3.

1 Introduction
Welcome to the third lesson on stress and strain. In this lesson, the following sub-topics will
be covered; the principle of superposition, engineering members with variable cross-
section, composite members, and statically indeterminate axial members. Towards the end,
temperature stresses and strains and stresses in a bolt-sleeve assembly will be covered.
3.2 Lesson learning outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

3.2.1 Solve problems relating to principle of superposition as applied to mechanical

engineering components.
3.2.2 Solve problems relating to engineering members with variable cross-section.
3.2.3 Solve problems relating to composite members and statically indeterminate axial
members
3.2.4 Solve problems relating to temperature stresses and strains.
3.2.5 Solve problems relating to stresses in bolt-sleeve assembly and similar assemblies.

PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
𝑃𝐿
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑒 (𝑎) ; 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝛿 =
𝐸𝐴

 For a prismatic bar loaded by one or more intermediate axial loads as in (b); we
apply the principle of superposition as follows:
→ Determine axial force experienced in each part of the bar (i.e. parts AB, BC and CD).
→ Calculate elongation of each part separately.
→ Finally add the changes in length algebraically to obtain total change in length.

𝑃𝐿
𝐼𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙; 𝛿 =
𝐸𝐴

1
  For a bar with varying sections loaded at the ends as in (c), calculate the elongation
of each part separately and add algebraically as in (b). Assuming different materials,
different lengths and different cross-sections:
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
𝛿=𝑃 + + +⋯
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴

𝑃𝐿
𝐼𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙; 𝛿 =
𝐸𝐴

Example

A member with a stepped cross-section as shown is subjected to various point loads P 1, P2,
P3 and P4 as shown. If P1 = 45 kN, P3 = 450 kN and P4 = 130 kN, determine P2. Determine the
total elongation of the member if E = 210 GPa.
Solution:
For equilibrium: Forces towards the right = forces towards the left i.e.

 𝑃 +𝑃 =𝑃 +𝑃
 𝑃 + 130 = 45 + 450
 𝑃 = 365 𝑘𝑁
Determine the axial force in each part of the bar (see the free body diagram).

Note that the middle part is under compression while the other two parts are in tension.
1 𝑃𝑙 𝑃𝑙 𝑃𝑙
𝛿= + +
𝐸 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
1 45 × 10 × 1.2 320 × 10 × 0.6 130 × 10 × 0.9
= − + = 0.49 𝑚𝑚
210 × 10 6.25 × 10 25 × 10 12.5 × 10

2
MEMBERS WITH VARIABLE CROSS-SECTION
 Consider a circular bar length L of uniformly tapering cross-section subjected to an
axial tensile load P.
 Consider a small element of length δx at a distance x from the bigger end.

 Diameter of the bar at x:

𝑥 𝑑 −𝑑
𝑑 = 𝑑 − (𝑑 − 𝑑 ) = 𝑑 − 𝑘𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 =
𝑙 𝑙
 Cross-sectional area of the bar at x:
𝜋𝑑 𝜋
𝐴= = (𝑑 − 𝑘𝑥 )
4 4
 Normal stress at x:
𝑃 𝑃 4𝑃
𝜎 = =𝜋 =
𝐴 (𝑑 − 𝑘𝑥 ) 𝜋(𝑑 − 𝑘𝑥)
4
 Normal strain at x:
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎 ) 4𝑃
𝜀 = =
𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 (𝐸) 𝜋(𝑑 − 𝑘𝑥 ) 𝐸
 Elongation of the elemental length, δx:
4𝑃(𝛿𝑥)
= 𝜀 × 𝛿𝑥 =
𝜋(𝑑 − 𝑘𝑥) 𝐸
 Total elongation of the bar:
4𝑃(𝛿𝑥) 4𝑃 𝛿𝑥
𝛿𝑙 = =
𝜋(𝑑 − 𝑘𝑥) 𝐸 𝜋𝐸 (𝑑 − 𝑘𝑥)
 To perform the integration:
Let 𝑧 = 𝑑 − 𝑘𝑥
𝜕𝑧 −𝜕𝑧
= −𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝜕𝑥 =
𝜕𝑥 𝑘
When x = 0, z = d1 and when x = l, z = 𝑑 − 𝑘𝑙
 Therefore:
4𝑃 −𝜕𝑧 𝟒𝑷𝒍
𝛿𝑙 = =
𝜋𝐸 𝑘𝑧 𝝅𝑬𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐

