Engineering Geology, 28 (1990) 71-94 71

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam - - Printed in The Netherlands

Urban Geology: Case Study of Kuala Lumpur,

Malaysia

TAN BOON KONG and IBRAHIM KOMOO

Department of Geology, National University of Malaysm, Bang~ (Malaysia)
(Received February 2, 1988; accepted after revision November 22, 1988)

ABSTRACT

Tan, B.K. and Komoo, I., 1990. Urban geology: case study of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Eng.
Geol., 28: 71-94.

Several aspects of the urban geology of Kuala Lumpur, the principal metropolis of Malaysia, are
discussed. The topms of discussions range from problematical soils to foundations in limestone as
well as landslides in hilly terrains. Problematical soils comprise mine railings, municipal wastes
and the collapsed soil zone above limestone bedrock. They are characterised by very poor
engineering properties and have been responsible for various incidences of ground settlements
and failures. Foundation problems in limestone are attributed to the various solution features that
are inherent and are especially well developed in tropical karst, namely the pinnacled bedrock
profile, cavities, overhangs, thin limestone slabs and boulders. Landslides in hilly terrains can be
related to various geologic features such as the nature and orientation of the rock joints, the
soil-rock interface, the thin residual sod cover, seepage and the grades of weathering. The
influence of grades of weathering on various physical properties of the rocks are also discussed.
The various topics of discussions are illustrated with actual examples or case histories in the
Kuala Lumpur area, based mainly on the authors' experiences or personal involvements with the
construction industry in the last decade.

1 INTRODUCTION

U r b a n geology, as the n a m e implies, c o n c e r n s t h e s t u d y or a p p l i c a t i o n of

g e o l o g y to u r b a n centres, u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t a n d planning. The i m p o r t a n c e of
g e o l o g y as applied to cities in g e n e r a l has been stressed r e p e a t e d l y by L e g g e t
(1973) a n d L e g g e t a n d K a r r o w (1983). K u a l a L u m p u r , the capital city of
M a l a y s i a , provides a n ideal case s t u d y of u r b a n g e o l o g y in view of its rapid
d e v e l o p m e n t w i t h i n the past two decades, and also b e c a u s e o f its i m p o r t a n c e
as the m a j o r u r b a n c e n t r e in M a l a y s i a . The n u m e r o u s c o n s t r u c t i o n projects
s u c h as high-rise buildings, h o u s i n g d e v e l o p m e n t schemes, h i g h w a y s etc. in
the K u a l a L u m p u r a r e a also provide m a n y case histories of e n g i n e e r i n g
g e o l o g i c a l problems t h a t are e n c o u n t e r e d in this city. V a r i o u s r e s e a r c h e r s
h a v e since studied a n d published t h e i r findings on the v a r i o u s e n g i n e e r i n g
g e o l o g i c a l aspects of K u a l a L u m p u r , i n c l u d i n g b o t h e n g i n e e r i n g geologists
a n d g e o t e c h n i c a l engineers.
This p a p e r a t t e m p t s to s u m m a r i s e a n d review the v a r i o u s aspects of u r b a n

0013-7952/90/$03.50 © 1990 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

72 TB KONG AND 1 KOMO0

geology of Ku al a Lumpur, based mainly on the authors' experiences and

personal involvements over the last ten years. It is the purpose of this paper to
put into record and highlight the various geologic and engineering geologic
problems t h a t are e nc ount e r ed in the Kuala L um pur metropolis, so t hat
hopefully, the c ons t r uc t i on engineers might gain from such information and
perhaps can use it in the planning of construction works.

