Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Mineral Resources Bustillo
Mineral Resources Bustillo
Mineral
Resources
From Exploration to
Sustainability Assessment
Springer Textbooks in Earth Sciences, Geography
and Environment
The Springer Textbooks series publishes a broad portfolio of textbooks on Earth Sciences, Geography and
Environmental Science. Springer textbooks provide comprehensive introductions as well as in-depth
knowledge for advanced studies. A clear, reader-friendly layout and features such as end-of-chapter sum-
maries, work examples, exercises, and glossaries help the reader to access the subject. Springer textbooks
are essential for students, researchers and applied scientists.
Mineral
Resources
From Exploration to Sustainability Assessment
Manuel Bustillo Revuelta
Faculty of Geology
Complutense University
Madrid, Spain
This book represents an invaluable review from the ores produced. Numerous case
of the whole subject of mineral exploita- histories further enhance these descrip-
tion and provides the reader with a com- tions. The penultimate chapter consid-
prehensive list of up-to-date references to ers the environmental impact of these
which he/she can gain more specific infor- operations and the methods that could
mation and guidance on the application of be employed to minimize this impact and
some of the methods and techniques finally site reclamation. The final chapter
described in the book. The author has describes some of the computer software
clearly researched the subject matter of packages available for the production and
the book thoroughly. In particular, it pro- analysis of assay databases and grade and
vides excellent reviews of classification tonnage models in 2-D or 3-D and the
systems and philosophies for ore deposits design of mining operations and associ-
and of international reporting codes and ated infrastructure.
guidelines for mineral resources and
reserves. I believe that this book will prove invalu-
able not only for undergraduates and post-
A well-illustrated chapter describing the graduates studying geology and mining
main types of ore deposits provides an geology but also those following courses in
excellent basis for the following chapters mining engineering and mineral process-
which lead us systematically through the ing who would benefit enormously from
methods that could be used for their explo- a solid background in exploration and
ration, their modeling and evaluation, and mining geology and mineral economics. It
their exploitation. The latter include the will also provide a superb reference book
mining methods employed in open-pit for those intending to follow a career in,
and underground operations and then the or are currently working in, the mineral
recovery of the valuable minerals/metals economics or mining finance industry.
Alwyn E. Annels
Retired Principal Mining Consultant
Stratford upon Avon, UK
VII
Acknowledgments
Stevi Glendinning – Gold One Interna- Dev Saini – Sepro Mineral Systems Corp.
tional Limited Sara Pybus – Compositech Filters
Stefan Debruyne y María Bizama – SQM Sander De Leeuw – Berzelius Metall
Erin O′Toole – NovaGold GmbH
Christine Marks – Goldcorp Inc. Joyce A. Saltzman and Joanne Ball –
Michel Crevier and Marie Claude Alcoa
Nicole – Semafo Robert Jewson – Geonomics
Russel Puno – Dove Simon Campbell – Getech
Miguel Cabal – Geomatec Stephen Sadler – Durridge Company Inc.
Antonio Durán – Benito Arnó e Hijos, Mariola San José and Celia Casuso – Can-
S.A.U. tur (Santander)
Luis Fueyo – Fueyo Editores Ann-Marie M. Pamplin – Alabama
Martin Pittuck – SRK Consulting Graphite Corp.