3
  Note that if the bar had a uniform diameter d,
4𝑃𝑙 𝑃𝑙 𝑷𝒍
𝛿𝑙 = =𝜋 = 𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑟
𝜋𝐸𝑑 𝑑 𝐸 𝑬𝑨
4

COMPOSITE MEMBERS

For a composite bar made of two rigidly connected materials 1 and 2, x-sectional
areas A1 and A2, and Young’s modulus E1 and E2:
 For compatibility, longitudinal strains must be the same when the bar is stretched
i.e.
𝜎 𝜎
𝜀= =
𝐸 𝐸
 From equilibrium considerations:
𝑃 =𝜎 𝐴 +𝜎 𝐴
Combining the two equations:
𝜎𝐸
𝑃=𝜎 𝐴 + 𝐴
𝐸
 Re-arranging in terms of 𝜎 :
𝑃
𝜎 =
𝐸
𝐴 + 𝐴
𝐸
𝑃𝐸 𝑃𝐸
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦; 𝜎 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 =
𝐴 𝐸 +𝐴 𝐸 𝐴 𝐸 +𝐴 𝐸
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE AXIAL MEMBERS

 The bar shown in (a) is rigidly fixed at both ends and carries an axial load P, at an
intermediate point C.
 Consequently, reactions Ra and Rb develop at the supports (see (b)). The reactions
cannot be resolved by statics alone i.e. statically indeterminate.
 From (b); 𝑅 +𝑅 =𝑃
Using the flexibility method:
 We designate one of the unknown reactions such as Ra as a statical redundant i.e.
the force that is in excess of those that can be obtained by statics alone. This implies
that support A is unnecessary.

4
  Ra is then removed from the structure resulting in the primary structure which is
statically determinate (see (c)). Support at (a) is really not needed and is a
redundant.
We now consider the displacements.
𝑃𝑏
Referring to (c), the displacement of point 𝐀 downwards is given by: 𝛿 =
𝐸𝐴
 Now remove actual load P and place redundant Ra as a load on the structure (see (d)).
 Referring to (d), displacement of point A upwards due to the redundant load Ra is given
𝑅 𝐿
𝑏𝑦: 𝛿 =
𝐸𝐴
 Since there is no displacement at A in the real structure,
𝑃𝑏 𝑅 𝐿
𝛿 − 𝛿 = 0 𝑜𝑟 =
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴
𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑎
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒: 𝑅 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 =
𝐿 𝐿
TEMPERATURE STRESSES AND STRAINS
 The bar in (i) is fixed at both ends and the temperature is raised uniformly by amount
∆T.
 Reactions R develop at supports. Bar has a uniform compressive stress.
To calculate R:

 Remove the support at one end and allow the temperature change ∆T to occur in
the released structure (see (ii)).

5
  Suppose a is the coefficient of thermal expansion.
 Strain due to temperature change ∆T is given by:
𝜀 = 𝛼 (∆T)
 Displacement at end A is given by:
𝛿 = 𝛼(∆T)𝐿
 Suppose a force R acts on the released structure (see (iii)) and produces a
displacement to maintain the length L. Then
𝑅𝐿 𝑃𝐿
𝛿 = 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝛿 =
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴
 Since no displacement occurs in the real structure,
𝑅𝐿
𝛿 = 𝛿 𝑜𝑟 𝛼(∆T)𝐿 − =0
𝐸𝐴
 Therefore,
𝑅 = 𝐸𝐴𝛼(∆T)
 Compressive stress
𝑅
𝜎 = = 𝐸𝛼 (∆T)
𝐴
Note:

 Temperature change results in stresses even when there are no loads.

 In this example, there are no displacements i.e. no axial strains. We have
axial stress but no axial strain.
Example:
A circular sleeve of length L is placed around a solid circular bar to form a simple composite
bar as shown. The sleeve and the bar have different coefficients of thermal expansion as
and ab, respectively. The ends of the bar and sleeve are attached rigidly to each other. If

6
the temperature of the entire assembly is raised by an amount ∆T, determine the stresses
developed in the bar (σb) and the sleeve (σs). Assume as > ab.

