SUBJECT CODE: AENG 316

SUBJECT NAME: Aircraft Structures I

EDITOR/S: Camille Joyce Vergara
EDIT DATE: June 22, 2019

❖ MAIN TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load. Structural
Systems is any deformable solid body which is capable of carrying loads and transmitting these
loads to other parts of the body. It is important for an structural engineer to recognize the various
types of element composing a structure and to be able to classify structures as to their form and
function.

Structural analysis and design is a very old art and is known to human beings since early
civilizations. The Pyramids constructed by Egyptians around 2000 B.C. stands today as the
testimony to the skills of master builders of that civilization.

▪ CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS:

 A. Bar/Bar Element
B. Beams
C. Thin-Plates
D. Thin-Shells
E. Plate and Shells
F. Axial Rods
G. Two-Force Members
H. Trusses or Truss Structures Figure a. Bar

I. Membranes
J. Shear Panels

Figure b. Beams
Figure c. Thin-Plates Figure d. Thin-Shells

Figure e. Plate and Shells Figure f. Axial Rods

Figure g. Two-Force Members

Figure h. Trusses or Truss Structures Figure i. Membranes Figure j. Shear Panels

▪ CLASSIFICATION OF LOADS:
A. Concentrated and Distributed Loads
B. Body Loads
C. Dynamic Loads
D. Static Loads
E. Thermal Load
Figure a-a. Concentrated Load

Figure a-b. Distributed Load

Figure c. Body Load

Figure d. Dynamic Load Figure e. Thermal Load

▪ SECTION PROPERTIES
 Involve the mathematical properties of structural shapes.
 Based solely on the shape of the section.
 Examples: Centroidal Distance and Center Gravity, Section Area, Moment of Inertia,Section
Modulus and Radius of gyration.
• SUBTOPIC 1: AREA/CENTROID

➢ AREA
To calculate the area bounded by the coordinate axes and a curve, or set of intersection
curves, the procedure outlined below is suggested:
1. Make a sketch of the area to be determined.
2. Draw a general vertical or horizontal rectangular element of area and express its area
of x and dx (or y or dy).
3. Determine the limits of integration from the figure and integrate to obtain the area.
4. Make a rough check of the result by estimating the area graphically.
Ratio and Proportion
𝑦 𝑏
✓ =𝑎
𝑥
(x,y)
𝑏
✓ 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 b
y

x dx

a
𝒂
o 𝑨 = ∫𝒐 𝒚 𝒅𝒙
𝒂𝒃
o 𝑨 = ∫𝒐 𝒂 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒃 𝒂
o 𝑨 = 𝒂 ∫𝒐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙

➢ CENTROID

𝑥=
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝐴
=
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝐴
𝑦=
∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
=
∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
b
• (x,y)
a
∫ 𝑑𝐴 𝐴 ∫ 𝑑𝐴 𝐴
2/3 b
• (𝑥,a 𝑦)
where:
2/3 a
dA = y dx ; dA = x dy
a
• SUBTOPIC 2: MOMENT OF INERTIA
 Whenever a distributed loading acts perpendicular to an area and its intensity varies linearly,
the computation of the moment of the loading distribution about an axis will involve a quantity
called the moment of inertia of the area.

 The second moment of area is also known as the moment of inertia of a shape. The second
moment of area is a measure of the ‘efficiency’ of a cross-sectional shape to resist bending caused
by loading. Symbol is I. Units are 𝒎𝒎𝟒 .

Both beams have the same area and even the same shape.
Beam 1 is stronger than Beam 2 because it has a higher second moment of area. Orientation
can change the second moment of area.

𝑏ℎ3
o 𝐼𝑐 = where b is breadth (horizontal) and h is height (vertical), if the load is
12
vertical.
o FORMULAS
• SUBTOPIC 3: COMPOSITE BODIES
- A composite body consists of series of connected “simpler” shaped bodies.

o Formulas: Center of Gravity

∑ 𝑥𝑊 ∑ 𝑦𝑊 ∑ 𝑧𝑊
𝑥= ∑𝑊
𝑦= ∑𝑊
𝑧= ∑𝑊

o Formulas: Centroid of an Area

∑ 𝑥𝐴 ∑ 𝑦𝐴
𝑥= ∑𝐴
𝑦= ∑𝐴

o Formulas: Moment of Inertia for Composite Areas

∑ 𝐼𝑥 = ∑ 𝐼𝑥 ′ + ∑ 𝐴𝑦 2

∑ 𝐼𝑦 = ∑ 𝐼𝑦 ′ + ∑ 𝐴𝑥 2

❖ MAIN TOPIC 2: TWO-FORCE/THREE-FORCE MEMBERS

 Frames – Structures designed to support loads.

