the beam section. They can be combined 
with dV/dx = ‐w(x) to give

EIy '''' = w(x

( x) load‐deflection equation
load deflection equation

Thus, the deflection can be determined directly 
Th  th  d fl ti    b  d t i d di tl  
from the load function, but it does require four 
integrations and four boundary conditions. 
Where as using the moment‐curvature equation, 
h h
only two integrations and two boundary 
q
conditions are needed, but the moment equation 
must first be determined.

w, M, V, Slope, and y Relationships
and Sign Conventions 
Solving the Load‐Deflection Differential Equation
The differential equation EIv
The differential equation EIv´´´´ = w(x) is not useful by itself but needs to be 
applied to a beam with specific boundary conditions. It is assumed that EI is 
constant and w(x) is a function of the beam length. Note, the function, w(x), can 
be equal to 0. In fact, in most situations it does equal 0. 
be equal to 0  In fact  in most situations it does equal 0  
Integrating the equation four times gives,

EIy = ∫∫∫∫ − w( x)dx + 16C1 x 3 + 12 C2 x 2 + C3 x + C4

The integration constants, C
Th  i t ti   t t  C1, C C2, C
 C3 and C
d C4, are 
   
determined from the boundary conditions. For 
example, a pinned joint at either end of a beam 
requires the deflection, v, equal 0 and the moment, 
M, equal 0.. A fixed joint requires both the 
p q
deflection, v, and slope, v´, equal 0, but moment and 
shear are unknown. Each beam section must have at 
least four boundary conditions. Details about 
boundary conditions are given below. 
Each beam span must be integrated separately, just 
like when constructing a moment diagram. Thus, 
each new support or load will start a new beam 
Each Beam Section Requires 
section that must be integrated. Examples of beam 
its
sections are shown at the right. Own Deflection Equation
Boundary Conditions
Determining the boundary conditions (b.c) is usually the most difficult part of solving the 
g y ( ) y p g
deflection differential equation, especially when integrating four times. In particular, b.c for 
multiple beam sections can be confusing. 
yp q
The basic types of b.c are shown below. Those conditions that require two sections are sometimes 
called continuity conditions instead of b.c. For example, a point force on a beam causes the 
deflections to be split into two equations. However, the beam's deflection and slope will be 
continuous at the load location requiring y1 = y2 and y´1 = y´2. Also, the shear difference will equal 
the applied point load at that location, and the moment will be equal in both beam sections at that 
point, M1 = M2. These conditions are needed to solve for the additional integration constants.

Typical Boundary 
Conditions (y, ´, V, M) 
for Beam Sections
Using  Fourth Order 
Load‐Deflection 
Equation
CASE STUDY SOLUTION
The deflection at the tip of the equipment can be 
determined by integrating the basic distributed load 
equation four times. There are actually four 
equations, one for each half since the load and beam 
i    f   h h lf  i   h  l d  d b  
structure differ in each section. A total of eight 
boundary conditions will be needed to solve the four 
integration constants for both equations.
Beam Loading
Free Body Diagram
Free‐Body Diagram
To help determine beam sections and boundary 
conditions, a free‐body diagram should be 
constructed. Each change in beam geometry and 
d h h b d
load requires a new beam section and deflection 
q
equation. For this cantilever beam, there will be 
two sections, one from point A to B and a second 
section from point B to C.
The uniform distributed load on the left part of the  Free‐Body Diagram
y g
beam is 
w = (0.04 N/mm2)(12 mm) = 0.48 N/mm 
The actual values of the reactions do not need to 
be determined which is one of the advantages of 
this method.
Beam Properties
Th   t  f i ti   i  th   ti  f     t l     ti   i
The moment of inertia using the equation for a rectangular cross section gives,
I1 = 12(3)3/12 = 27.0 mm4
I2 = 16(5)3/12 = 166.7 mm4

The material stiffness, E, is given as
E = 200 GPa = 200×109 N/m / 2 ((1 m/1000 mm)
/ )2
= 200,000 N/mm2

Integrating the Load Deflection Equations
Integrating the Load‐Deflection Equations
The deflection of any beam can be found by integrating the basic load‐deflection 
differential equation, 
EIy´´´´ = ‐w(x)
( )
for each beam section.
p
Section 1 (from point A to B)
The load function w1(x) is the actual uniform distributed load of 0.48 N/mm
EIy1´´´´ = ‐0.48 N/mm 
EIy1´´´ = ‐0.48x + C
  0.48x + C1 => V
> V1
EIy1´´ = ‐0.24x2 + C1 x + C2 => M1
EIy1´ = ‐0.08x3 + C1 x2/2 + C2 x + C3
=  0 02x4 + C1 x3/6 + C2 x2/2 + C3 x + C4
EIy1 = ‐0.02x
Note that EIy´´´ is the shear and EIy´´ is the moment. This will be needed when applying 
the boundary conditions.
Section 2 (from point B to C)
Section 2 is similar to section 1 except there is no uniform load. Thus, w2(x) is 
just 0  
just 0. 
EIy2´´´´ = 0 N/mm 
EIy2´´´ = C5 => V2
EIy
EI 2´´ = C C5 x + C
   C6 => M M2
EIy2´ = C5 x2/2 + C6 x + C7
EIy2 = C5 x3/6 + C6 x2/2 + C7 x + C8
Boundary Conditions
There are eight constants of integrating that need to be 
defined. This requires eight b.c, where the first two 
conditions are due to the fixed joint at the right end. 
diti    d  t  th  fi d j i t  t th   i ht  d  
This requires both the deflections, y, and the slope, y´, 
to be zero. These are listed in the table at the right as 
conditions 1) and 2); and the next two conditions are due 
to continuity between beam sections 1 and 2. Since the 
,
beam is continuous, the beam deflection and slope on p
either side of the joint must be equal. Conditions 5 and 
6 are from the free end which cannot have any shear or 
moment   And finally, similar to slope and deflection, 
moment.  And finally  similar to slope and deflection  
the shear and moment need to be the same between 
beam sections 1 and 2. The shear is the the same since 
there is no point load at the joint  Likewise  the moment 
there is no point load at the joint. Likewise, the moment 
is the same since there is no applied point moment at  Eight Boundary Conditions
the joint. 
Determining Constants
With the eight boundary conditions defined, eight equations can now be 
g y g q
constructed. Generally, boundary conditions can be applied so that only one constant 
is present in a given equation. However, sometimes two or three equations will need 
to be solved simultaneously. 
Boundary Condition 5) V1 = 0 at x = 0 mm
0 = ‐0.48(0) + C1
C1 = 0 
Boundary Condition 6) M1 = 0 at x = 0 mm
0 = ‐0.24(0) + C1 (0) + C2
C2 = 0 
   