Solution:

 The sleeve and the bar would elongate by different amounts if allowed to expand
freely.
 Since they are held together in the assembly (see (i)), thermal stresses develop.
 Assume one end is cut off (see (ii)).
 The temperature change ∆T would produce elongations δ1 (in the sleeve) and δ2 (in
the bar), where δ1 > δ2, assuming as > ab.
 Note
𝛿 = 𝛼 (∆𝑇)𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿 = 𝛼 (∆𝑇)𝐿
 Since (in the real structure) the bar and sleeve are held together at the ends, forces
in the bar/sleeve assembly must be such that they shorten the sleeve and stretch
the bar until the final elongations are the same (see (iii)).
Let Ps = total compressive force in the sleeve
and Pb = tensile force in the bar
𝑃𝐿
𝛿 = 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑣𝑒 =
𝐸𝐴
𝑃𝐿
𝛿 = 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟 =
𝐸 𝐴

7
  But the final elongation of the bar and the sleeve are the same i.e.
𝛿 =𝛿 −𝛿 =𝛿 +𝛿
 Substituting,
𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿
𝛼 (∆𝑇)𝐿 − = 𝛼 (∆𝑇)𝐿 + … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (𝑖)
𝐸𝐴 𝐸 𝐴
 For static equilibrium, Ps = Pb. ………………………………………………………………………………(ii)
 Combining (i) and (ii) and writing in terms of P s,

(𝛼 − 𝛼 )(∆𝑇)𝐸 𝐴 𝐸 𝐴 (𝛼 − 𝛼 )(∆𝑇)
𝑃 = = (= 𝑃 )
𝐸 𝐴 +𝐸 𝐴 1 1
+
𝐸𝐴 𝐸 𝐴
𝑃 𝑃
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦, 𝜎 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 =
𝐴 𝐴
 We note that if both bars are made of the same material, as =ab; the forces and
stresses are equal to zero and
𝛿 = 𝛼 (∆𝑇)𝐿 = 𝛼 (∆𝑇)𝐿

An alternative way of solving the problem is as follows:

𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝛿 ) + 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟(𝛿 )
= 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ𝑠 (𝛿 − 𝛿 ) 𝑜𝑟 [𝜶𝒔 (∆𝑻)𝑳 − 𝜶𝒃 (∆𝑻)𝑳] … (𝑎)
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 𝜎𝑙
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐸 = = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝛿𝑙 =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝛿𝑙 𝐸
𝑙
 Equation (a) becomes:
𝝈𝒃 𝑳 𝝈𝒔 𝑳
𝛿 ≈ +𝛿 ≈ = (𝜶𝒔 − 𝜶𝒃 )(∆𝑻)𝑳 … … … … … … … … … … . . … … … . … … . . . . (1)
𝑬𝒃 𝑬𝒔
(b) The tensile force applied to the short member by the long member is equal in
magnitude to the compressive force applied to the long member by the short member.
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (= 𝜎𝐴)
𝑃 = 𝑃 𝑜𝑟 𝜎 𝐴 = 𝜎 𝐴 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … . … … … … … . (2)
Equations (1) and (2) are usually used to solve problems of this nature.
STRESSES IN A BOLT-SLEEVE ASSEMBLY
Example
A bolt is enclosed centrally by a hollow sleeve with washers at each end to form a
compound bar as shown. The bolt and the sleeve are made of different materials. Assuming
that the length of the bolt equals the length of the sleeve when just tight, determine the
stresses set up in the assembly when the nut is tightened by ‘n’ turns.

8
Solution:

 When the nut is tightened, the bolt is in a state of tension and the sleeve is in
compression. As in the previous example:
Compressive force in sleeve (Ps) = Tensile force in bolt (Pb) i.e.
𝜎 𝐴 = 𝜎 𝐴 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … … … . . (1)
 Compression of sleeve + Extension of bolt = Difference in free lengths
=number of turns (n) x pitch (p)
where ‘p’ is the distance between the threads.
Note that the axial movement of the nut is taken up by the combined compression of the
tube and extension of the bolt.
𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿 𝜎𝐿 𝜎 𝐿
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; + = 𝑛𝑝 𝑜𝑟 + = 𝑛𝑝 … … … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
𝐸𝐴 𝐸 𝐴 𝐸 𝐸
Equations (1) and (2) are used to solve problems of this nature.

Example:
A bar made of brass, 25 mm diameter is enclosed inside a steel tube, 50 mm external
diameter and 25 mm internal diameter as shown in (a). The bar and tube are both initially 1
m long and are rigidly fastened together at both ends.

(i) Determine the stresses in the two materials when the temperature rises from
150C to 950C.