Jesús Orive and Stefan Ebert – ThyssenK- María Ángeles Bustillo – CSIC
rupp CODELCO; Sumitomo Metal Mining Co.,
Miguel Ángel Mejías – AGQ Labs Ltd.; Vale; Cemex; Rio Tinto; and
Edward Bardo – Modular Mining Systems Lundin Mining Corporation
Inc. Eduardo Revuelta, Pedro Cámara, Andrea
Roldán Sanz – Tecso Castaño, and Roland Oberhänsli
Chris Marshall – IMD Mari Luz García Lorenzo (you are the
Omar Jabara – Newmont Mining Corpo- best), Pilar Andonaegui, César
ration Casquet, Javier Fernández, Carlos
Nancy Argyle – Sonic Drilling Ltd. Villaseca, and Miguel Ángel Sanz –
Carmela Burns – Geosoft UCM
Grace Hanratty – Petropavlovsk PLC
Tyler Dunn – PotashCorp
The Author
IX
Contents
Supplementary Information
Index.......................................................................................................................................................... 641
1 1
Introduction and General
Concepts
1.1 Definitions – 3
1.13 Questions – 46
References – 46
1.1 · Definitions
3 1
A mineral is «an element or chemical compound
Summary that is normally crystalline and that has been formed
This chapter explains the concepts and as a result of geological processes» (International
terminology important to mineral resources Mineralogical Association). A mineral deposit can
studies, from exploration to environment and be defined in different ways, all of them very similar:
sustainability. Important concepts include a concentration of mineral of possible economic
mineral resources/reserves classification interest, a concentration of mineral resources profit-
systems, mining cycle and its main stages, able to extract (always in or on the Earth’s crust), and
international reporting standards, distribution many others. It is also necessary to bear in mind that
of mineral resources in the Earth, mineral a rock is a naturally formed aggregate of different
resources consumption, sustainable develop- types of crystals or mineral particles (. Fig. 1.1).
ment, critical raw materials, mineral resource Sometimes, the rocks can be profitable to extract,
recycling, trade and markets, and mining as a usually as industrial rocks (e.g., limestone for
business, introducing the London Metal cement or granite for ornamental rock). In these
Exchange market. A brief history of mining is cases, the term mineral deposit is usually applied.
also described as a starting point for this book. Another essential term used in mining is ore
(. Fig. 1.2). This word is applied solely to describe
terms such as mineral, mineral deposit, ore, concept is essential in all mining projects.
gangue, waste, prospect, commodity (fairly simi- A prospect is a term mainly used in mining
lar to mineral raw material), and much more. exploration. It can be broadly defined as a limited
Some, but not all, used terms are defined because area of ground with a possibility to include a min-
the list cannot be obviously exhaustive, and this eral deposit. It commonly receives the name of a
book is not a mining dictionary. In this sense, geographical location. Finally, there are some terms
many mining dictionaries can be downloaded that are also frequently used in mining, but they are
from Internet web pages. combining words such as mineral occurrence, ore
4 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts
.. Fig. 1.2 Musselwhite
ore formed by abundant
pyrrhotite, quartz flooding
and, rarely, visible gold
(Image courtesy of Gold-
Corp Inc.)
deposit (more or less similar to mineral deposit), systems can be grouped into three main catego-
ore reserves, mineral prospect, etc. ries, which are the most accepted by the industry
(resource companies), the financial community,
and the regulatory bodies: (a) classifications devel-
1.2 Mineral Resources/Reserves oped by government agencies (e.g., Geological
Classification: «McKelvey Box» Surveys): these classifications use a combination
of both enterprise data and geological studies and
A mineral resource classification is used to orga- are based on the «McKelvey Box» (. Box 1.1:
nize information about raw materials or com- McKelvey Box); (b) classifications based on gov-
modities of economic value. The classification ernment and industry reporting: this group aims
1.2 · Mineral Resources/Reserves Classification: «McKelvey Box»
5 1
at capturing the full resource base in order to proj- minology and definitions; the most notable are the
ect future production potential for the country; International Reporting Template of CRIRSCO
this category includes classifications developed by and the United Nations Classification (UNFC).
ad hoc committees (e.g., the NI 43-101 for Canada, The first group is explained in detail in this sec-
the SAMREC Code in South Africa, or the JORC tion, while the groups (b) and (c) will be described
Code – Australia and New Zealand); and (c) inter- in 7 Sect. 1.5. A fourth class can also be consid-
national classifications: these are developed at an ered, based on Security Disclosure (Edens and
international level to promote consistency of ter- DiMatteo 2007).
