5.

1 Introduction
Welcome to the fifth lesson on torsion. In this lesson, the following sub-topics will be covered;
derivation of the characteristic torsion formula, application of the torsion formula, section
modulus, and design of a shaft.
5.2 Lesson learning outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
5.2.1 Derive the characteristic torsion formula.
5.2.2 Define section modulus and torsional rigidity.
5.2.3 Design a solid and hollow shaft based on maximum shear stress and angle of twist
5.2.4 Solve problems relating to torque, power transmission, shear stress, angle of twist
 Examples of engineering components subjected to torque: screw driver, steering rod,
axles, drive shafts, drill rods, crank shaft, cam shaft, propeller shaft etc.
Torque = twisting moment (force x arm).

 Consider a bar of circular x-section, length L subjected to equal and opposite torques T
at each end. Assume the torque T is constant along the length.

1
Basic assumptions:
(i) Material is homogeneous i.e. uniform elastic properties throughout.
(ii) Material is elastic (obeys Hooke’s law) i.e. shear stresses are proportional to shear strains.
(iii) Stresses do not exceed the elastic limit.
(iv) Plane x-sections remain plane after twisting (not true for non-circular cross-sections)
(v) Radial lines remain radial after twisting.
 Consider line BA on the surface of the bar and parallel to the longitudinal axis (let B be
reference point).
 After twisting, end A is displaced to A’ wrt B.
 Radius OA rotates through a small angle θ to OA’.
 Shear strain on surface of the bar = ABA’ = γs

𝐴𝐴 𝑅𝜃
tan 𝛾 ≅ 𝛾 = =
𝐴𝐵 𝐿
 Shear strain ‘γ’ at any radius ‘r’ = DCD’ i.e. 𝛾 = =
 But shear stress τ at any radius is related to shear strain γ by the equation:
𝜏 𝜏 𝑟𝜃
𝐺= 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝛾 = =
𝛾 𝐺 𝐿
𝜏 𝐺𝜃
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, = … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (𝑖)
𝑟 𝐿

 Consider any cross-section of the bar. Shear stress ‘τ’ on annulus of radius ‘r’ width ‘δr’ is:
(i) Tangential to annulus.
(ii) In the plane of the cross-section.
(iii) Constant round the annulus.

Shear force on small element ‘δs’ of annulus is given by 𝜏. 𝛿𝑠. 𝛿𝑟

Moment of shear force about the center of circle is given by 𝜏. 𝛿𝑠. 𝛿𝑟. 𝑟

 Elemental torque on annulus:

2
𝛿𝑇 = 𝜏. 𝛿𝑠. 𝛿𝑟. 𝑟 = 𝜏. 𝛿𝑟. 𝑟. 𝑠| = 2𝜋𝑟 . 𝜏. 𝛿𝑟

 Total torque = sum of the torques from each annulus in the cross-section. Therefore,

𝑇= 2𝜋𝑟 . 𝜏. 𝛿𝑟

 But ‘τ’ is a function of ‘r’ from (i). Therefore,

𝐺𝜃𝑟
𝑇= 2𝜋𝑟 . . 𝛿𝑟
𝐿

𝐺𝜃
= 2𝜋𝑟 . 𝛿𝑟
𝐿

2𝜋𝐺𝜃 𝑟
=
𝐿 4

𝜋𝑅 𝐺𝜃
=
2 𝐿
𝑮𝜽
=𝑱
𝑳
𝜋𝑅 𝜋𝐷
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝐽 = = = 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 2 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒,
2 32
𝐽𝐺𝜃 𝑇 𝐺𝜃
𝑇= 𝑜𝑟 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
𝐿 𝐽 𝐿
𝑻 𝑮𝜽 𝝉
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝑖)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑖𝑖); = =
𝑱 𝑳 𝒓
T → Torque (Nm)
J → Polar second moment of area (m4)

τ→Shear stress at radius r (N/m2)

G → Shear modulus (N/m2)

Θ → Angle of twist of length L (radians)

 Note that for a given torque ‘T’ acting on a bar, shear stress is maximum on the outer
surface.