Boundary Condition 7) V1 = V2 at x = 50 mm
‐0.48x + C1 = C5
‐0.48(50) + 0 = C5
C5 = ‐24 N
y
Boundary Condition 8) ) M1 = M2 at x = 50 mm
5
‐0.24x2 + C1x + C2 = C5x + C6
‐0.24(50)2 + 0 + 0 = 24(50) + C6
‐600 = ‐1
600 =  1,200 + C
200 + C6
C6 = 600 N‐mm 
Boundary Condition 2)  y´2 = 0 at x = 100 mm
33 33 106 y´´2 = ‐24x
33.33×10   24 2/2 + 600x + C
/2   600    C7
33.33×106 (0) = ‐12(100)2 + 600(100) + C7
C7 = 60,000 N‐mm2
Boundary Condition 1)  v2 = 0 at x = 100 
mm
33.33×106 y2 = C5x3/6 + C6x2/2 + C7x + C8
33.33×106 (0) = ‐4(100)3 + 300(100)2
+ 60,000(100) + C8
C8 = ‐5.0×106 N‐mm3
Boundary Condition 4)  v´1 = v´2 at x = 50 mm
− 0.08 x 3 + 12 C1 x 2 + C2 x + C3 12 C5 x 2 + C6 x + C7
=
5.4 × 10 6
33.33 ×106

− 0.08(50)3 + C3 − 12(50) 2 + 600(50) + 60,000

=
5.4 ×10 6
33.33 × 106
C3 = 19,720 N − mm 2
Boundary Condition 3)  v1 = v2 at x = 50 mm
− 0.02 x 4 + 16 C1 x3 + 12 C2 x 2 + C3 x + C4 16 C5 x3 + 12 C6 x 2 + C7 x + C8
=
5.4 × 10 6
33.33 × 106
− 0.02 × (50) 4 + 0 + 0 + 19,720(50) + C4 − 12(50)3 + 300(50) 2 + 60,000(50) − 5 ×106
=
5.4 ×10 6
33.33 ×106

C4 = −1,145,000 N − mm3
Final Deflection Equations

The final deflection equations for both beam 
sections are
y1 = ‐3.704×10‐9x4 + 0.003652x ‐ 0.2119 mm 
y2 = ‐1.2×10‐7x3 + 9.0×10‐6x2 + 0.0018x ‐ 0.15 mm 

The maximum deflection at the tip (x = 0) is
yx=0 = ‐0.2119 mm

This is the same (within rounding error) of the 
previous solution. (yxx=00 = ‐0.2120 mm) Final Deflection Curve
Example
A beam is constructed where one end 
cannot deflect (pinned joint), but can 
rotate, and the other end cannot rotate, but 
can deflect.. 
can deflect  
Determine the deflection equation by 
integrating from the loading function. Shelf Supports and Loading
Solution
Starting with the loading function, the 
deflection can be found by integrating it four 
ti
times. However, this will require four unique 
 H  thi   ill  i  f   i  
boundary conditions. Those four conditions are

1. θ(x=L) = y'(x=L) = 0 
2. y(x=0) = 0 
33. M(x=0) = y''(x=0) = 0 
( ) y( )
4. V(x=L) = y'''(x=L) = 0  Equivalent beam deflections 
using superposition principle 
g
The loading is a constant distributed load, or 
EI y'''' = ‐w 

Integration this gives the shear function, 
V(x) = EIy''' = ‐wx + C1
The 4th boundary condition can be used to determine the integration constant, C1, 
V(x=L) = ‐wL + C1 = 0
C1 = wL
Integrating again gives the moment equation,
M(x)   EIy     wx2/2 + xwL + C2
M(x) = EIy'' = ‐wx
The 3rd boundary conditions gives, 
0 = ‐w 02/2 + x 0 L + C2
C2 = 0 
 0 
Thus, the final moment equation is
M(x) = ‐wx2/2 + xwL
N
Next, this equation can be integrated to give the rotation equation,
  hi   i    b  i d    i   h   i   i
θ(x) = EIy' = ‐wx3/6 + wLx2/2 + C3
Using boundary condition 1 gives, 
0 = ‐wL3/6 + wL3/2 + C3
C3 = ‐wL3/3 
q
The final rotation equation is, ,
θ(x) = EIy' = ‐wx3/6 + wLx2/2 ‐ wL3/3 
The deflection equation is just the integral of the rotation equation,
EIy = ‐wx4/24 + wLx3/6 ‐ wL3x/3 + C4
Applying the last unused boundary conditions, number 2, gives, 
0 = ‐ 0 + 0 ‐ 0 + C4 ==> C4 = 0
Th  fi l d fl ti  
The final deflection equation is 
ti  i  
y = ‐w (x 4/8 ‐ Lx3/2 + xL3) / (3EI)