Box 1.1
McKelvey Box to distinguish between identified the McKelvey Box are identified
The most famous and widely cited deposits that are recoverable with resources known to be economi-
resource classification scheme existing technology and at cur- cally feasible for extraction. This
developed by Geological Surveys rent prices from those that are yet is the portion of a resource that
is the classification published at undiscovered or, if known, are not meets specified minimum physi-
U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin yet within economic research. Thus, cal and chemical criteria related
(1450-A) entitled «Definitions of the term «reserves» is applied only to current mining and produc-
Mineral Resource Classification for identified deposits that could tion practices, including those
Terms used by the U.S. Bureau of be produced commercially at the for grade, quality, thickness, and
Mines and U.S. Geological Survey». It time the estimate is made. Before depth. It is important to note that,
was a joint report by the U.S. Bureau the McKelvey Box, a similar scheme in general, «reserves» represents
of Mines and U.S. Geological Survey that established the relations among just a tiny fraction of the resources
in 1976. It includes the commonly economics, technology, and degree of any mineral or metal.
known as «McKelvey Box» of mineral of knowledge to categorize the Obviously, the edges of this
resources and reserves (. Fig. 1.3).
resources was outlined (Schurr and classification system are dynamic
In 1980, the Geological Survey Cir- Netschert 1960). because the degree of geological
cular No. 831 entitled «Principles of In the most classical version of assurance of a resource/reserve
a Resource/Reserve Classification for the McKelvey Box, known resources (increasing form right to left) and
Minerals» revised and extended the are classified from two standpoints: the degree of feasibility of recovery
previous classification system. The (1) purely geological or physical/ (increasing from bottom to top) can
descriptions of both the documents chemical characteristics such as change (. Fig. 1.4). For instance,
are derived from a seminal work grade, quality, tonnage, thickness, an increase in exploration effort
by V.E. McKelvey, director of the and depth of the material in place; switches the geological background
U.S. Geological Survey at that time, and (2) profitability analyses based of a region; an improvement of the
entitled «Mineral Resource Esti- on costs of extracting and market- technological recovery of a metal or
mates and Public Policy» (1972). In ing the material in a given economy a decrease in its price may change
the document, McKelvey declared «I at a given time, including technol- the economic characterization from
have been developing over the last ogy, factor prices, and product subeconomic to economic. There-
several years a system of resource price, among others. The former fore, what today is a noneconomic
classification and terminology that standpoint provides important resource may be an economic
brings out the classes of resources objective scientific information resource 5 years later. This can result
that need to be taken into account of the resource and a relatively from increased demand and higher
in appraising future supplies». unchanging foundation upon which prices, cheapening of the real cost
Other systems of classification were the latter more variable economic of labor and capital for a given
developed by the same time (Harris delineation can be based. According technology, the adoption of newly
and Skinner 1982; United Nations to these two main edges of classifi- conceived technology, of all of the
Secretariat 1979), but the McKelvey cation, a resource is a concentration foregoing. In this sense, resources
Box was quickly converted in the of naturally occurring solid, liquid, or can be created by man’s economic
main guide for many governments gaseous material in or on the Earth’s activities and his scientific and
and markets, and its principles were crust in such form and amount that engineering genius. Similarly, they
widely accepted. This system of clas- economic extraction of a commod- can be destroyed by unfavorable
sification can be applied to a specific ity from the concentration is cur- economics, which includes the
mine site, in a region, in a country, or rently or potentially feasible. availability of low-cost foreign sup-
in the world at large. The other essential topic in plies and policies of taxation, trade,
One of the most important the McKelvey Box is the concept environmental protection, mineral
features of this classification was of reserves. Mineral reserves in leasing, among others (Harris 1984).
