Coupling of structural

and aerodynamic
models
Computational structural models
Finite element methods are typically considered for modelling the structural behavior of aircraft
components subjected to aerodynamic loads. Given the inherent slenderness of such elements,
different condensed (or reduced) models may be employed, depending on the sophistication level
desired:
Models Element types Degrees of freedom Behavior captured
𝑤𝑤

𝜑𝜑 Deflection: 𝑤𝑤
Beam-like Beam Simplified overall
𝜃𝜃 Bending angle: 𝜑𝜑
model (bending + twist) twist and bending
Twist angle: 𝜃𝜃

Rod
(axial) Sophisticated
Displacements:
+ overall twist and
𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 , 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 , 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧
Membrane bending
(in-plane deformations)
Box-like
models
Beam Displacements:
(axial + bending + twist) Sophisticated
𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 , 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 , 𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧
+ overall and local
Rotation angles:
Shell twist and bending
𝜃𝜃𝑥𝑥 , 𝜃𝜃𝑦𝑦 , 𝜃𝜃𝑧𝑧
(in-plane + bending)

Coupling of structural and aerodynamic models 2

Lumped mass model
Regardless of the specific modelling of the structure, the result can be expressed in terms of a
stiffness matrix 𝐊𝐊 , a mass matrix [𝐌𝐌], and, if applicable, a damping matrix [𝐂𝐂]. Here, it is assumed
that the rows and columns corresponding to the prescribed (fixed) degrees of freedom have already
been removed from each matrix (i.e., the boundary conditions are applied).
It is important to note that the definition of the mass matrix according to a FE model only accounts
for the mass that is part of the structural components that are modeled. However, in an actual
aircraft, there is a significant amount of mass linked to non-structural elements (e.g., fuel, pylons,
etc.). The common practice in this case is to localize the mass at specific points of the structure. For
convenience, these points are chosen to coincide with the nodes of the FE model. This is known as a
lumped mass model.
Example for a beam-like FE model:
Beam element FE node

Mass section Lumped mass

Coupling of structural and aerodynamic models 3

Modal decomposition
The resulting system of equations can then be expressed as:
𝐌𝐌 𝒙𝒙̈ + 𝐂𝐂 𝒙𝒙̇ + 𝐊𝐊 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒇𝒇
where {𝒙𝒙} is a vector with the degrees of freedom and {𝒇𝒇} is another vector accounting for the loads
acting on the corresponding degree of freedom (i.e., the aerodynamic loads).
A further step in simplifying the aeroelastic analysis is to perform a modal decomposition to refer
the system onto its relevant deformation modes, hence reducing the total number of degrees of
freedom. To do so, we consider:

𝒙𝒙 = � 𝝓𝝓𝑖𝑖 𝝃𝝃
𝑖𝑖

where {𝝓𝝓𝑖𝑖 } are the mass-normalized modes resulting from the eigenvalues problem:
1
�𝑗𝑗2 𝐌𝐌
𝐊𝐊 − 𝜔𝜔 𝝓𝝓′𝑖𝑖 = 𝟎𝟎 𝝓𝝓𝑖𝑖 = 𝝓𝝓′𝑖𝑖
T
𝝓𝝓′𝑖𝑖 𝐌𝐌 𝝓𝝓′𝑖𝑖
T T
The reduction is performed by pre-multiplying the system by 𝛟𝛟 = 𝝓𝝓1 … 𝝓𝝓𝑛𝑛
𝟏𝟏 𝝃𝝃̈ + 𝛟𝛟 T
𝐂𝐂 𝛟𝛟 𝝃𝝃̇ + 𝛀𝛀
� 2 𝝃𝝃 = 𝛟𝛟 T
𝒇𝒇 � 2 = 𝛟𝛟
𝛀𝛀 T
�12 … 𝜔𝜔
𝐊𝐊 𝛟𝛟 = diag 𝜔𝜔 �𝑛𝑛2
Notice that if 𝐂𝐂 = 𝑞𝑞1 𝐌𝐌 + 𝑞𝑞2 𝐊𝐊 the previous system is of equations is uncoupled (all system
matrices are diagonal).

Coupling of structural and aerodynamic models 4

Aerodynamic models
As in the structural case, there are also different levels of sophistication in terms of the
aerodynamics modelling to avoid dealing with computationally expensive CFD simulations.
• Strip theory. It is based on the assumption that the aerodynamic forces acting on one chord
wise strip have no effect on other chord wise strips. This has some major implications like
neglecting tip effects. The model is moderately accurate to deal with low speed aerodynamics of
high aspect ratio and unswept wings.
• Panel methods. Discretizing the aircraft component into several lifting surfaces and taking into
account the interaction between the aerodynamic forces acting on them.
Regardless of the specific model, the aerodynamics is typically referred to discrete nodes (located
at the aerodynamic center of panel/section) where the resulting lift is evaluated in terms of the
circulation of the corresponding lifting surface. These, in turn, depend on the induced velocities at
the associated collocation point by all the vortices present in the geometry.