2 I 0 2 4krn
I I I i I I I

LEGEND

Quartz dyke Dmding Schist

Granite .. foult
Kenny Hill fm f rock contact
Kuola Lumpur Lst /£30 dip 8 strike

Howthorndon Schist ~ road, ~'45 Foliation

Fig 1. Bedrock geologic map of Kuala Lumpur area

URBANGEOLOGY'CASESTUDYOF KUALALUMPUR,MALAYSIA 73

2 GEOLOGIC SETTING

The general geology of the Kuala Lumpur area has been well documented by
Gobbett (1964)and Yin (1976).Fig.1 shows the general geology of the Kuala Lum-
put area, which brieflycan be summarised as shown in Table I (afterYin, 1976).
Basically, the Kuala Lumpur area consists of a flat alluvial plain (namely
the Klang Valley) bounded on the east and west by predominantly granitic
ranges. The floorof the valley consists of extensive limestone bedrock which is
overlain by alluvial deposits. A n isolated limestone hill, namely the Batu
Caves, and several other hillocks formed by the Hawthornden and Dinding
schists occur in the northern areas of Kuala Lumpur.
The geologic map of Kuala Lumpur is very useful for planning construction
and siteinvestigation works, especiallyfor tallbuildings in the Kuala Lumpur
area since by and large, the various rock formations dictate the types of
engineering geologic problems that are encountered or are to be expected from
a certain construction site. For example, the various foundation problems
associated with construction in limestone terrain are now well known, and the
problems of hillslope stabilitiesassociated with housing schemes located in
granitic terrains have also been recognised.
However, the geologic map as it exists in its present form has several
limitations. For example, surficialor soil deposits are not indicated since the
geologic m a p shows the bedrock geology only. Thus, alluvial deposits, mine
tailings,occurrence of various residual soils,etc.are not indicated on the map.
Also, to those unfamiliar with geologic maps (such as some civil engineers
here), or to those who are unfamiliar with the Kuala Lumpur geology, the m a p
might be "misleading" in the sense that they appear to indicate hard rock
outcrops where in most cases the bedrock is overlain by a thick mantle of
residual soil or alluvial deposits.
Hence, for use by the construction engineers or civil engineers, further
modifications or improvements to the present geologic m a p are necessary. It is
in this line that recent work has been carried out or is in progress, mainly in
the universities, to produce engineering geologic or geotechnical maps that
could serve the construction or civil engineer even better.

TABLE I

Geologic formations in the Kuala Lumpur area (after Yin, 1976)

Age Formation

Quaternary
Mesozoic or Younger
Permo-Carboniferous,
perhaps Triassic
Middle-Upper Silurian,
perhaps Devonian
Middle-Upper Silurian
Alluvium
Granite and allied rocks
Kenny Hill formation (quartzite and phyllite)
Kajang Formation (schist and minor limestone, and phyllite)
Kuala Lumpur Limestone; Hawthornden Formation (schistand
phyllite)
~ I o ~pues =2 '(su°s otltu~a~ A pu~ IA sop~.t~) pu~s ,~l[~s ao ,~o,<~1o=9 '(tum^nlIe aorta) 1;~13 pue
pues = 9 'ouo3sotuq qsoaj ol poaoq$~o~ ,~[olBaopotu = p 'ist.qos poaoql~o~a/;[~q~tis o~/;[ol~aopotu ~ ,
'sluomtpos~$om poaoql~o~ Kiqfltq ol .qo~aopotu=g 'sutozt zsaenb qsoaj ol po.toq$~o~ K[o~
-aopom = ? ~oa~ andtunq ~[~n}i m [~tao~tu qla~o jo sotlstaog,~ua~qo [~ot~olooB ~utaoou[~u~[ g l i d
~ o ~ ~ F--q ~ ' ~
~l,)Ua p u ~ |tu~ ~ u t m u q ~ A ~ U l O ~ l~.totto~ o . t ~ q u'4 uo.q.tppB ut s n q , I, "sluouIoa.tnooa
uotlonalsuoo-~u.taoou!~uo o l uot.l~Ioa u.t ( a o l e ~ p u ~ s~iooa 'si.tos ) s i e t . a o l e t a
ot.~o[oo~ o q l lo.tdop ' s d e t u I ~ o . m q o o l o o ~ a o 'stI~va i ~ o ! ) o i o e ) ) m . a o o m . ~ u ~ t
U R B A N G E O L O G Y CASE STUDY OF K U A L A LUMPUR, MALAYSIA 75

formations, the engineering geologic maps also include engineering character-

istics of the soils and rocks. Special-purpose maps may indicate features such
as slope instability, foundation conditions, hydrogeologic conditions, suscepti-
bility to flooding, excavatability of soils and rocks, etc. Thus, they provide
additional engineering-related information that can help the engineer plan his
work more completely.
Figures 2 and 3 are two such engineering geological maps that have been
attempted recently by Lim and Komoo (1985), and Komoo (1986a). Figure 2

sc,4u.[ (Kin)

