Dr.

Nelson Muthu, Asstistant Professor

C-201, Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Guwahati
1. F. P. Beer, E. R. Johnston (Jr.) and J.T. DeWolf, Mechanics of Materials, Tata McGraw Hill, 2005.
2. E. P. Popov, Engineering Mechanics of Solids, Prentice Hall, 1998.
3. S. P. Timoshenko, Strength of Materials, Vols. 1 & 2, CBS Publishers, 1986
4. S. H. Crandall, N. C. Dahl, and T. J. Lardner, An Introduction To The Mechanics Of Solids, 2nd Ed., Tata McGraw Hill,
2008.
5. W. Michael Lai, David Rubin, Erhard Krempl, Introduction to continuum mechanics, 4th Ed., Elsevier, 2010.

Week – 2 Class hours + 1 Tutorial

Endsem – 50%, Midsem – 30%, Assignments and Quizzes – 15%
Classroom Participation – 5%; Miniumum 75% attendance mandatory
Doubts clarification – During tutorials or office hours (Take appointment)

 All the course slides, assignments, solutions will be uploaded in the moodle.
 Enrolment key – ME212_ME
Chair failure, Material – i35 Bridge collapse, Material –
Polypropylene Reinforced concrete
 Process parameters – Manufacturing method, safety, cost, size and weight
 Environment – Corrosive, temperature, electric current, noise and vibration
 Loads – Static, Fluctuating, Impact
 Types of Stresses – Tension, compression, torsion, bending; uniaxial, biaxial,
triaxial
 Material – Ductile, brittle
 Confidence – Manufacturing quality control, reliability of data for stresses and
material properties
Definition: The study of behaviour of solid materials under various types of stresses

Compression Tension (stretched) Bending Torsion (twisted) Shearing

Typical brittle fracture appearance of Typical ductile fracture appearance
nodular graphite cast iron
Picture by Sigmund licensed under the Creative Commons Picture by BradleyGrillo licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.
Behaviour of brittle and ductile materials
(Source1: http://www.ltas-cm3.ulg.ac.be)
 Hard hats (Workers on building site)
 Climbing helmets (Trekking, climbing)
 Cycling (Motorbike)

Hard hats
1. Application: Prevent injury from falling objects,
inexpensive, low weight
1. Environment: NA
2. Loads: Impact
3. Types of stresses: Compressive (triaxial)
4. Confidence: Low quality control
MATERIAL – Polycarbonate or ABS
Climbing hats
1. Application: Prevent injury from falling objects,
low weight
1. Environment: NA
2. Loads: Impact
3. Types of stresses: Compressive
4. Confidence: Moderate quality control
MATERIAL – Composites (CFRP/GFRP)

Bike hats
1. Application: Prevent injury from large impact,
2. Environment: NA
3. Loads: Impact
4. Types of stresses: Compressive
5. Confidence: High quality control

MATERIAL – Polystyrene foam

FACTORS
 Static Load
 Tension, compression, torsion, bending and shearing; Uniaxial and biaxial
 Material types (only isotropic materials)

MATHEMATICAL APPROXIMATIONS
 Infinitesimal deformation (Practically very small derivatives of displacement field).
DEFORMATION AND STRAIN
TENSOR
Information on relative distance between two points such as P and Q

Position vector of P at time 𝑡0 𝐗 = 𝑋1 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑋2 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑋3 𝑘෠

Position vector of Q at time 𝑡0 𝐗 + 𝑑𝐗 = (𝑋1 + 𝑑𝑋1 ) 𝑖Ƹ + (𝑋2 + 𝑑𝑋2 )𝑗Ƹ + (𝑋3 + 𝑑𝑋3 )𝑘෠

Displacement vector of P at time t u(𝐗, 𝑡) = 𝑢1 (𝐗, 𝑡)𝑖Ƹ + 𝑢2 (𝐗, 𝑡)𝑗Ƹ + 𝑢3 (𝐗, 𝑡)𝑘෠
Displacement vector of Q at time t u(𝐗 + 𝑑𝐗, 𝑡) = 𝑢1 (𝐗 + 𝑑𝐗, 𝑡)𝑖Ƹ + 𝑢2 (𝐗 + 𝑑𝐗, 𝑡)𝑗Ƹ + 𝑢3 (𝐗 + 𝑑𝐗, 𝑡)𝑘෠