9
 (ii) If the composite bar is then subjected to an axial tensile load of 50 kN, determine
the resulting stresses.
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝛼 = 11.6 × 10 𝑝𝑒𝑟℃, 𝐸 = 200𝐺𝑃𝑎, 𝛼 = 18.7 × 10 𝑝𝑒𝑟℃, 𝐸 = 100𝐺𝑃𝑎

Stresses due to temperature change ∆T (see (b) and (c))

𝜎 𝐿 𝜎𝐿
𝛿 ≈ +𝛿 ≈ = (𝛼 − 𝛼 )(∆𝑇)𝐿 … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … … … … . . (1)
𝐸 𝐸
𝒐𝒓 𝒙𝒃 + 𝒙𝒔 = (𝜶𝒃 − 𝜶𝒔 )(∆𝑻)𝑳
𝜎 𝐴 = 𝜎 𝐴 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … … … … … … … . (2)
We only need these two equations.
𝜎 ×1 𝜎 ×1
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (1); + = 80 × 1(18.7 − 11.6) × 10 = 5.68 × 10
200 × 10 100 × 10
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝜎 + 2𝜎 = 1.136 × 10 = 113.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (3)
𝜋 𝜋
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (2); 𝜎 (0.05 − 0.025 ) = 𝜎 (0.025 ) 𝑖. 𝑒.
4 4

𝜎 = 3𝜎 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (4)
 Combining (3) and (4),
𝜎 = 16.23 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 = 48.69 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒)
Stresses due to the 50 kN load (see (d)):
Let ‘e’ represent extension due to the 50 kN load. Then
𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿 𝜎𝐿 𝜎 𝐿
𝑒 =𝑒 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑜𝑟 =
𝐸𝐴 𝐸 𝐴 𝐸 𝐸
10
 𝜎 𝜎
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; = 𝑜𝑟 𝜎 = 2𝜎 … … … … … … … … … … … (5)
200 × 10 100 × 10
 The applied load is shared by the brass and the steel. Therefore,
𝑃 +𝑃 =𝑃 𝑜𝑟 𝜎 𝐴 + 𝜎 𝐴 = 50 × 10 𝑁

 Substitute for As and Ab:

𝜋 𝜋
𝜎 (0.05 − 0.025 ) + 𝜎 (0.025 ) = 50 × 10 𝑁 … … … … . . … … … … … … … . (6)
4 4

 Solve equations (5) and (6) simultaneously:

𝜎 = 29.1 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 = 14.55 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (both tensile)
Resultant combined stresses due to both temperature and 50 kN load:
𝜎 = 16.23 + 29.1 = 45.3 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒)
𝜎 = −48.69 + 14.55 = −34.14 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒)

Example
(a) A steel rod, 12 mm diameter, threaded at both ends, is enclosed centrally by a brass
tube of outer diameter 40 mm and inner diameter 32 mm and a length of 2.4 m (see Figure
below). The assembly is closed at each end by a combination of washers and nuts. The nuts
are then tightened until the brass tube is reduced in length by 0.6 mm. Determine the
stresses in the rod and the tube.
(b) The assembly is now heated through 800C. Determine the resultant stresses in the
rod and the tube. You may ignore the thickness of the washers.

Assume Esteel = 200 GPa; Ebrass = 100 GPa; steel = 12 x 10-6 per 0C; brass = 18 x 10-6 per 0C.

Solution
(i) Stresses due to tightening of the nuts
When the nuts are tightened;

11
  Steel rod has a tensile stress (s)
 Brass tube has a compressive stress (b)
Compressive force in brass tube = Tensile force in the steel rod i.e.
𝜋 𝜋
𝜎 (0.04 − 0.032 ) = 𝜎 (0.012 ) 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜎 = 4𝜎
4 4

0.6
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝜀 = = 0.00025
2.4 × 10
∴ 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝜎 = 𝜀 𝐸 = 0.00025 × 100 × 10 = 25𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒)
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑑 𝜎 = 4𝜎 = 100 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒)

Stresses due to temperature change of 800C

 If the two members were to expand freely;

𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 𝛼 𝐿 (∆𝑇)
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝛼 𝐿 (∆𝑇)

 Note that b > s i.e. free expansion of brass > free expansion of steel
 Let final expansion = 

 Due to temperature alone, steel rod is under tensile stress;

 While the brass tube is under compressive stress
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝜎 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙; 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝜎 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 brass
Tensile force in steel = Compressive force in brass i.e.
𝜎 𝐴 =𝜎 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝜎 = 4𝜎

Final expansion of the steel = final expansion of the brass i.e.