Fig.3. Relative slope stability m a p of K u a l a Lumpur: 1 = u n s t a b l e area; 2 = stable area; 3 = gener-

ally stable; 4= m a r g i n a l l y stable to unstable.
76 TB KONG AND I KOMOO

shows the engineering geological characteristics of earth materials (soils and

rocks) in the Kuala Lumpur area. The classification of the various material
types is based on a combination of lithology, grade of weathering, as well as
soil types. Thus, as depicted in Fig.2, nine different material types are
recognisable for the Kuala Lumpur area.
Figure 3 shows the relative slope stability map of Kuala Lumpur. Four
categories of slope stability are recognised, namely: (1) unstable; (2) stable; (3)
generally stable; (4) marginally stable to unstable. Both slope angles and soil
types are incorporated in the classification of the relative slope stability.
By using engineering geologic maps such as those shown in Figs.2 and 3, the
planner and engineer can, for example, plan the location of building sites
properly by seeking out more favourable or stable sites and avoiding, if
possible, the unfavourable sites. In the case that he is forced to build on
unfavourable sites, he is at least forewarned of possible problems to be
anticipated so that he might then take the necessary preventive or remedial
measures to solve the problems.

4 PROBLEMATICAL SOILS

Soil deposits in the Kuala Lumpur area consist of alluvial deposits, mine
tallings, man-made fills, organic muds and peat, and residual soils of the
various rock formations. Of most concern to geotechnical engineers are the
problematical soils which consist essentially of soft soils such as the mining
slimes, municipal wastes, and the very weak collapsed soil zone above
limestone bedrock. These three types of problematical soils have been the
subjects of studies by various workers in the past. Examples of such studies are
given below.

4.1 Mine ta~lings

In both the Kuala Lumpur and Kinta Valley areas, the alluvial or placer tin
deposits (cassiterite, SnO2) are mined by surface methods, namely: open cast
gravel pump or dredges. Mining slimes, mine tailings and their associated
problems in the Kuala Lumpur area (and also in other major tin mining areas
such as the Kinta Valley) were the subjects of studies by the Japanese
International Co-operation Agency (JICA) in 1981. The JICA study classified
mine tailings into five types as illustrated in Fig.4. The very soft shme and
loose nature of the tailings sands are characteristic of mining and ex-mining
grounds, as exemplified in Fig.5. As such, mining and ex-mining grounds are
treacherous areas for the construction engineer, and failures of construction
projects associated with mining and ex-mining grounds have been reported
frequently in the past. They continue to happen from time to time. The
construction failures are caused by either landsliding of the mine slope or
subsidence caused by consolidation settlement of the underlying slime. Fur-
ther discusmons of these failures associated with mining lands can be found m
Tan (1982, 1985, 1986a), and in the report by the Ministry of Primary Industries
(1982).
URBAN GEOLOGY. CASE STUDY OF KUALA LUMPUR, MALAYSIA 77

Type of deposit on bedrock or

O t h e r bearing layer

Type A
~ ,+,...~. : •......:
.""~- -'. ~:.'.'".-," " oose sand

Hard layer
Type B

/#x :., :.: ''*'~' :.':'Loose sand

~;;~~Soft cloy
Hard layer
Type C
.... Soft cloy
... : .. ~..-..'[ ,=.'.

Hard layer
Type D
~" S o f t cloy

Hard layer
Type E
v
"~ Water
", .~..:~
~~Soft c,oy
_ _ _

"'~ . . . . . -I.bose sand

Hard layer

Fig.4.Types ofmine tallingsdeposits(JICA,1981).

A typical example of such failures is shown in Fig.6. In this example, rapid

dewatering of a mining pond induced landslide at its bank. The landslide
completely destroyed a row of newly constructed double-storey houses.

4.2 Municipal wastes

Municipal wastes that have been buried and subsequently built over are also
problematical materials since the heterogeneous nature of the wastes often
hinder foundation and site investigation works. A n example of a housing
project failure associated with a solid waste disposal site (but also partly
attributed to the deeper mining slime underlying the waste landfill)has been
presented by Chan and H o n (1985). In this case study, excessive differential
settlement induced large cracks in the double-storey houses that subsequently
led to the demolition of these houses. The results of the monitoring of
settlement as discussed by Chan and Hon (1985) are reproduced in Fig.7, which
78 TB KONG AND I KOMOO

RL÷50m
s, ~ ~ .... G,0~.,, sur,00e

RL+40m

RL + 3 0 m

SI :
S~:
$5:
C I = very soft to soft cloy 0- ¢ I
LS= Limestone bedrock

Fig 5 Soil profile of m i n e t a l h n g s a t Ceras, K u a l a L u m p u r (JICA, 1981)

~, ,/,?