3
 Solid x-section (a) and (b)

𝐽 = 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 2 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑟

2𝜋𝑟 𝜋𝑅 𝜋𝐷
= 2. 𝜋. 𝑟. 𝑑𝑟. 𝑟 = = =
4 2 32

(= 2nd moment of area about an axis through the center

into the surface)
I = 2nd moment of area about the x-x axis (or y-y axis)

= 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑑𝐴

( )( )
𝜋𝑅 𝜋𝐷
𝐼 = 𝑟. 𝑑𝜃. 𝑑𝑟. (𝑟 sin 𝜃) = =
4 64
( )( )

Hollow section radii Ri and Ro:

Area of annulus = 2πr.dr

𝜋
𝐽= 2𝜋𝑟. 𝑑𝑟. 𝑟 = 2𝜋 𝑟 . 𝑑𝑟 = (𝑅 − 𝑅 )
2
𝜋
= (𝐷 − 𝐷 )
32
Thin circular section

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑟. 𝑑𝜃. 𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑡

𝐽 = (2𝜋𝑟𝑡)𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑟 𝑡

Example: Compare the torque that can be transmitted by a hollow shaft with that of a
solid shaft of the same material, weight, length and allowable stress.

4
Let Ro = the outer radius of hollow shaft
Ri = inner radius of hollow shaft
R = radius of solid shaft
𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝜏
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 = =
𝐽 𝐿 𝑟
(i) Maximum shear stress is the same for both i.e.
𝜏𝐽 𝜏 𝜋𝑅 𝜏 𝜋
𝑇 = = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 = (𝑅 − 𝑅 )
𝑅 𝑅 2 𝑅 2
𝑇 𝜏 𝜋 2𝑅 𝑅 −𝑅 (𝑅 − 𝑅 )(𝑅 + 𝑅 )
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, = (𝑅 − 𝑅 ) × = = … . (𝑎)
𝑇 𝑅 2 𝜏𝜋𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
(ii) For shafts to be of the same weight:

𝜋𝑅 𝐿 = 𝜋(𝑅 − 𝑅 )𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 = 𝑅 − 𝑅 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 = 𝑅(𝑅 − 𝑅 ) … … … … … … … … . . (𝑏)

 Substitute for R3 in (a):

1
𝑇 (𝑅 − 𝑅 )(𝑅 + 𝑅 ) (𝑅 + 𝑅 ) ×
𝑅
= =
𝑇 𝑅 𝑅(𝑅 − 𝑅 ) 1
𝑅 𝑅×
𝑅
𝑅
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑛 =
𝑅
1
𝑇 1+ 1 𝑅
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 𝑛 = 1+ … … … … … . … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝑐)
𝑇 𝑅 𝑛 𝑅
𝑅
 To write Ro/R in terms of n:
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (𝑑)
𝑅 𝑅 𝑛

 From (b):
𝑅
𝑅 =𝑅 −𝑅 =𝑅 − … (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑑))
𝑛
𝑛 𝑅 −𝑅 𝑛 −1
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑅 = =𝑅
𝑛 𝑛

 Re-arranging;

5
 𝑅 𝑛 𝑅 𝑛
= 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑅 𝑛 −1 𝑅 √𝑛 − 1
From (c):
𝑇 1 𝑅 1 𝑛
= 1+ = 1+
𝑇 𝑛 𝑅 𝑛 √𝑛 − 1
𝑛𝑛 +1 𝑛 +1
= =
√𝑛 − 1 𝑛 𝑛√𝑛 − 1
𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑛 = 2 (𝑎 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)
𝑇 5
= = 1.44
𝑇 2√3
What does the 1.44 mean?

 A hollow shaft can carry 44% more torque than a solid shaft for the same weight, stress,
etc. Therefore, the core of a solid shaft carries very low stress/loads.
But hollow shafts are not widely used in practice. Why?

 Problem is cost of machining.

Hollow shafts only used when:

 Weight must be saved

 We need to pass services through the center of the shaft.
SECTION MODULUS
𝑇 𝜏 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 = 𝜏= 𝑟=
𝐽 𝑟 𝐽 𝐽
𝑟
 For a shaft of radius R (diameter D):
𝑇𝑅 𝑇
𝜏 = =
𝐽 𝐽
𝑅
 For a given shaft, J and R are constant.
𝐽
𝑅 = 𝑍 (𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠)
𝜋𝐷 1 𝝅𝑫𝟑
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡: 𝑍= × =
32 𝐷 𝟏𝟔
2
 For a hollow shaft outside diameter D and inside diameter d:

6
 𝜋 2 𝝅 𝑫𝟒 − 𝒅𝟒
𝑍= (𝐷 − 𝑑 ) × =
32 𝐷 𝟏𝟔 𝑫

 For a hollow shaft to carry the same torque as a solid shaft, the section modulus of both
must be the same.
TORSIONAL RIGIDITY
𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝜃 𝑇
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
𝐽 𝐿 𝐿 𝐺𝐽
𝑇
𝐺𝐽 = 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝜃
𝐿
POWER OUTPUT FROM A SHAFT

 Use of shafts: To transmit mechanical power from one device/machine to another.