 Machines – Structures designed to transmit and alter the effect of forces.
 Two-Force Members – Members which resists forces acting at any two points.
 Three-Force Members – Members subjected to three or more forces applied at different
positions.
▪ TWO-FORCES MEMBER:
- Same magnitude. Opposite directions
- Same line of action

▪ ∑ 𝑴𝒂 = 𝟎 : By = 0
▪ ∑ 𝑴𝒃 = 𝟎 : Ay = 0
▪ ∑ 𝑭𝒙 = 𝟎 : Ax = 0

▪ THREE-FORCES MEMBER:

• SUBTOPIC 1: TRUSSES
❖ Truss Structure
- A framed or jointed structure made up of columns and ties, the whole structure being
deigned to act a beam. The members of the truss form a series of rigid triangles or
frames.
- A structure which is composed entirely of two-force members.
- The number of member and the number of joints in a truss is given by the relation:
m=2j-3
❖ Column
- A member which is loaded so that it is compressed axially and develops compressive
stress. In aircraft construction, common types of column used are round or streamline
shaped tubes, and some are built up from sheet metal.

❖ Tie
- Member subjected to tension load only in aircraft construction, ties are round, square
and streamline tubes, wires, tie rods and cables.

o Loads in Trusses o Truss Analysis

- Applied forces and moments - Method of Joints
- Reactions at the supports - Method of Section/Moment
- Axial loads in truss members - Method of Shear
 Method of Joints
✓ Draw the FBD of a Joint having at least one known force and at most unknown forces (if
this joint is at one of the supports, then it may be necessary to calculate first the external
reactions at the supports).
✓ Use solution of equilibrium of con-current force systems.
✓ Using the calculated results, continue to analyze each of the other joints. Designate
whether the member is tension or a compression member. Be sure to choose a joint
having at most two unknowns and at least one known force.
✓ Determine the axial stress of each members.
✓ Determine the factor of safety of each member.
✓ Determine the factor of safety of the entire structure (if necessary).

Method of Section
✓ FBD
✓ Make a decision on how to cut or section the truss through the members where force are
to be determined.
✓ Before isolating the appropriate section. It may first be necessary to determine the truss
support reactions.
✓ Draw the FBD of the segment of the sectioned truss which has the least number of forces
acting on it.

Method of Section
✓ Moments should be summed about a point that ties at the intersection of the lines of
action of two unknown forces, so that the third unknown force can be determined directly
from the moment equation.
✓ If two of the unknown forces are parallel, forces may be summed perpendicular to the
direction of these unknowns to determine directly the third unknown force (moment of
Shear).

• SUBTOPIC 3: SPACE STRUCTURES

➢ The Equilibrium of any defined by six equation.
o ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝑥 = 0
o ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝑦 = 0
o ∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 0 ∑ 𝑀𝑧 = 0
➢ Magnitude of a Cartesian Vector
o 𝐴 = √𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑧 2

➢ Direction of a Cartesian Vector

𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
cos 𝛼 = cos 𝛽 = cos 𝛾 =
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴

➢ Direction Cosines
A Ax Ay Az
𝜇𝐴 = = 𝑖+ 𝑗+ 𝑘
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴

A = 𝐴𝜇𝐴
= 𝐴 cos 𝑎 𝑖 + 𝐴 cos 𝛽 𝑗 + 𝐴 cos 𝛾 𝑘
= 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴 y 𝑗 + 𝐴 z 𝑘

Az = 𝐴 cos ∅
A’ = A sin ∅

Ax = 𝐴′ cos ∅ = 𝐴 sin ∅ cos ∅

Ay = 𝐴′ sin ∅ = 𝐴 sin ∅ sin ∅
A = 𝐴 sin ∅ cos ∅ 𝑖 + 𝐴 sin ∅ sin ∅ 𝑗 + 𝐴 cos ∅ 𝑘

➢ Force Vector Directed Along a Line

𝑟 (𝑋𝑏−𝑋𝑎)𝑖+(𝑌𝑏−𝑌𝑎)𝑗+(𝑍𝑏−𝑍𝑎)𝑘
F = 𝐹𝜇 = 𝐹 (𝑟) = 𝐹 [ ]
√(𝑋𝑏−𝑋𝑎)2 +(𝑌𝑏−𝑌𝑎)2 +(𝑍𝑏−𝑍𝑎)2

➢ The components of force R in space along three mutually perpendicular axes x,y,z may
be obtained from the following equations.
o 𝐹x= R cos 𝛼
o 𝐹y= R cos 𝛽
o 𝐹z= R cos 𝛾

➢ When the three components are known, the

resultant may be obtained from the following
equation:
𝑅 = √𝑅𝐹𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝐹𝑦 2 + 𝑅𝐹𝑧 2
❖ MAIN TOPIC 3: BEAMS
- A beam is a bar subject to forces or couples that lie in a plane containing the longitudinal
section of the bar. According to determinacy, a beam may be determinate or
indeterminate.

SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS

➢ The couple M is called the resisting moment or moment and the force V is called the
resisting shear or shear. The sign of V and M are taken to be positive if they have the
senses indicated above.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOAD, SHEAR AND MOMENT

➢ The rate of change of the bending moment with respect to x is equal to the shearing force,
or the slope of the moment diagram at the given point is the shear at that point.
𝒅𝑴
o =𝑽
𝒅𝒙

➢ The rate of change of the shearing force with respect to x is equal to the load or the slope
of the shear diagram at a given point equals the load at that point.
𝒅𝑽
o = 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅
𝒅𝒙

PROPERTIES OF SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS

➢ The area of the shear diagram to the left or to the right of the section is equal to the
moment at that section.
➢ The area of the shear diagram to the left or to the right of the section is equal to the
moment at that section.
➢ The slope of the shear diagram at a given point equals the load at that point.
 ➢ The maximum moment occurs at the point of zero shears. This is in reference to property
number 2, that when the shear (also the slope of the moment diagram) is zero, the
tangent drawn to the moment diagram is horizontal.
➢ When the shear diagram is increasing, the moment diagram is concave upward.
➢ When the shear diagram is decreasing, the moment diagram is concave downward.

SIGN CONVENTION
➢ A force that tends to bend the beam downward is said to produce a positive bending
moment.
➢ A force that tends to shear the left portion of the beam upward with respect to the right
portion is said to produce a positive shearing force.

• SUBTOPIC 1: STATICALLY DETERMINATE BEAMS

- Beams in which the reactions of the supports may be determined by the use of the
equations of static equilibrium.
STEPS TO SOLVE:
1. Solve the reactions at the supports
2. Draw shear diagram
3. Apply method of section
4. Apply method of section
5. Draw shear diagram
6. Write equations of moment
7. Draw bending moment diagram
8. Draw bending moment diagram
9. Solve the maximum bending stress
𝑴𝒎𝒂𝒙𝑪
o 𝝈𝑩𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝑰
10. Determine the factor of safety
• SUBTOPIC 2: STATICALLY INDETERMINATE BEAMS
❖ SOLVE THE FOLLOWING:
a) Reactions & moments by three-moment equation
b) Loading, shear & bending moment diagrams
c) Maximum bending moment
d) Maximum bending stress
e) Factor of safety

❖ THREE-MOMENT EQUATION
o 𝑴𝑨 𝒍𝟏 + 𝟐𝑴𝑩 (𝒍𝟏 + 𝒍𝟐 ) + 𝑴𝑪 𝒍𝟐 = 𝑹𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆
Where,
o 𝑴𝑨 , 𝑴𝑩 , 𝑴𝑪 = 𝐁𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 𝐚𝐭 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐮𝐩𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐬
o 𝒍𝟏 , 𝒍𝟐 = 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐚𝐜𝐡 𝐛𝐚𝐲

Concentrated load at the midspan.

𝟑𝑷𝑳𝟐 𝟑𝑷𝑳𝟐
𝟖 𝟖

Uniform load over the entire span.

𝒘 𝒐𝑳 𝟑 𝒘 𝒐𝑳 𝟑
𝟒 𝟒

Increasing triangular load on the whole span.

𝟖𝒘𝒐𝑳𝟑 𝟕𝒘𝒐𝑳𝟑
𝟔𝟎 𝟔𝟎
Decreasing triangular load on the whole span.

𝟕𝒘𝒐𝑳𝟑 𝟖𝒘𝒐𝑳𝟑
𝟔𝟎 𝟔𝟎

Isosceles triangular load over the entire span.

𝟓𝒘𝒐𝑳𝟑 𝟓𝒘𝒐𝑳𝟑
𝟑𝟐 𝟑𝟐

Moment load at any point on the span.

𝑴 𝑴
− = (𝟑𝒂𝟐 − 𝑳𝟐 ) + = (𝟑𝒃𝟐 − 𝑳𝟐 )
𝑳 𝑳

General uniform loading.

𝒘𝒐 𝒘𝒐
= [𝒃𝟐 (𝟐𝑳 − 𝒃𝟐 ) = [𝒅𝟐 (𝟐𝑳 − 𝒅𝟐 )
𝟒𝑳 𝟒𝑳
−𝒂𝟐 (𝟐𝑳𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 )] −𝒄𝟐 (𝟐𝑳𝟐 − 𝒄𝟐 )]
• SUBTOPIC 3: INERTIA FORCES & LOAD FACTORS
o F=Ma

➢ The inertia force on any element of mass is equal to the product of the mass and the
acceleration and acts in a direction opposite to the acceleration. F=Ma
➢ The load factor is the total acceleration you feel, pointing downwards. In straight and level
flight, the load factor is 1: you only feel the acceleration of gravity. So a load factor
1 equates to 9.81 m/s2

𝒅𝒔
• 𝒗= 𝒗 − 𝒗𝒐 = 𝒂𝒕
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒗 𝟏
• 𝒂= 𝒔 = 𝒗𝒐 𝒕 + 𝟐 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝟐 𝒔
• 𝒂= 𝒗𝟐 − 𝒗𝒐 𝟐 = 𝟐𝒂𝒔
𝒅𝒕𝟐
𝒅𝒗
• 𝒂 = 𝒗 𝒅𝒔
References:
o http://civilium-ju.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Hibbeler-Structural-Analysis-
8th-ED.pdf
o https://nptel.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-
contents/IIT%20Kharagpur/Structural%20Analysis/pdf/m1l1.pdf
o http://priodeep.weebly.com/uploads/6/5/4/9/65495087/w._j._spencer__auth._-
fundamental_structural_analysis-springer-verlag_new_york__1988_.pdf