Fig 6. P h o t o s h o w i n g c o l l a p s e d h o u s e s m m m m g l a n d at Ceras, K u a l a L u m p u r
URBAN GEOLOGY CASE STUDY OF KUALA LUMPUR, MALAYSIA 79

5
0 E
5 E
eO ~-

30 ~
55 ~
I,,-
4 0 ,,,
45
50

/82

Fig.7. Foundation failure of a row of 2-storey buildings (Chan and Hon, 1985).

clearly demonstrates the excessive settlement as well as the differential

settlement experienced by the blocks of houses.

4.3 Collapsed soil zone above limestone bedrock

The very weak collapsed soil zone immediately above limestone bedrock is a
phenomenon only recognised recently in the Kuala Lumpur area, mainly
through interpretations of boring results in foundation site investigation
works. The problem was first recognised in the construction of tall buildings
(greater than 20-storeys) in downtown Kuala Lumpur in the early 1980's, one
site at J a l a n Ampang and another at Jalan Tun Ismail. At both building sites,
a very weak or soft collapsed soil zone immediately above the limestone
bedrock was identified by the very low Standard Penetration Test (SPT) values
of this zone, wherein S P T = 0 . Since then, other building sites have also
encountered such a weak soil zone, for example a tall building under
construction at J a l a n Tun Ismail. Figure 8 shows some examples of this weak
soil zone where the SPT = 0 is characteristic, in spite of the fact that~overlying
this weak zone, much stiffer or harder residual soils (SPT--30 to 50 or even
greater) of the Kenny Hill formation can be encountered. The three bore logs
are taken from three different construction sites in Kuala Lumpur. At each
site, the project involved the construction of a high-rise building. At all the
80 TB KONGAND 1 KOMOO

S PT SPT $PT
0 I0 20 30 40 50 I0 30 50 0 25 50
0 I I i I I L
0-

15
Oo
0 _ O0
Cloy
I0 I0-
Slit
30 7
20 :!: _ 20-
~
•

Cloy
t -
• ¢l o

50- Sand
6o-11 IKe.oy ,oo°T 0¢ 30-
II I""' e°"' ^o% o I--
LIJ
E 40- Silt
4 0 - :"
"t-
F- I-
90-~
WL.~ LimestlniO~o~)075
~
105 i
0 O0 ~
0 a.
LIJ 50-
.,
,,t 50-
I,LI
C3
60"
L t0nl:sT°
Sand

60 - j:"
~2o- .:.: (empty) --
70" Llmllst one SPT: 0
7o.! Cavity
/,.
80-
( Jolon Pekehlm9)
80-~ Limestone

Fzg 8 SPT = 0 for w e a k collapsed soil zone above h m e s t o n e bedrock, central K u a l a L u m p u r

sites, residual soils from the Kenny Hill formation (quartzite and phyllite)
overlie the limestone. Thus, the fact t h a t this weak soil zone can underlie thick
residual soils of much greater stiffness is even more alarming to the unweary
foundation engineer. This weak soil zone occurs most commonly along the
hmestone - - Kenny Hill formation contact. F u r t h e r discussions of this weak
soil zone above limestone bedrock can be found in Tan and Ch'ng (1986), Ting
(1985), Chan and Hon (1985) and Tan (1988).

5 BEDROCK GEOLOGY AND ASSOCIATED FOUNDATION PROBLEMS

As discussed in Sect. 2, the rock formations present in the Kuala Lumpur

area are: the Kenny Hill formation (quartzite and phyllite), the Kuala
Lumpur Limestone, the Hawthornden and Dinding schists, and granite.
Among these rock formations, the K u a l a Lumpur Limestone is by far the most
important or critical as far as foundation works are concerned since it occurs
extensively as bedrock underlying a large part of Kuala Lumpur. The Kenny
Hill formation occurs as outcropping low-lying hills as well as bedrock and so
it is also often encountered in foundation works. The Hawthornden and
Dinding schists occur as isolated hills north of Kuala Lumpur and generally
are related to slope or hillside development works though shallow foundations
for housing projects near the base of these hills, such as along J a l a n Ulu
URBAN GEOLOGY CASE STUDY OF KUALA LUMPUR, MALAYSIA 81