6
Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts
1
IDENTIFIED UNDISCOVERED
RESERVES
RESOURCES
SUBECONOMIC
.. Fig. 1.4 Dynamic
edges of McKelvey Box and
some changing factors EXPLORATION EFFORT
RESERVES
RESOURCES
exploration industry and without the larger finan- early flint mines consisted of vertical shafts 2 m
cial institutions that support mine development, in diameter and 20 m deep. It is apparent that
there would be no mining industry (Stevens 2010). miners got sufficient geological knowledge to
Box 1.2
1 the flint seams. The lithic record is shafts are deeper in the central area its position inside the shaft, nodules
exceptional, both in quantity and of the excavation. Neolithic miners would have been extracted whole
quality, and includes all phases certainly had good knowledge of or quartered and extracted in large
of the operative chain. A small the geological structure of the area flakes. Those nodules small enough
percentage of these shafts contain (. Fig. 1.6). They stopped excavat-
to be manipulated would have been
chronologically diagnostic items, ing the shallow pits whenever they directly removed from flint seams,
mainly impressed pottery and bone found green clay levels that are while the bigger ones would have
rings that suggest an Early Neolithic stratigraphically located under the been fractured (Capote et al. 2006).
date. This has been confirmed by opaline episodes. Furthermore, The soil extracted during the
two radiocarbon datings. the depth of the shafts adapts excavation of shafts was either
The petrological characteristics to deformations resulting from dumped into other nearby shafts
and the features of the outcrops, siliceous episodes. This geological along with the remaining waste
formed by interlayered claystones know-how would have been the from flaking, or left aside and finally
and flints, may help to understand result of a transmission of local min- dumped back in. This of course
why intensive Neolithic mining ing knowledge from generation to depends on whether miners opened
was practiced at Casa Montero: generation. more than one shaft at a time. In
the mine is unique in terms of Mining shafts offer little size any case, it seems that shafts were
its compact flint layers and their and shape variability. They are filled almost immediately after being
accessibility. Silica rocks from Casa mainly simple cylinder-like struc- excavated. The mine seems to have
Montero form nodules arranged in tures on average 1 m wide and up developed as the result of reiterative,
discontinuous beds that may have to 9 or 10 m deep. Their infillings short-term, seasonal mining expedi-
some lateral continuity. They appear show little differentiation, and tions. The shafts rarely cut into any
deformed as a result of collapses few archaeological remains other previous extraction pits, suggesting
of the underneath evaporitic epi- than an impressive amount of flint. that these more than 4000 Neolithic
sodes. This deformation produced Shafts were dug close together, shafts are probably the result of
a depression in which most of the none superimposed on another, several centuries of mining. The total
shafts are concentrated, and may be and with just enough distance so mining intensity would have been
particularly related to the horizontal as to walk between them while about 13 shafts per year, consider-
depth variability of shafts through- avoiding wall collapses. Depending ing a time-span of 300 years for the
out the site: as a general pattern, on the size of the flint nodule, and whole period of activity.
prospect the presence of flint nodules overlain it and then doused it with cold water to contract
by sand and gravel. The raw materials were and break it.
hauled from the bottom of vertical shafts to sur- However, the first mineral used by the humans
face by one or two men loading in leather bags or was probably sodium chloride (salt or common
wicker baskets. The first problem for early min- salt), used to preserve foods since many microor-
ers was probably to break the rock because their ganisms cannot live in a salty environment. An
crude tools were made of bone, wood, and stone. example of the relevance of salt is that the exploi-
They soon devised a revolutionary technique tation of this mineral was a privilege of the kings
called fire setting, heating first the rock to expand during many centuries. The Salt March of Gandhi
1.3 · A Brief History of Mining
9 1
in 1930 against the British monopoly of salt testi- their iron implements … These are young men,
fies the importance of the mineral even in very under 30 years of age, strong and vigorous, who
recent times. It is outstanding to note that part of pound the broken fragments in iron mortars … and
the dating of this basic mining goes back beyond women, three on each side, work at it until it is
the time where the modern man appeared, prob- reduced to a fine powder. These poor women are
ably between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago. It is entirely naked … the excavations are of great extent,
thought that some of the mining activity was car- and reach down to the sea cost».