𝑑𝐱 = 𝑑𝐗 + 𝐮 𝐗 + 𝑑𝐗, 𝑡 − 𝐮 𝐗, 𝑡
𝑑𝐱 = 𝐝𝐗 + 𝛻𝐮 𝑑𝐗 𝛻 − The nabla operator
𝑑𝐱 = 𝐅𝑑𝐗
 𝐮 𝐗 + 𝑑𝐗, 𝑡 − 𝐮 𝐗, 𝑡 = 𝛻𝐮 𝑑𝐗
𝛻𝐮 is the gradient of vector u

𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑢1

𝜕𝑋1 𝜕𝑋2 𝜕𝑋3
𝜕𝑢2 𝜕𝑢2 𝜕𝑢2
𝛻𝐮 =
𝜕𝑋1 𝜕𝑋2 𝜕𝑋3
𝜕𝑢3 𝜕𝑢3 𝜕𝑢3
𝜕𝑋1 𝜕𝑋2 𝜕𝑋3

𝛻𝐮 is a second-order tensor known as displacement gradient.

 𝑑𝐱 = 𝑑𝐗 + 𝐮 𝐗 + 𝑑𝐗, 𝑡 − 𝐮 𝐗, 𝑡
𝑑𝐱 = 𝐝𝐗 + 𝛻𝐮 𝑑𝐗
𝑑𝐱 = 𝐅𝑑𝐗

𝐅 is the deformation gradient it is the gradient of the function describing the motion.
𝐅 = 𝐈 + 𝛻𝐮
The object of interest is the relationship between the new length 𝑑𝑠 (the length of 𝑑𝐱)and actual
length 𝑑𝐗
𝑑𝐱. 𝑑𝐱 = 𝐅𝑑𝐗. 𝐅𝑑𝐗 = 𝑑𝐗. (𝐅 𝐓 𝐅)𝑑𝐗
𝑑𝑠 2 = 𝑑𝐗. 𝐂𝑑𝐗
𝐂 = (𝐅 𝐓 𝐅)
𝐂 is the right Cauchy-green deformation tensor.
 𝐂 = 𝐅 𝐓 𝐅 = 𝐈 + 𝛻𝐮 T 𝐈 + 𝛻𝐮 = 𝐈 + 𝛻𝐮 + (𝛻𝐮)T +(𝛻𝐮)T 𝛻𝐮

𝐂 = 𝐈 + 𝛻𝐮 + (𝛻𝐮)T +(𝛻𝐮)T 𝛻𝐮

𝐂 = 𝐈 + 𝟐𝐄 ∗

𝐄 ∗ is the Lagrange strain tensor. It is a finite deformation tensor.

In this course, we are concerned with only very small displacements and its derivatives.
Therefore, we neglect (𝛻𝐮)T 𝛻𝐮.
𝜕𝑢1 1 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑢2 1 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑢3
𝐂 ≈ 𝐈 + 𝛻𝐮 + (𝛻𝐮) T + +
𝜕𝑋1 2 𝜕𝑋2 𝜕𝑋1 2 𝜕𝑋3 𝜕𝑋1
𝐂 ≈ 𝐈 + 𝟐𝐄 1 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑢2 𝜕𝑢2 1 𝜕𝑢2 𝜕𝑢3
𝐄 = + +
1 2 𝜕𝑋2 𝜕𝑋1 𝜕𝑋2 2 𝜕𝑋3 𝜕𝑋2
𝐄 = 𝛻𝐮 + (𝛻𝐮)T
2 1 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑢3 1 𝜕𝑢2 𝜕𝑢3 𝜕𝑢3
+ +
2 𝜕𝑋3 𝜕𝑋1 2 𝜕𝑋3 𝜕𝑋2 𝜕𝑋3
𝐄 is the infinitesimal strain tensor.
 STRAIN AND ITS
TRANSFORMATION
 𝜕𝑢1 1 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑢2 1 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑢3
+ +
𝜕𝑋1 2 𝜕𝑋2 𝜕𝑋1 2 𝜕𝑋3 𝜕𝑋1
𝜀11 𝜀12 𝜀13
1 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑢2 𝜕𝑢2 1 𝜕𝑢2 𝜕𝑢3
𝜀21 𝜀22 𝜀23 = + +
𝜀31 𝜀32 𝜀33 2 𝜕𝑋2 𝜕𝑋1 𝜕𝑋2 2 𝜕𝑋3 𝜕𝑋2
1 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑢3 1 𝜕𝑢2 𝜕𝑢3 𝜕𝑢3
+ +
2 𝜕𝑋3 𝜕𝑋1 2 𝜕𝑋3 𝜕𝑋2 𝜕𝑋3
Let x, y, z be 1,2,3 axis