Kelang, can be sited on residual soils and rocks of these schist formations.
Granite occurs mainly as hills flanking the Kuala Lumpur metropolis and is
again mainly concerned with hillside development or slope problems; though
in the deeply weathered granitic terrains, thick mantles of residual granite
soils have developed and serve as bearing media for shallow foundations for
residential houses, e.g. the Ceras area, Damansara Utama, T e m A n Tun Dr.
Ismail, Kepong, etc. A n important exception is in the Setapak area where
granite occurs as a stock extending to greater depths below ground level and
thus it can play an important role in deep foundation works.

5.1 Foundations in limestone

Foundations in limestone have been of greatest concern to geotechnical

engineers over the last two decades, and will continue to be a problem for
future projects on limestone in the Kuala Lumpur area. The 8th S.E. Asian
Geotechnical Conference (1985) in Kuala Lumpur highlighted this issue and
numerous papers discussed the problem (Chan, 1986). The problems of founda-
tions in limestone are now well recognised, namely: the highly pinnacled
bedrock profile,the existence of solution channels and cavities, thin arches or
roofs over cavities, floaters or boulders embedded in soils, overhangs and
cliffs,sinkholes and the weak collapsed soil zone above the limestone bedrock
as discussed in Sect. 4. The proceedings of the 8th S.E. Asian Geotechnical
Conference or the special volume compiled by Chan (1986) contain many
discussions and case histories on foundation problems in limestone, notably
the papers by Ting (1985), Chan and Hon (1985), Mitchell (1985) and Yeap
(1985). Other publications related to the Kuala Lumpur Limestone are, for
example, Ch'ng (1984), Tan and Batchelor (1981), Tan (1986b), Tan Bock Kang
(1986, 1987), Tan and Ch'ng (1987). Figures 9 and 10 show two examples of
limestone-related foundation problems in the Kuala Lumpur area. The exam-
ples are taken from two different construction sites involving high-rise
buildings in central Kuala Lumpur, the former for an officecomplex and the
latter for a hotel.
In Fig.9, detailed drilling at the site had revealed the occurrence of large
sediment-filled cavities within the limestone bedrock as well as the occurrence
of thin slabs of limestone serving as roofs of these cavities. In Fig.10, the
occurrence of massive cliff-like overhangs in the limestone bedrock was
proven by coring through the limestone bedrock (BH124, 129, 126). In both
examples, the detailed delineation or mapping of the solution features in the
limestone bedrock was critical since they involve heavy loading by multi-
storey buildings.

5.2 Foundations on Kenny Hill formation

The Kenny Hill formation is often encountered in excavations or piling

works, often in projects sited along the Kenny Hill formation -- limestone
contact. Due to intense weathering in tropical areas, much of the Kenny Hill
82 TB KONG AND I KOMOO

Fig 9 Limestone bedrock with solution features, J a l a n Raja Laut

3~ 4~ , 2,o, ~ ,2o ,. ,26,25 R L : , 0 7 : : , 3 2 2 o , o ~,~'3

, :.~' ::,,,- l ] ] .__Jill ,/-,-,--~w--s.~:~.

: ...... ~1-1--" ! "~', ~, 3oT,oo
f - s ~T '~o
~..o. ~, q z~.. ~l ~°°
90"L 300 ~,

Fig.10. Limestone bedrock with masmve overhangs/sinkhole, central Kuala Lumpur.