ried out by Neanderthal man. Such people were Gold was among the first metals mined in the
generally considered to be prehuman and thus antiquity. The reason is that it commonly occurs in
incapable of any sort of sophisticated labor such as its native form, not combined with other elements.
mining, as it was suspected that they would have Particularly noteworthy are the gold items in the
been unable to instigate the planning necessary to tomb of Tutankhamun, a young pharaoh who
develop a mine successfully (Coulson 2012). ruled Egypt in the fourteenth century BC. Examples
Regarding the evolution of technology, cruci- of the utilization of gold in jewelry can be located
ble, which is a procedure essential in metallurgy, worldwide, being the metal par excellence of the
was probably discovered in Anatolia (actually human civilization. From Egypt and Mesopotamia,
Turkey) where tin deposits permitted alloying of the knowledge of metals spread across Europe, and
this metal with copper to obtain bronze. the copper-based cultures were replaced by cul-
Presumably, the crucible technology spread later tures using bronze, about 1500 BC. This change
to Middle East, Egypt, Persia, etc., providing the produced improvement in weapons quality. Both
material for the metalworkers. Learning more on production and trade in copper and bronze were
this subject is problematic because dating of important features of the Near East and
ancient mining sites is often difficult due to rela- Mediterranean societies during the third to first
tive lack of pottery and other datable material. millennia BC (Jones 2007).
The use of similar tools and techniques through With the coming of Iron Age, mining took a
long periods of history is an additional factor step forward. In earlier mining stages, stone
against easy dating of mining sites. implements were the main tools for digging and
breaking rock, but they were not robust enough,
thus prone to become quickly unusable. Bronze
1.3.2 Egyptians was too valuable and too soft to be a realistic sub-
stitute in the making of such heavy-duty tools, but
The earliest records of organized mining are those of the emergence of iron introduced an altogether
the Egyptians. They mined different minerals (i.e., tougher and more durable metal, ideal for tool
malachite or turquoise) and gold in northern Sudan making. These developments proved of material
and Israel; Nubian gold mines about 4000 years old help in the advancement of civilization, particu-
were famous at that time. Moreover, Egyptian mili- larly in the hands of Romans (Coulson 2012).
tary expeditions, with mining and quarrying teams,
looking for stone and copper in Sinai and in the
Egypt’s Eastern Desert were constant over the years. 1.3.3 Roman Empire
Mining in the Egyptian and early Roman periods
was carried out by prisoners of war and criminals, The Romans followed the Greeks as leaders of the
being working conditions terrible. In a fragment of then known world and were undoubtedly the best
the book «Agatharchides’s on the Erythraean Sea» miners in the ancient times. They used hydraulic
(Agatharchides was a Greek historian and geogra- mining methods on a large scale in their gold mines,
pher who lived about 100–150 BC), this author being the «ruina montium» method the most com-
describes the ancient mode of working the Egyptian mon system to obtain the gold included in alluvial
gold mines: «The Kings of Egypt compelled many deposits, as described by Pliny the Elder in 77 AD.
poor people, together with their wives and children, (. Box 1.3: Las Médulas Roman Gold Mine).