𝑦𝑦 Lift node Collocation point

𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖
𝑥𝑥 Γ 𝑈𝑈∞ , 𝛼𝛼
𝑖𝑖
𝛼𝛼
𝑧𝑧

𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖
𝑥𝑥 𝐿𝐿 = 𝜌𝜌∞ 𝑈𝑈∞ Γ ∆𝑦𝑦
Coupling of structural and aerodynamic models 5
Aerodynamic models
For static aerodynamics, the lift can be simply obtained through panel methods by imposing
equilibrium of the normal component of the downwash velocity (this includes the effect of 𝑈𝑈∞ at the
effective angle of attack and all the vortex-induced velocities) at the collocation points:
𝚿𝚿 𝚪𝚪 + 𝑈𝑈∞ 𝜶𝜶 = 𝟎𝟎
where 𝜶𝜶 is a vector with the effective angle of attack at each collocation point. From this, a general
expression for the lift can be given by
1 2
𝑳𝑳 = 𝜌𝜌∞ 𝑈𝑈∞ 𝐀𝐀 𝜶𝜶
2
where the terms in matrix 𝐀𝐀 = −2 𝚿𝚿 −1 are known as the aerodynamic influence coefficients.
The same idea can be applied to unsteady aerodynamics. In the specific case of interest for us,
which is wings undergoing harmonic motion, an equivalent expression can be derived in which the
aerodynamic influence coefficients are complex-valued and a function of the reduced frequency 𝑘𝑘:
1 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝑳𝑳� = 𝜌𝜌∞ 𝑈𝑈∞
2
𝐀𝐀R 𝑘𝑘 + i2𝑘𝑘 𝐀𝐀I 𝑘𝑘 �
𝜶𝜶 𝑘𝑘 =
2 2𝑈𝑈∞
1 2
1
𝑳𝑳 = 𝜌𝜌∞ 𝑈𝑈∞ 𝐀𝐀R 𝑘𝑘 𝜶𝜶 + 𝜌𝜌∞ 𝑈𝑈∞ 𝑐𝑐 𝐀𝐀I 𝑘𝑘 𝜶𝜶̇
2 2
It is worth noting that upon considering aeroelastic effects, the vector {𝜶𝜶} will be a function of the
structural degrees of freedom.

Coupling of structural and aerodynamic models 6

Generalized linear coupling model
Structural model Aerodynamics model
𝒇𝒇
𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖 Γ
𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥
𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖
𝒙𝒙 = 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦
𝑖𝑖
𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧

𝛼𝛼
𝑈𝑈∞

Data:
- Stiffness matrix 𝐊𝐊 Data:
- Mass matrix 𝐌𝐌 �
- Aerodynamic influence coefficients matrix 𝐀𝐀
- Damping matrix 𝐂𝐂 - Flow data: 𝜌𝜌∞ (altitude)
Output: Input:
- Degrees of freedom 𝒙𝒙 - Angles of attack 𝜶𝜶
Input: Output:
- Force vector 𝐟𝐟 - Lift 𝑳𝑳
1 2 �
𝐌𝐌 𝒙𝒙̈ + 𝐂𝐂 𝒙𝒙̇ + 𝐊𝐊 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒇𝒇 𝑳𝑳 = 𝜌𝜌∞ 𝑈𝑈∞ 𝐀𝐀 𝜶𝜶
2
Coupling of structural and aerodynamic models 7
Generalized linear coupling model
Structural model Aerodynamics model
𝒇𝒇
𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖 Γ
𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥
𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖
𝒙𝒙 = 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦
𝑖𝑖
𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧

𝛼𝛼
𝑈𝑈∞

Data:
- Stiffness matrix 𝐊𝐊 Data:
- Mass matrix 𝐌𝐌 �
- Aerodynamic influence coefficients matrix 𝐀𝐀
- Damping matrix 𝐂𝐂 - Flow data: 𝜌𝜌∞ (altitude)
𝜶𝜶 = 𝐈𝐈𝛼𝛼𝑥𝑥 𝒙𝒙
Output: Input:
- Degrees of freedom 𝒙𝒙 - Angles of attack 𝜶𝜶
Input: Output:
- Force vector 𝐟𝐟 - Lift 𝑳𝑳
1 2 �
𝐌𝐌 𝒙𝒙̈ + 𝐂𝐂 𝒙𝒙̇ + 𝐊𝐊 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒇𝒇 𝑳𝑳 = 𝜌𝜌∞ 𝑈𝑈∞ 𝐀𝐀 𝜶𝜶
2
Coupling of structural and aerodynamic models 8
Generalized linear coupling model
Structural model Aerodynamics model
𝒇𝒇
𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖 Γ
𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥
𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖
𝒙𝒙 = 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦
𝑖𝑖
𝑢𝑢𝑧𝑧