URBAN GEOLOGY" CASE STUDY OF KUALA LUMPUR, MALAYSIA 8.:3

formation rocks are highly weathered and reduced to various types of residual
soils. Since the Kenny Hill formation consists of quartzites and phyllites in
various proportions and often as interbeds, the consistencies of the residual
soils thus produced can vary considerably. Thus, for the phyllitic residual
soils, S P T - 30 to 50 in general while the quartzitic portion would often be very
had, SPT > 50. A further complication is caused by the highly laterised nature
of the residual Kenny Hill soils, that has produced lateritic boulders, concre-
tions or hardpans hindering drilling or piling works. The alternating or
interbedded nature of the Kenny Hill formation rocks can thus produce softer
residual soils overlain by harder strata which could introduce problems to
foundations. An attempt to correlate SPT with weathering grades for the
Kenny Hill soils was made by Tan (1986c), as well as for other residual soils by
Komoo and Lira (1985). Figure 11 shows an example of such correlation. In this
example, taken from a building site in central Kuala Lumpur (Jalan Sultan
Ismail), the underlying materials at the site consist entirely of rocks of the
Kenny Hill formation (quartzites and phyllites) weathered to different de-
grees, namely grades I to VI, following the scheme by Little, 1969 (see
Sect. 6.1). In general, grades I to HI can be grouped as "rock", while grades IV
to VI can be grouped as "soil". The SPT values could be correlated with the
grades of weathering as follows: VI (SPT 0-10), V (SPT 10-30), IV (SPT 30-50);
HI (SPT 50-50/20 cm), H (SPT 50/20-50/10 cm), and I (SPT > 50/10 cm). It is a
common practice here to adopt SPT> 50 as denoting rock, while SPT< 50
would indicate soil. The scheme used above (Fig.ll) further correlates SPT
with grade of weathering.

E
u ~E
= N oo 0~4 tj tM
a 000 O0 ~oooo"
--0 I I I I I I I I l I I I

Vl SI ~ vlVl
-10 . . . . . . __ __ o _ ~ Iv
I • Iq"
IP / /
II
et .[PI"/'
-30-ZOII P

p E
-40 I I
Q
••
•
~ - qond
M - Silt
C -- Cloy
~ - Phyllite
I
-U
Q -- Quortzlto
-5C
Fig.11. Soil profile in Kenny Hill residual soils (grades of weathering vs. SPT).
84 T B KONG A N D I KOMOO

6 WEATHERINGPROFILES AND SLOPE STABILITY OF RESIDUALSOILS AND ROCKS

Weathering profiles and slope stability of residual soils and rocks are
discussed together since they are closely related. Perhaps due to the abundant
cuts that are made into hillsides either for highway or housing constructions,
there are now ample opportunities provided for the study of weathering
profiles of both granitic and metasedimentary rocks (Kenny Hill formation,
Hawthornden and Dinding schists) in the Kuala Lumpur area. Examples of
some recent studies on weathering profiles are: Komoo, 1985, 1986a, b; Raj,
1985; Tan, 1987.

6.1 Weathering profiles

The study of weathering profiles is of great importance in tropical areas hke

Malaysia, since, depending on the grade or degree of weathering of the rock,
the resultant material can have engineering properties very differrent from
the original, fresh parent rock. The behaviour of a slope cut, for example,
depends very much on the distribution of the various zones of differing grades
of weathering, and as such, the analysis and design of cut slopes, as well as the
planning for excavation works, must take into account the various grades of
weathering of the earth materials. Lengthy discussions on such topics relating
to weathering profiles and slope stability in residual soils have been presented
by numerous workers, notably: Deere and Patton, 1971; Dearman, 1974, 1976;
Irfan and Dearman, 1978; Dearman et al., 1978; Geotechnical Control Office,
1979; Brand, 1982; etc.
In Malaysia, the classification adopted for weathering grades follows that by
Little (1969) which was later incorporated into ISRM (1977) and IAEG (1981). It
provides for six grades of weathering, ranging from grade I (fresh rock) to
grade VI (residual soils) as depicted in Fig.12. Depending on the application
being considered, combination of the weathering grades into bedrock (lumping
grades I to III) and soils (lumping grades IV to VI) can be adopted, such as for
simple slope stability considerations. Other modifications are also possible,
such as grouping I and II as bedrock, III and IV as soil ÷ rock composite zone,
and V and VI as soils, thus resulting in a 3-zone classification. Generally, then,
the grades I to III can be considered as rock (rock behaviour), while IV to VI
can be analysed as soil materials.
Examples of weathering grade profiles for the Kuala Lumpur area are shown
in Figs.13 and 14. Some results showing the variation of physical and
mechanical properties with depth or grades of weathering are shown in
Figs.15-17, from Komoo (1986a) and Tan (1987). Further discussions of the
weathering profile on granite are provided by Raj (1985).
Figure 13 shows weathering grade profiles for granites. Among the granites,
type A is most common and is characterised by a relatively thick layer of
residual soil (grade VI), followed by a considerably thick layer of completely to
highly weathered materials (grades V-IV), and followed by a relatively thin
layer of slightly weathered rock (grade II). The moderately weathered rock
URBANGEOLOGY:CASESTUDYOF KUALALUMPUR,MALAYSIA 85