to labor in the gold mines, wherein they underwent The Romans produced large quantities of other
more suffering than can well be imagined. The hard metals distinct than gold, especially lead, copper,
rocks of the gold mountains being cleft by heating zinc, and mercury. An example is the large-scale,
them with burning wood, the workers then apply industrial mining, and production of the copper
10
Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts
Box 1.3
1
L as Médulas Roman Gold Roma, capital of the Roman Empire. by reaching only once the levels
Mine Present-day studies indicate that containing most gold. Water in Las
Spain was the most important min- the number of workers probably Médulas was supplied by interbasin
ing region for the Roman Empire, fluctuated between 10,000 and transfer (at least seven long chan-
especially because of the gold 20,000. Now, Las Médulas Cultural nels coming from the mountains
metal. The largest site of Roman Landscape was listed at 1997 by of La Cabrera district where rainfall
gold mines was Las Médulas (León, the UNESCO as one of the World was relatively high). The mining
Spain), nowadays showing a spec- Heritage Sites. method, which involved undermin-
tacular landscape that resulted Las Médulas is an alluvium or ing a mountain with huge volume of
from the cited «ruina montium» secondary deposit made of alternate water, used the strength of torrents
mining method (. Fig. 1.7). Pliny
layers of boulders with clayey matrix, of water to wash enormous portions
the Elder, who was a procurator in gravel, sand, and mud. These are all of alluvial sediments. The largest
the region about 74 AD, described red deposits formed in the Miocene water reservoir (stagnum) had a
this technique of hydraulic min- era and come from the erosion of capacity of 16,000/18,000 m3. Thus,
ing that may be based on direct rock or primary materials, located the bench collapsed, previously
observation at Las Médulas: «What mainly towards the east near the building a raft for retaining water
happens is far beyond the work of Aquiliano mountains and constitut- that communicated with several
giants. The mountains are bored ing the mother rock in which the galleries excavated inside the
with corridors and galleries made gold associated with quartz seams mountain.
by lamplight with a duration that was to be found. Las Médulas mine The extraction activity ended
is used to measure the shifts. For was exploited from approximately with the mineral processing, prob-
months, the miners cannot see 30/40 AD until the end of the ably by panning the sediments.
the sunlight and many of them second or beginning of the third Water was also important here, as
die inside the tunnels. This type of century AD. It seems that the after being used as extraction and
mine has been given the name of volume of Earth moved was about dragging force for the conglomer-
ruina montium. The cracks made 93,550,000 m3. ate, the resulting flow was chan-
in the entrails of the stone are so Regarding the «ruina montium» neled towards wooden gutters in
dangerous that it would be easier mining method, once prospecting which gold particles were depos-
to find purpurine or pearls at the had uncovered and valued the ited by gravity. The last phase of
bottom of the sea than make scars richness of the mine deposits, the the gold mining process was the
in the rock. How dangerous we exploitation consisted of cutting evacuation of the waste material.
have made the Earth!» Newly, Pliny down the gold-bearing conglomer- The thickest material (the largest
stated that: «about 20,000 roman ate. Thus, the conglomerate was boulders) was stacked by hand in
pounds of gold were extracted mined using a set of galleries and large piles. The finest wastes were
each year and 60,000 free workers shafts through which the water was evacuated out of the mine. The
generated 5,000,000 roman pounds released so as to cause their total magnitude of these materials was
in 250 years», mostly travelling to collapse. This technique was applied such that they filled old valleys.
1.4 The Mining Cycle step in the sequence is unique and most mining
projects proceed progressively from one step to
Human societies need natural resources for their the next. It is important to bear in mind that the
existence, including wood, water, and minerals, timescale from discovery of a mineral deposit to
which are essential in the growth and prosperity mine production is generally a very long one
of the modern way of life. It is necessary to con- (. Fig. 1.10). For example, small mining projects
struct roads with aggregates and bituminous may pass from exploration to mine production
materials, to build houses with concrete (formed within a few years, followed by closure of the mine
principally by aggregates and cement, both 10 years after the start of operation. On the con-
obtained from minerals), or to manufacture cars trary, large and complex mining projects may
with aluminum and steel. In the day-to-day, min- spend 20 years for exploration and several decades
erals are present everywhere, since the carpet for for mining. Regarding expenditures of the mining
our feet very early in the morning (made with projects, overall expenditures can range from
calcium carbonate, among others) or the coffee USD 100 million for small projects to several USD
pot (made of either glass or ceramics), until the billions for large projects.