𝛼𝛼
𝑈𝑈∞

Data:
- Stiffness matrix 𝐊𝐊 Data:
- Mass matrix 𝐌𝐌 �
- Aerodynamic influence coefficients matrix 𝐀𝐀
- Damping matrix 𝐂𝐂 - Flow data: 𝜌𝜌∞ (altitude)
𝜶𝜶 = 𝐈𝐈𝛼𝛼𝑥𝑥 𝒙𝒙
Output: Input:
- Degrees of freedom 𝒙𝒙 - Angles of attack 𝜶𝜶
Input: Output:
- Force vector 𝐟𝐟 - Lift 𝑳𝑳
𝒇𝒇 = 𝐈𝐈𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑳𝑳
1 2 �
𝐌𝐌 𝒙𝒙̈ + 𝐂𝐂 𝒙𝒙̇ + 𝐊𝐊 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒇𝒇 𝑳𝑳 = 𝜌𝜌∞ 𝑈𝑈∞ 𝐀𝐀 𝜶𝜶
2
Coupling of structural and aerodynamic models 9
Generalized linear coupling model
As an example, let’s consider the coupling between a beam-model for the structure and a lumped
vortex panel for a quasi-steady aerodynamic modelling. In this case, we have 3 degrees of freedom
for each structural node (the vertical deflection 𝑤𝑤, a bending angle 𝜑𝜑, and the twist 𝜃𝜃). We also know
that the effective angle of attack of each panel will depend on the twist and the deflection at each
collocation point. Then we can build interpolation matrices 𝐈𝐈𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 and 𝐈𝐈𝛼𝛼𝑥𝑥̇ to map the variables in
both meshes:
⋮ ⋮
𝑤𝑤 𝑖𝑖 𝑤𝑤̇ 𝑖𝑖
⋱ 𝜑𝜑 𝑖𝑖 ⋱ 𝜑𝜑̇ 𝑖𝑖
⋮ 𝑐𝑐
1 1 𝜃𝜃 𝑖𝑖 1 𝑏𝑏 1 𝑏𝑏 𝜃𝜃̇ 𝑖𝑖
𝛼𝛼 𝑖𝑖 = 0 0 0 0 − 0 0
2 2 𝑤𝑤 𝑖𝑖+1 𝑈𝑈∞ 2𝑐𝑐 2𝑐𝑐 2𝑐𝑐 2𝑐𝑐 𝑤𝑤̇ 𝑖𝑖+1
⋮ ⋱ 𝜑𝜑 𝑖𝑖+1 ⋱ 𝜑𝜑̇ 𝑖𝑖+1
𝜶𝜶 𝐈𝐈𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝜃𝜃 𝑖𝑖+1 𝐈𝐈𝛼𝛼𝑥𝑥̇ 𝜃𝜃̇ 𝑖𝑖+1
⋮ ⋮
𝒙𝒙 𝒙𝒙̇
𝑤𝑤 𝑖𝑖+1

𝑤𝑤 𝑖𝑖

𝑖𝑖+1
Structural mesh
𝜃𝜃
Aerodynamic mesh
𝑖𝑖
𝜃𝜃
𝑖𝑖
𝛼𝛼

Coupling of structural and aerodynamic models 10

Generalized linear coupling model
Now, we can express the lift as:
1 2
1
𝑳𝑳 = 𝜌𝜌∞ 𝑈𝑈∞ 𝐀𝐀 𝐈𝐈𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝒙𝒙 + 𝜌𝜌∞ 𝑈𝑈∞ 𝑐𝑐 𝐀𝐀 𝐈𝐈𝛼𝛼𝑥𝑥̇ 𝒙𝒙̇
2 2
What remains is to interpolate the lift from the aerodynamic nodes to the structural nodes
⋮ ⋱
𝐹𝐹 𝑖𝑖 ⋮
1 1 1
𝑀𝑀b
𝑖𝑖
= 0 0 𝐿𝐿 𝑖𝑖−1
2 𝐿𝐿 𝑖𝑖
𝑀𝑀t
𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎
⋮
⋮ ⋱
𝐈𝐈𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑳𝑳
𝒇𝒇
Typically, the interpolation matrix 𝐈𝐈𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 can be deduced by applying Lagrange’s method and
differentiating the virtual work term with respect to the virtual degrees of freedom. Similarly, 𝐈𝐈𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼
can be deduced from the kinematic relation imposed.

𝐹𝐹 𝑖𝑖

𝐿𝐿 𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖
Structural mesh
𝑀𝑀t
𝑖𝑖−1
Aerodynamic mesh
𝐿𝐿

Coupling of structural and aerodynamic models 11