 Transmission: through a rotary motion of the shaft.
Of interest: (i) Magnitude of the torque
(ii) Speed of rotation
Design of a shaft: We are interested in the required shaft size (diameter) to transmit a
specified amount of power at a specified rotational speed without exceeding the allowable
stresses for the material.

 Consider a motor driven shaft rotating at an angular speed ω (rad/s).

 Shaft transmits a torque T to a machine.
 Work done by the torque T =Torque x angle through which it rotates i.e.
𝑊 = 𝑇𝜙 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜙 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠)
𝑑𝑊 𝑑(𝑇𝜙 ) 𝑑𝜙
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑃 = = =𝑇
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

 𝐵𝑢𝑡 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝜔 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠) 𝑖. 𝑒.

𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔 (= 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡)

 Units: P → Watts

7
 T → Nm
ω → rad/s
1𝑁𝑚 1 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
1 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡 = (= )
𝑠 𝑠
 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝐻𝑧 𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑)
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 1 𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑇
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝐼𝑓 𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛, 𝑁 = 60𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 =
60
where power is in watts, N is in rev per min and T is in Nm.

 Old units of power:

Power was measured in Horse power (hp)
1hp = 550 ft_lb per s
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝐻= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑝𝑚, 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡_𝑙𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑝
60(550)
1 hp  746 watts
Example:
A shaft is required to transmit 40kW at 2rev/s. The shear stress is to be limited to 50MPa and
the angle of twist of the shaft is not to exceed 1 0 for each 2m length of shaft. The shear
modulus is 77GPa. Determine the acceptable diameter of the shaft.
Solution:

 Convert power to a torque

𝑃 40 × 10
𝑇= = = 3183𝑁𝑚
2𝜋𝑓 2𝜋 × 2
Based on the maximum shear stress
𝑇 𝜏 𝑇𝑅
= 𝑜𝑟 𝜏 =
𝐽 𝑟 𝐽
𝑇𝑅 2𝑇
𝜏 = =
𝜋𝑅 𝜋𝑅
2

8
 2𝑇 2 × 3183 × 10
𝑅= = = 34.3𝑚𝑚
𝜋𝜏 𝜋 × 50

Based on the angle of twist

𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝐺𝜃 2𝑇
= 𝑜𝑟 =
𝐽 𝐿 𝐿 𝜋𝑅
𝟏
𝟒
2𝑇𝐿 2 × 3183 × 2
𝑅= = 𝜋 = 41.7𝑚𝑚
𝜋𝐺𝜃 𝜋 × 77 × 10 ×
180
Note if R = 34.3 mm, θ = 0.038 rad (= 2.180) which violates the 10 limitation.

If R = 41.7 mm, max = 27.9 MPa which meets the shear stress limit of 50 MPa.
Therefore, a radius of 41.7mm meets both conditions specified i.e. D = 83.4mm.

Example:
The steel shaft shown has a diameter of 50mm and is driven at ‘A’ by a motor that transmits
55kW to the shaft at 10Hz. The gears at ‘B’ and ‘C’ drive machinery requiring power of 30kW
and 25kW, respectively. Calculate the maximum shear stress in the shaft and the angle of twist
between the motor at ‘A’ and the gear at ‘C’. Assume G = 80GPa.

Solution:

 The torque supplied by the motor and the reactive torques at ‘B’ and ‘C’ are as shown.