𝝈𝒔 𝐿 𝜎 𝐿
𝛼 𝐿 (∆𝑇) + = 𝛼 𝐿 (∆𝑇) − (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛 1 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑔 10)
𝐸 𝐸
4𝜎 (2.4) 𝜎 (2.4)
∴ 12 × 10 (2.4)(80) + = 18 × 10 (2.4)(80) −
200 × 10 100 × 10
𝜎 = 16 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒)
𝜎 = 4𝜎 = 64 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒)

12
Resultant stresses
𝜎 = 25 + 16 = 41 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒)
𝜎 = 100 + 64 = 164 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 )

STRAIN ENERGY IN TENSION

 When a tensile test bar extends under load, forces applied move through small
distances i.e. work is done in stretching the bar.
 Suppose at load P, the bar is stretched by additional amount δe (see Figure).
 Work done  P.δe
 Total work done in extending the bar to some extension ‘e’:

𝑊= 𝑃. 𝑑𝑒 (= 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑜 𝑒)

 Suppose the proportional limit is not exceeded. Then the work done is stored as
strain energy which is recoverable on removal of the load.

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑈) = 𝑊 = 𝑃. 𝑑𝑒

𝑃𝐿 𝐸𝐴𝑒
𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛; 𝑒 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 =
𝐸𝐴 𝐿
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴 1
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝑈 = 𝑒. 𝑑𝑒 = 𝑒 = 𝑃𝑒
𝐿 2𝐿 2

𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴 𝑃 𝐿 𝐿𝑃 𝐴 𝐿𝐴 𝑃 𝐴𝐿 𝜎
𝐼𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑃; 𝑈 = 𝑒 = = = =𝜎 = × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
2𝐿 2𝐿 𝐸 𝐴 2𝐸𝐴 𝐴 2𝐸𝐴 𝐴 2𝐸 2𝐸
𝜎
Therefore, strain energy per unit volume 𝑈 (specific energy) =
2𝐸

13
Suddenly applied loads
1
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 = 𝑃𝑒;
2
Suppose a load P’ is applied suddenly (instantaneous) to produce the same extension ‘e’.
(see Figure below). The graph is now a horizontal straight line i.e.

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑃 𝑒.

In both cases, the bar is strained by amount ‘e’ and the energy stored must be equal i.e.
1 𝑃
𝑃𝑒= 𝑃𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 =
2 2

 A suddenly applied load which produces a certain value of instantaneous strain is ½

the equivalent static load to perform the same i.e.
A load ‘P’ which is applied suddenly will produce twice the effect of the same load
applied statically.
Design: When we design for static loads, we must avoid suddenly applied loads.

Impact loads – Axial application

Consider a bar with a rigid collar firmly attached at the end (see Figure). A load ‘P’ is
suspended at height ‘h’ above the collar. When the load is released, let the maximum
instantaneous extension of the bar be ‘’. Neglecting the mass of the bar and collar;
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃(ℎ + )

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 (𝑈) = 𝐴𝐿; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒  𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑝.
2𝐸
 𝐴𝐿
 = 𝑃(ℎ + ) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝑖)
2𝐸

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 2𝐸𝑃ℎ 2𝑃𝐸ℎ
𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒  𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝒉; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛  = 𝑜𝑟  = … (𝑖𝑖)
𝐴𝐿 𝐴𝐿

  𝜎𝐿
𝐼𝑓  𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 ℎ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐸 = = 𝑜𝑟  =
  𝐸
𝐿

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑖); = 𝑃ℎ + 𝑃𝛿 = 𝑃ℎ + 𝑜𝑟 𝜎 −𝜎 − 𝑃ℎ = 0

2𝑃 2𝑃𝐸ℎ
𝜎 − 𝜎− =0
𝐴 𝐴𝐿

1 2𝑃 2𝑃 2𝑃𝐸ℎ
𝜎= + +4 =; 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 … … . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
2 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴𝐿
𝜎𝐿
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛  =
𝐸
If the load was suddenly applied (i.e. from zero height), h = 0; Equation (iii) the becomes
𝑃 𝑃 2𝑃
𝜎= + = 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
Therefore, stresses resulting from suddenly applied loads are 2 times those from statically
applied loads of the same magnitude i.e. SF should be > than 2 if sudden loads are expected.
Stresses from impact loads of similar magnitude are even higher than those from suddenly
applied loads (eqn (iii)).  If impact loads are expected, SF must be >>2.

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