14 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts
Evaluation
Exploration
Reclamation
Mineral
processing Exploitation
Low 1 2 3 4 5
Time
.. Fig. 1.11 Airborne
geophysical survey (Image
courtesy of Geotech)
16 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts
.. Fig. 1.12 Technical
1 evaluation using mining
software (Illustration
courtesy of Datamine)
Finally, exploration drilling is performed (quantity) and mineral or metal content (quality)
mainly from the surface with holes laid out on a from analytical data calculated in samples assays,
prescribed grid or pattern. There are two main either globally or for parts of the deposit. The esti-
methods of drilling in mineral resources explora- mation is obtained through classical or geoestatis-
tion: core drilling and reverse circulation drilling. tical methods. The first methods are old style but
Core drilling is the most commonly used method easy to understand methods. Some of them were
of getting information about the subsurface pres- developed before the twentieth century, and
ence of minerals. This technique yields solid examples of these methods are panel/section,
cylinder-shaped samples of the ground at an exact polygons, inverse distance weighted, triangula-
depth. The other method is reverse circulation tion, and contour methods. The selection of the
drilling, which produces samples called chips, specific classical method can be modified based
formed by small particles of sediment or rock. In on the type and form of the material contained
reverse circulation drilling, the cuttings from the (Annels 1991). The uncertainties in determining
hole are transported to the surface where they are the level of significance and confidence of tradi-
collected in plastic bags. This method offers higher tional estimations with classical methods are over-
productivity than diamond core drilling, but the come by application of geostatistical procedures
quality of the samples is obviously lower. For this (Matheron 1962), being this modeling method
reason, diamond core drilling has long been the paramount in modern mineral resource estima-
preferred choice of many exploration companies. tion. The most important step in geostatistical
Nevertheless, a combination of these two methods procedure is the spatial correlation among samples
can often provide the optimum solution, offering (regionalized variables). It is expressed by the
the most cost-effective way of working. On the semivariogram, and the kriging technique, using
other hand, underground drilling, often drilling the obtained semivariogram, let to interpolates the
the holes at any angle, is essential to explore and needed values (e.g., grades) for mineral resource
define new mineral resources to mine in the future. estimation.
1.4 · The Mining Cycle
17 1
After technical evaluation, the selection of the number of methods to evaluate the risk, being the
most adequate economic evaluation method is of Monte Carlo method probably the most used and
crucial importance. To carry out this economic well known, especially since the introduction of
evaluation, many other variables of the project the computing equipment. The Monte Carlo
such as production cost, capital cost, royalties, method is based on the simulation of the various
taxes, among many others, are also needed. It sources of uncertainty affecting the studied value
must be taken into account that mining industry and subsequent determination of the average
presents different characteristics than other value over the range of resultant outcomes.
industries. For instance, mining industry needs
many years of production before a positive cash
flow and requires longer project life. Moreover, 1.4.3 Exploitation
the overall process is extremely capital intensive.
The most significant feature, which sets mining If the economic evaluation of a mining project offers
projects apart from other commercial activities, positive results, pointing to high probability that the
lies in the nature of the main asset, the mineral exploitation of the mineral deposit will produce
deposit. This asset is imperfectly defined, it is not benefits, mining will be the next step. Exploitation
possible to move, it is depleted and exhausted in or mining is the process of excavation and recovery
several years, and it cannot be replaced. of ore and associated waste rock from Earth’s crust.
The predominant economic evaluation tech- Mine method selection criteria is based on rock
nique for a mineral project is the discounted cash competency, distance to surface, characteristics of
flow method, using net present value (NPV), the mineral, and economics. Conditioned by the
internal rate of return (IRR), and payback period distance to surface, the mining methods are broadly
(PP) calculations. This methodology is easy to grouped into surface (. Fig. 1.13) and underground
understand and accepted by the industry and the (. Fig. 1.14). About 85% of the global tonnage is
financial community. For this reason, all the min- produced in open-pit mines, including placer oper-
ing project evaluation processes for investment ations, while the rest 15% from underground mines
decision worldwide are based on these indexes. (Ericsson 2012). Operating mines range from small
Because many of the items included in the calcu- size underground operations to large open pit, some
lation of NPV, IRR, and PP are almost impossible of them moving tens of thousands of rock per day.