9
 ×
⇛⇛𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑇 = = = 875.35𝑁𝑚
×

25 × 10
⇛⇛ Reactive torque at "C" 𝑇 = = 397.89𝑁𝑚
2𝜋 × 10
30 × 10
⇛⇛ Reactive torque at "B" 𝑇 = = 477.46𝑁𝑚 (= 𝑇 − 𝑇 )
2𝜋 × 10
 Considering part AB:

𝑇 𝜏 𝑇 16𝑇 16 × 875.35 × 10
= 𝑜𝑟 𝜏 = = = = 35.665 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐽 𝑟 𝜋𝑑 𝜋 × 50
𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐿 32𝑇𝐿
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝜑 = = =
𝐺𝐽 𝐺 𝐺𝜋𝑑

32 × 875.35 × 10 × 1 × 10
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝜑 = = 1.7832 × 10 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝜋 × 80 × 10 × 50
 Considering part BC:
16𝑇 16 × 397.89 × 10
𝜏 = = = 16.211 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜋𝑑 𝜋 × 50
32𝑇𝐿 32 × 397.89 × 10 × 1.2 × 10
𝜑 = = = 9.7269 × 10 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝐺𝜋𝑑 𝜋 × 80 × 10 × 50

 Therefore the maximum shear stress in the shaft is τAB = 35.665 MPa.
 The total angle of twist
𝜑=𝜑 +𝜑 = 1.7832 × 10 + 9.7269 × 10 = 2.7559 × 10 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠

10
6.1 Introduction
Welcome to the sixth lesson on torsion. In this lesson, the following sub-topics will be covered;
combined shafts, taper shafts, strain energy in torsion, application of torsion to close coiled
helical springs, statically indeterminate torsional members.
6.2 Lesson learning outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
6.2.1 Solve torsion problems involving combined/stepped shafts.
6.2.2 Derive equations and solve problems involving taper shafts.
6.2.3 Derive and solve problems relating to strain energy.
6.2.4 Derive deflection equation of close coiled helical spring including solving related
problems e.g. springs in series and springs in parallel.
6.2.5 Solve problems involving statically indeterminate torsional members.
COMBINED SHAFTS

Case 1: Continuous shaft with different diameters (stepped shafts)

Torque is the same for both portions of the shaft i.e. 𝑇 = 𝑇 = 𝑇
Total angle of twist (deformation) 𝜃 = 𝜃 + 𝜃 where
𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐿
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 =
𝐺𝐽 𝐺𝐽
 For different materials, use G1, G2

𝐿
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑠; 𝜃 = 𝑇
𝐺𝐽

Case (II) Concentric shafts (ends rigidly connected)

11
  Since ends are rigidly connected, angle of twist is the same for both i.e.
𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐿
𝜃 =𝜃 = =
𝐺 𝐽 𝐺 𝐽
 Total torque = Torque carried by the solid shaft + Torque carried by the hollow shaft i.e.
𝑇 =𝑇 +𝑇
𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝐺 𝐽𝜃 𝐺 𝐽𝜃
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑇 = +
𝐽 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
Case (III)

This case works as though the shafts are connected in series i.e.

𝜃 =𝜃 +𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 = 𝑇 = 𝑇
Example:

12
The solid bar of circular cross-section shown is subjected to a torque of 1 kNm at the free end
and a torque of 3 kNm at its change of section. Calculate the maximum shear stress in the bar
and the angle of twist at the free end. Assume shear modulus G = 70 GPa.

Solution:

 For part AB,

𝑇 = 𝑇 + 𝑇 = 4 𝑘𝑁𝑚 = 4 × 10 𝑁𝑚𝑚
 But
𝑇𝑅 𝑇𝐷 16𝑇 16 × 4 × 10 𝑁𝑚𝑚
𝜏 = = = = = 20.372 𝑁 𝑚𝑚
𝐽 2× 𝜋𝐷 𝜋 × 100

 Angle of twist
𝑇𝐿 4 × 10 × 200 × 32
𝜃 = = = 1.1641 × 10 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝐺𝐽 70 × 10 × 𝜋 × 100
 For part BC,
𝑇 = 𝑇 = 1 𝑘𝑁𝑚
16𝑇 16 × 1 × 10 𝑁𝑚𝑚
𝜏 = = = 40.744 𝑁 𝑚𝑚
𝜋𝐷 𝜋 × 50

 Angle of twist
𝑇𝐿 1 × 10 × 400 × 32
𝜃 = = = 9.3128 × 10 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝐺𝐽 70 × 10 × 𝜋 × 50
 Therefore, the maximum shear stress is on part BC and is equal to 40.74 N/mm 2.
 Angle of twist at the free end
𝜑=𝜑 +𝜑 = 1.1641 × 10 + 9.3128 × 10 = 1.0477 × 10 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠

13
Example:
A solid steel shaft of diameter d = 254 mm and length L = 3048 mm is twisted to a total angle of
20 over its length. If the shear modulus of the steel G = 103 GPa, and the shaft rotates at 150
rpm, determine:
(a) The power transmitted by the shaft
(b) The maximum shear stress in the shaft
(c) If the yield stress of the steel equals 690 MPa, determine the slowest speed of the shaft
permitted for the same power and a safety factor of 2.
Solution:

 From the general torsion formula,

𝜋×2
𝐺𝜃𝐽 103 × 10 × 180 𝑟𝑎𝑑 × 𝜋 × 0.254
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑇 = = = 4.8193 × 10 𝑁𝑚
𝐿 3.048 × 32
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑇 =
60
2𝜋 × 150 × 4.8193 × 10
= = 7.5701 × 10 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 ≅ 7570 𝑘𝑊
60
𝑇𝑅
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏 =
𝐽
0.254 32
= 4.8193 × 10 × × = 1.4978 × 10 𝑁 𝑚 ≅ 150 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 𝜋 × 0.254
 For a safety factor of 2, the maximum allowed stress is 345 MPa. Therefore
𝜏𝐽 345 × 10 𝜋 × 0.254
𝑇= = × = 1.1101 × 10 𝑁𝑚
𝑅 0.254 32
2
2𝜋𝑁𝑇 60𝑃 60 × 7.5701 × 10
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑃 = 𝑁= = = 65.119 𝑟𝑝𝑚 ≅ 65 𝑟𝑝𝑚
60 2𝜋 × 𝑇 2𝜋 × 1.1101 × 10
TORSION OF A TAPER SHAFT

14
 𝐷−𝑑 𝐷 𝑑 𝐷 𝑥 𝐷−𝑑
𝑑( ) =𝑑+ 𝑥 =𝑑+ 𝑥− 𝑥 =𝑑 1+ 𝑥− =𝑑 1+𝑥
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿𝑑 𝐿 𝐿𝑑

= 𝑑(1 + 𝑘𝑥) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 =

𝜋𝑑( ) 𝜋
⇛⇛ 𝐽( ) = = 𝑑 (1 + 𝑘𝑥) = 𝐽( ) (1 + 𝑘𝑥)
32 32
𝑇𝐿
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜃 = ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝛿𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦:
𝐺𝐽
𝑇 𝛿𝑥
⇛⇛ 𝑑𝜃( ) =
𝐽( ) 𝐺

𝑇 𝛿𝑥
⇛⇛ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝜃 = 𝑑𝜃( ) =
𝐺 𝐽( ) (1 + 𝑘𝑥)
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
⇛⇛ 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑧 = (1 + 𝑘𝑥) = 𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑘
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0, 𝑧 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝐿, 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑘𝐿
𝑇 𝑑𝑧 𝑇 1 1
⇛⇛ 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝜃 = = −
𝐺𝑘𝐽( ) 𝑧 𝐺𝑘𝐽( ) 3 3(1 + 𝑘𝐿)

𝑇𝐿 𝛽 + 𝛽 + 1
⇛⇛ 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒; 𝜃 = … … … … … … … … . . (𝑦)
𝐺𝐽 3𝛽

𝐷 𝜋𝑑
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛽 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐽( ) =
𝑑 32
𝑇𝐿
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝛽 = 1 (𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟), 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑦) 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝜃 =
𝐺𝐽( )

STRAIN ENERGY IN TORSION

𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝜏 𝐺𝐽
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 = = 𝑜𝑟 𝑇 = 𝜃
𝐽 𝐿 𝑟 𝐿
𝐺𝐽
For a bar of given material (G), length L and radius R; = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐿
Therefore, the angle of twist (θ)  applied torque (T)
The graph of torque versus angle of twist is linear for a gradually applied torque.
Work done by the torque T = area under the torque/angle of twist graph = ½Tθ

15
Corresponding strain energy (assuming no dissipation of energy) U = ½Tθ

In terms of τmax:

1𝜏 𝐽 𝜏 𝐿 𝜏𝐽 𝜏𝐿
𝑈= × 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 =
2 𝑅 𝐺𝑅 𝑅 𝐺𝑅
1 1 𝜋𝑅 1𝜏
𝑈= 𝜏 . 𝐿. . = . 𝜋𝑅 𝐿
2 𝐺𝑅 2 4 𝐺
𝜏
= . (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟)
4𝐺
𝜏
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 =
4𝐺
In terms of the torque T:

1 1 𝑇𝐿 𝑇 𝐿
𝐼𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑇; 𝑈 = 𝑇𝜃 = 𝑇. = (𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 4𝑡ℎ 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟)
2 2 𝐺𝐽 2𝐺𝐽

APPLICATION TO CLOSE-COILED HELICAL SPRING

Spring → absorbs energy, stores it and releases it when necessary.