x
 1 1
𝜀𝑥𝑥 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑧
𝜀𝑥𝑥 𝜀𝑥𝑦 𝜀𝑥𝑧 2 2
𝜀𝑦𝑥 𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝜀𝑦𝑧 = 1 𝛾 𝜀𝑦𝑦
1
𝛾𝑦𝑧
𝑦𝑥
𝜀𝑧𝑥 𝜀𝑧𝑦 𝜀𝑧𝑧 2 2
1 1
𝛾 𝛾 𝜀𝑧𝑧
2 𝑧𝑥 2 𝑧𝑦

𝜕𝑢𝑥 𝜕𝑢𝑦
Shear strain 𝜀𝑥𝑦 is the average of two strains and
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Engineering shear strain 𝛾𝑥𝑦 is the total shear strain: 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 2𝜀𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑥𝑥 (Normal strain) 𝜀𝑦𝑦 (Normal strain) 𝛾𝑥𝑦 (Shear strain)
Determine the components of strain for the following displacement field
a) 𝑢𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥, 𝑢𝑦 = 𝐵𝑦 [Normal strains only affect the size of the component]
b) 𝑢𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥, 𝑢𝑦 = 𝐵 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 [Shear strains only affect the shape of the component]
c) 𝑢𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 − 𝜔𝑧 𝑦, 𝑢𝑦 = 𝐴𝑦 + 𝜔𝑧 𝑥 [Rigid body motion]

u x
z  
y

y C D

dy u y
𝐴𝑦 z 
x
A dx B

𝐴𝑥

x
 𝑦 𝑦
𝑦` 𝑦`
𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑥`
𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑥`
𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝑦` 𝑑𝑦`
𝜀𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝜀𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥`
𝑑𝑥`
𝜃 𝜃 𝑥
𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝜀𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜀𝑥𝑥 ` = 𝛿𝑥`/𝑑𝑥 𝜀𝑥𝑥 ` = 𝜀𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃+𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃+𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥` = = 𝜀𝑥𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝜀𝑥𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜀𝑥𝑥 ` = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2 2 2
𝛿𝑥` = 𝜀𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃+𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜀𝑥𝑥 +𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝜀𝑥𝑥 −𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝜀𝑦𝑦 ` = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2 2 2
 MOHR’s CIRCLE AND
INTORDUCTION TO STRESS
 𝑦 𝑦
𝑦` 𝑦`

𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑥` 𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑥`
𝛿𝑦`
𝑑𝑦 𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝑦` 𝑑𝑥` 𝑑𝑦`
α 𝜀𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
β 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥` 𝜀𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝑥`
𝑑𝑦` 𝜃 𝜃
𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜀𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝛿𝑦`
𝛼= = (−𝜀𝑥𝑥 +𝜀𝑦𝑦 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃cos𝜃 − 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝛿𝑦` = −𝜀𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃+𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝑥`
𝛽 = −(−𝜀𝑥𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦𝑦 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃cos𝜃 − 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
𝛾𝑥`𝑦` = 𝛼 − 𝛽 = −2 𝜀𝑥𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃cos𝜃 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)
𝛾𝑥`𝑦` − 𝜀𝑥𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
= + 𝛾𝑥𝑦
2 2 2
The normal strains (𝜀𝑥𝑥 ` and 𝜀𝑦𝑦 `) and the shear strain (𝜀𝑥`𝑦` ) vary smoothly with
respect to the rotation angle 𝜃, in accordance with the transformation equations.