~ ~ H
~ U M U S 8 TOPSOIL

~w "~ '--x ~'" : '~"" '~'~'"" ~'-'" " ~":'-"~

SOIL
-- ". -z.. "-: ._:.
," .~ ° .~ . ° X ' ° ~ . • ° ~ • ..
"-Y~." "~'. - • "7 x: .~'.~"
. . . . . . . . . . . ~ : _ . ~ .~. ~ . . ~.
".~- ~ .'5" ~--'-7,,,~.--.- ~.- .-':':.i~.~,
3[
COMPLETELY
~ * . . . ,, .- " ' i / I l I A }
.,; . . =,='-f//~,v _
" "~'." " ¢,5',';23
• • ,~t/s, 4 -
WEATHERED . ' . ' ~ , , .• -: ' x. ~. , - -•' : ...'-.
'=" ,,, ".= "-''x..'~J'
- x. ~'-x: "--

.~_'~'2~'_'-:'- ":':,~'." .'~") ~, ." "...'.~%-:.

HIGHLY ":-~ "--'." " . ' . - " : ' - . " . ' - .-::. _ . " . , -
WEAT,ERE0 ~ k " :':~-:.". ='-d~(X~" "." "~:"[~

MODERATELY , "

( ~o~k ~0 % to S0 % ~ ~ - V-------: ~ "~'"

WEATIERED_

Fig.12. Clasmfication of residual tropical soils by degree of weathering (Little, 1969).

(grade III) is often missing. This type of profile is commonly found in areas
which have high discontinuity densities and relatively small grain size. The
weathering profile type B is characterised by a more complete profile. The
residual soil layer (VI) is thinner compared to that found in type A. Grade III
zone is also distinctly present and thick. This type of profile normally develops
in coarse-grained rocks with relatively low discontinuity densities.
Figure 14 shows weathering profiles for metasediments. In metasediments,
profile type A shows well developed grades VI and V. Often an iron-rich layer
is formed in between grades VI and V. Grades IV-III can be of considerable
thickness, while grade 1I is often thin. Profile type B is only found in slightly
weathered zones, especially in schist formation. Grades VI and V are thinner
and grade II is absent. A sharp boundary separates grade I rock from materials
above it.
Figure 15 shows the variation of grain size with depth for two granite soil
profiles. The abundance of clay in the upper layers of the profiles is to be
expected since this represents the most advanced stage of weathering. With
increasing depths, the soil is more sandy or gravelly in nature.
86 TB KONG AND I KOMOO

] DEPTH I GRADE I PROFILE I IGRADE I PROFILE I

r °m

Fig 13. W e a t h e r i n g profile m g r a m t e , K a r a k h ~ g h w a y

DEPTH GRADE PROFILE IGRADEIPROFILE I

-Om TS T~ I~._-~
v~-v
- IO Ir

-20 ~ N
--50
K-iS
--40

J.!L
--50

-I ~ ~
-- 60 '

F~g 14 W e a t h e n n g profile m m e t a s e d l m e n t s , B a n g l
U R B A N G E O L O G Y CASE STUDY OF K U A L A LUMPUR, MALAYSIA 87

%GRAIN SIZE
20 40 60 80

% GRAIN SIZE
io ;~0 40 60 80 I00

2o ! ,o

~ .~ _
30
20

eo
30

E
z 50
$
o.
~ 40
w

eo
~ 5O

70
60

70

90
80
Coarse Groined Gramte Sod Profde
PorphyrM?lc Microgronodlorite Soil Profile
Korok hlghwoy.

Fig.15. Grain size vs. depth on granitic soils, Karak highway.

Figure 16 shows SPT versus depth in granitic soils.The general increase in

SPT with depth is obvious, since with greater intensity of weathering, the
resulting material becomes progressively softer.
Figure 17 shows the slaking durability versus weathering grades for
granites. The results clearly show that the slake durability index (Id2)
decreases considerably as the weathering grade increases. For example, Id2 for
grade Ill-Ifmaterial is more than 95%, Id2 for grade IV material can be as low
as 57%, whereas Id2 for grade IV-V material further reduces to about 30%.