Need to know:
→ Capacity to absorb energy
→ deforma on for a given load.

Stiffness → load required to produce unit deflec on (𝑘 = 𝑃 𝛿 )

16
Flexibility → reciprocal of s ffness i.e. elonga on produced by unit load 1 𝑘

Consider a close-coiled helical spring carring a load P.

R (=D/2) = mean coil radius
d = wire diameter
n = number of coils
L = Length of wire ( 2πRn)
δ = axial deflection due to load P
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝑃 × 𝑅
Work done by load P = 𝑃𝛿
Strain energy stored in the spring 𝑈 = 𝑇𝜃

𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝜏 𝑇𝐿
𝐵𝑢𝑡 = = 𝑜𝑟 𝜃 = (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑇 = 𝑃𝑅)
𝐽 𝐿 𝑟 𝐺𝐽
1 1 1𝑇 𝐿
∴ 𝑃𝛿 = 𝑇𝜃 = 𝑖. 𝑒.
2 2 2 𝐺𝐽
1 1 (𝑃𝑅) (2𝜋𝑅𝑛)
𝑃𝛿 =
2 2 𝜋𝑑
𝐺
32
64𝑃𝑅 𝑛 8𝑃𝐷 𝑛
𝛿= =
𝐺𝑑 𝐺𝑑
1 1 64𝑃𝑅 𝑛 32𝑃 𝑅 𝑛
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑈 = 𝑃𝛿 = 𝑃 = … … … … … … … (𝑖)
2 2 𝐺𝑑 𝐺𝑑

17
 𝑇𝑟 𝑇 16𝑃𝑅
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝜏 = = = (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇 = 𝑃𝑅)
𝐽 𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑
32
32𝑃 𝑅 𝑛 16𝑃𝑅 𝜋 (2𝑅)𝑛𝑑
⇛⇛ 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑖); 𝑈 = = ×
𝐺𝑑 𝜋𝑑 16𝐺
16𝑃𝑅 𝜋𝑑 1
= × 2𝜋𝑅𝑛. ×
𝜋𝑑 4 4𝐺

= × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (= 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)

Example:
A close-coiled helical spring is to have a stiffness of 1 kN/m of compression, a maximum load of
50 N and a maximum shearing stress of 120 MPa. The solid length of the spring (when the coils
are touching) is to be 45 mm. Determine the diameter of the wire, mean diameter of the coils
and the number of coils required. Assume G = 50 GPa.
Solution
8𝑃𝐷 𝑛
𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝛿=
𝐺𝑑
𝑃 𝐺𝑑 𝑑 8𝑘
𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦: 𝑘= = 𝑖. 𝑒. =
𝛿 8𝐷 𝑛 𝐷 𝑛 𝐺
𝑑 8 × 1000
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒: = = 1.6 × 10 … … … … … … … … . . … … … … … … … … (𝑎)
𝐷 𝑛 50 × 10
16𝑇 16𝑃𝑅 8𝑃𝐷
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠: 𝜏 = = = 𝑖. 𝑒.
𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑
𝐷 𝜋𝜏
=
𝑑 8𝑃
𝐷 𝜋 × 120 × 10
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒: = = 9.4248 × 10 … … … … … … . . … … … … … … … (𝑏)
𝑑 8 × 50
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔: 𝑛𝑑 = 0.045 𝑚 … … … … … … … … . … … … … … … … … (𝑐)
Solve (a), (b) and (c) simultaneously:
𝐷 = 46.3 𝑚𝑚, 𝑑 = 3.6 𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 12.5

SPRINGS IN SERIES

18
For two springs connected in series:
Let W = applied load
k1 = stiffness of spring 1 k2 = stiffness of spring 2
1 = extension of spring 1 2 = extension of spring 2
k = stiffness of composite spring
Each spring will be subjected to load ‘W’ and the total extension is the sum of the extensions of
the two springs i.e.
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 1 1 1
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝛿 = 𝛿 + 𝛿 𝑜𝑟 = + 𝑜𝑟 = +
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
SPRINGS IN PARALLEL
For springs connected in parallel and subjected to a load ‘W’, they will extend equally by some
amount . The load will be shared such that:
𝑊 =𝑊 +𝑊 𝑜𝑟 𝛿𝑘 = 𝛿. 𝑘 + 𝛿. 𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑘 = 𝑘 + 𝑘

STATICALLY INDETERMINATE TORSIONAL MEMBERS:

 These are members with more supports than those required to hold the member in
equilibrium.