There exists 𝜃𝑃 where the shear strain 𝜀𝑥`𝑦` vanishes. 𝜃𝑃 is given by

𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃𝑃 =
𝜀𝑥𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦𝑦

The associated principal strains are

𝜀𝑥𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝜀𝑥𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦𝑦 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2

𝜀1,2 = ± +
2 2 2

Source: www.efunda.com
The maximum shear occurs at an angle 𝜃𝑆 , given by

− 𝜀𝑥𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃𝑆 =
𝛾𝑥𝑦
⟹ 𝜃𝑆 = 𝜃𝑃 ± 45𝑜

The maximum shear strain is given by

𝛾𝑥𝑦,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜀𝑥𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦𝑦 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2 𝜀1 − 𝜀2

= + =
2 2 2 2
Source: www.efunda.com
 𝛾𝑥𝑦,𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜀1,2 = 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑔 ± 𝑅, =𝑅
2
𝜀𝑥𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦𝑦
𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2
𝜀𝑥𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦𝑦 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2
𝑅= +
2 2
1. Draw Mohr’s circle with the given strain components (𝜀𝑥𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦𝑦 and 𝜀𝑥𝑦 ).
2. Join (𝜀𝑥𝑥 , 𝜀𝑥𝑦 ) to (𝜀𝑦𝑦 , −𝜀𝑥𝑦 ) by a line segment 𝐿𝑥𝑦 .
3. Rotate the 𝐿𝑥𝑦 by 2𝜃 in the clockwise direction.
 Case 1: exy > 0 and ex > ey Case 2: exy < 0 and ex < ey Case 3: exy = 0 and ex > ey

The principal axes are counter- The principal axes are clockwise The principal axes are
clockwise to the current axes to the current axes (because exy < aligned with the current axes
(because exy > 0) and no more than 0) and between 45º and 90º away (because ex > ey and exy = 0).
45º away (because ex > ey). (because ex < ey).
The generalized Hooke’s law
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 𝜀𝑘𝑙 i, 𝑗, 𝑘, 𝑙 = 1,2,3
So, there are 81 independent constants
𝜎𝑖𝑗 is a second order tensor
𝜀𝑖𝑗 is a second order tensor
𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 is a fourth order tensor – also known as stiffness tensor
For an anisotropic body, there are 21 independent constants – 81 reduces to 21
because of stress, strain and stiffness tensor symmetry.
 (Case-2) Geometry of loading leading to
shear stresses (Loads applied are purely tensile).

How can tensile and shear stresses arise inside a material?

(Case-3) Loading is tensile but inclined

planes feel shear.
(Case-1) Shear loading leading to shear stresses (note: focus on the sponge- else it will look like case-2)
PLANE STRESS TRANSFORMATION
What we know…
If state of stress (𝜎𝑥𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 ) at a point is known for a given
orientation of an element of material, then state of stress for
another orientation can be determined.

This is done through simple force balance relation

  xx ' A    xy A sin   cos 
   yy A sin   sin     xy A cos   sin 
Fx’ = 0    xx A cos   cos   0
 xx '   xx cos 2    yy sin 2    xy  2sin  cos  

 x ' y ' A    xy A sin   sin 

   yy A sin   cos     xy A cos   cos 
Fy’ = 0
   xx A cos   sin   0
 x ' y '    xx   yy  sin  cos    xy  cos 2   sin 2  
 𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦
𝜎𝑥𝑥 ` = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2 2
𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦
𝜎𝑦𝑦 ` = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2 2
− 𝜎𝑥𝑥 −𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 2
+ 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃

State of plane stress at a point on

surface of airplane fuselage is
represented on the element oriented as
shown. Represent the state of stress at
the point that is oriented 30 clockwise
from the position shown.
 80  50 80  50
 xx '   cos 2  30    25  sin 2  30 
2 2
 xx '  25.8 MPa
 80  50
 x' y '   sin 2 30   25 cos 2 30
2
 x' y '  68.8 MPa