6.2 Landslides case histories

Landslides in residual soils and rocks are now under intensive studies
especially in tropical areas where thick mantles of residual soils have
developed. Numerous papers have been published about Hong Kong, for
example, where landslide studies form a major part of the activity of the
Geotechncial Control Office of Hong Kong (see for example, Brand, 1982).
88 T,B K O N G A N D I K O M O O

STANDARD PENETRATION TEST, N IBLOWS/3Ocm)

8. o to zo so 40 soso/zs so/:s so/s a .
FU 1, ,, 1, ,, , , ]., o- I

~ <"<-^. , lz

-20 / -- -- eta ng JoyoGromte End of

%/0 --A--CerQs Gromte Bor~ole

259,
f

- 30 0,~

Fig.16 SPT vs. depth on granitic soils, Ceras and Petahng Jaya.

D m I
• C~ros gromfe
5
O~ ~o A~npong
L
gtonite
!
, ~:~

~4 ~,-,o

c- \
O 3

Id2
f._ 2
..Q
E
Z IJ

0 I0 20 30 40 5O 60 70 80 90 I00
Fig 17. Slaking durability vs. weathering grades.
URBANGEOLOGY.CASESTUDYOF KUALALUMPUR,MALAYSIA 89

In the Kuala Lumpur area, two recent landslide case histories associated
with housing projects sited on hilly terrains have been documented (Tan,
1986d). In the first case, the landslide has totally destroyed a newly completed
block of houses. The factors contributing to the slope failure include the
unfavourable joints that "daylight" and dip into the road, the soil-rock
interface, the thin residual soil cover and seepage, as illustrated in Fig.18.
In the second case history, landslides have occurred involving residual
granite soils sliding along the soil-rock interface, as well as rock slope
stability problems due to intensive jointing and fracturing partly caused by
poor blasting practices. Figures 19 and 20 show the landslides concerned. In
the study of the rock slopes in the second case history,joint survey and grades
of weathering form an integralpart in deriving possible remedial measures for
stabilisingthese slopes.
Another interestingcase study of rock slopes has been carried out by K o m o o
et al. (1985),in which the rock joints have been surveyed for the various cut
slopes of an existing hill that had been chosen for a housing development
(Fig.21). Such surveys are essential in analysing rock slopes, whether for
housing or for highway projects. The survey shows that the existing natural
slopes are at criticalangles. Any excavation resulting in slopes steeper than
the natural slopes may create slab and wedge-shaped failures,toppling or rock
fall.The most unstable slopes are those facing southwest where failuresalong
foliation planes can take place readily.

collapsed
house s
rI : basal retaining wall / " drain
(tilted) j, r
rz : upper retaining if~f.-/ y /
wall with attached ~ i ;I
to (dropped
fromStaircaseb ~) / ~ / - a ~ f /

...,0,.
" / itical foliot n jo t,

oll -- rook interface

Fig.18. Schematic cross-section at collapsed houses at Taman Melawati, Kuala Lumpur.

90 TB KONGAND I KOMOO

Fig.19 Photo oi collapsed houses, landshde case history 1, Taman Melawatl

Fig.20 Photo of slope mstabihty, landshde case history 2, Ulu Kelang

URBAN GEOLOGY CASE STUDY OF KUALA LUMPUR, MALAYSIA 91

Fig.21. Joint survey at T a m a n Melawati, Kuala Lumpur.

92 T B KONG AND 1 KOMO0

7 CONCLUSIONS

I t ls t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s p a p e r t o s u m m a r i s e a n d h i g h l i g h t s e v e r a l a s p e c t s o f
the urban geology of Kuala Lumpur ranging from problematical soils to
foundations in limestone as well as landslides in the hilly terrains. That these
engineering geologic problems have plagued Kuala Lumpur in the past has
been amply demonstrated by the various case histories shown in the paper. As
Kuala Lumpur continues to develop further into the future, thus encroaching
into even more treacherous lands such as previously mined areas, limestone as
well as hilly terrains, many of the engineering geologic problems would again
be encountered. Hopefully, however, with prior knowledge or awareness of
these problems, with much improved site investigation practices and guided by
newly developed engineering geologic maps which are tailored to the civil
engineering usage, fewer of the failures as experienced in the past would recur.

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