19
  Consider shaft AB fixed at both ends loaded with torque TC at C.
Want to determine:

(i) Reactive torques TA and TB.

(ii) The maximum shear stress.
(iii) Angle of rotation ϕC where TC is applied.

Set B as a redundant support. Remove it from the structure to obtain the released structure.

Let TC and TB act as loads on the structure. Suppose they produce an angle of twist ϕB at B.
𝑇𝐿 (𝑇 − 𝑇 )𝐿 𝑇 𝐿
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜃 = ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜑 = 𝜑 +𝜑 = −
𝐺𝐽 𝐺𝐽 𝐺𝐽
 From compatability considerations, angle of rotation at B = 0.
𝑇𝐿 𝑇 𝐿 𝑇 𝐿
− − =0
𝐽 𝐽 𝐽
 Solve for TB:
𝐿 𝐽 𝐿 𝐽
𝑇 =𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 = 𝑇 … … … … … … … . . … … … … … … … (𝑖)
𝐿 𝐽 +𝐿 𝐽 𝐿 𝐽 +𝐿 𝐽
 We note that for a bar of uniform cross-section:
𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐿
𝐽 = 𝐽 = 𝐽 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑇 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 = (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐿 = 𝐿 + 𝐿 ) … … . … . . . (𝑖𝑖)
𝐿 𝐿
Shear stress
𝑇 𝜏 𝑇𝑑
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜏 =
𝐽 𝑟 𝐽2
𝑇𝑑 𝑇 𝑑
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝜏 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏 =
2𝐽 2𝐽
 Substituting for TA and TB from (i):
𝑳𝒃 𝒅𝒂 𝑳𝒂 𝒅𝒃
𝜏 =𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏 =𝑇
2(𝐿 𝐽 + 𝐿 𝐽 ) 2(𝐿 𝐽 + 𝐿 𝐽 )
 To determine the part with the larger stress, we only need to compare L bda and Ladb.
20
The angle of rotation ϕC at C is the same for both parts of the bar. Therefore,
𝑇𝐿 𝑇 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝜑 = = =𝑇 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑻𝑨 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 (𝒊) . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝐺𝐽 𝐺𝐽 𝐺(𝐿 𝐽 + 𝐿 𝐽 )
𝐿
𝑊𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝐿 = 𝐿 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐽 = 𝐽 = 𝐽, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
2
𝑇𝐿 𝑇 𝐿 𝑇
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑖𝑖), 𝑇 = = =
𝐿 𝐿 2 2
𝑇 𝐿
𝑇() 𝑇𝐿
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝜑 = = 2 2=
𝐺𝐽 𝐺𝐽 4𝐺𝐽
Example:

A bar of circular cross-section is fixed at both ends with dimensions as shown. It is subjected to
a torque of 50 kNm at its change of section. Calculate:

 The maximum stress in the bar

 The angle of twist at point of application of the torque. Assume G = 80 GPa.

Solution:

𝐿 𝑑 = 0.5 × 0.2 = 0.1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿 𝑑 = 2 × 0.1 = 0.2

 Therefore, the maximum stress is τCB.
𝐿 𝑑
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝜏 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜏 =𝜏 =𝑇
2(𝐿 𝐽 + 𝐿 𝐽 )
50 × 10 × 2 × 0.1
= = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟗 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜋(0.1) 𝜋(0.2)
2 2× + 0.5 ×
32 32
𝑇𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 2 × 0.5 × 50 × 10
𝜑 = =𝑇 =
𝐺𝐽 𝐺(𝐿 𝐽 + 𝐿 𝐽 ) 𝜋(0.1) 𝜋(0.2)
2× + 0.5 × × 80 × 10
32 32
= 0.0064 𝑟𝑎𝑑 (= 0.37 )
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