to be predicted, the process must be adjusted to Surface mining is a form of operation led to
risk. From a financial viewpoint, the risk is the extract minerals lying near the surface. In the last
possibility that shareholders will lose money decades, surface production spreads out since open-
where they invest in a company. There are quite a pit mining is less expensive than underground
.. Fig. 1.14 Underground
1 mining at Mponeng (South
Africa) (Image courtesy of
AngloGold Ashanti)
.. Fig. 1.16 Particle
size reduction using mills
(Image courtesy of North
American Palladium Ltd.)
it is to transport. Therefore, metal ores become beneficiation methods, there are many types since
much lighter once upgraded to concentrates or metal content and physicochemical properties of
processed into semi-finished products, making minerals are quite different. It is necessary to pro-
them more economical to transport long dis- duce concentrates of every category with maximum
tances. Thus, metal ores are commonly processed, efficiency. The three main groups of concentration
at least partly, close to their extraction site. systems methods are magnetic, gravity, and froth
The material obtained in the mine is concen- flotation methods, the last one being the most used
trated using particle size reduction (. Fig. 1.16),
to concentrate metallic minerals. Magnetic meth-
liberation, and concentration with mainly physical ods use the difference in magnetic properties of the
methods. To begin, the rock is crushed, grinded, mineral particles. They are implemented in four
and classified utilizing a very broad variety of equip- different ways, being the devices distinguished
ment. The primary crushing can be carried out dur- firstly on the basis of dry or wet material, and, sec-
ing the mining, especially where an underground ondly, on the basis of magnetic field intensity (high
method is selected. Regarding concentration or or low).
20 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts
Gravity concentration separates grains of essentially solid free and a thickened slurry.
1 minerals depending on their density. The separa- Afterwards, vacuum or pressure filtration is
tion process is also determined by the size of the applied to remove water from the slurry using a
particles. Minerals with value can be removed porous filter medium, which prevents the passage
along with the material despite differences in den- of the solid particles. The product obtained, usu-
sity if the particle sizes change. For this reason, ally named cake, can be already sent to metallurgy
particle sizes must be uniform and the use of as process. Two different types of equipment are
screens and hydrocyclones is essential. However, commonly used in vacuum filtration: drum and
most of profitably minerals (e.g., sulfides of Cu, disk filters. On the other hand, pressure filtration
Zn, or Pb, PGE minerals, and many others) are is carried out with plate filter.
best suited to froth flotation method. This con-
centration method is a technique where particles,
in a mineral/water slurry, are adhered to air bub- 1.4.5 Closure and Reclamation
bles using chemical reagents, which preferentially
react with the desired mineral. Then, the particles Mine closure is the last phase in the mining cycle
are carried to the surface and removed. In general, since mining is a temporary activity, with the oper-
it is very useful for processing fine-grained ores ating life ranging from some years to several
and can be applied to many types of mineral sepa- decades. Closure starts when the mineral resource
rations (e.g., separating sulfide minerals from sil- is exhausted or operations are no longer profitable.
ica gangue, removing coal from ash-forming Mine closure plans are required by most regulatory
minerals, or separating different industrial miner- agencies worldwide before a mining permit is
als, among others). The nonvalue minerals granted. Financial assurance is required in many
obtained in froth flotation or any concentration countries as a guarantee that the funds needed for
process are disposed to tailing pond or void filling mine closure will be available if the responsible
stabilization of underground mines. company is unable to complete the process as it
Since water is usually involved in the concen- was planned. Reclamation, which occurs at all
tration process, the last stage in mineral process- stages of the mine life (environmental analysis
ing is to remove water in the slurry. This process is begins at the earliest stages of the exploration of the
called dewatering and commonly starts with mineral resource), involves earthwork and site res-
thickening, utilized if the liquid-to-solids ratio is toration including revegetation of disposal areas
high. The mechanism employed is based on sedi- (. Fig. 1.17). The aim of reclamation must always
mentation where the solids are allowed to settle be to return the site to a condition that match the
through the liquid phase, resulting in a liquid premining condition. Other possibilities include to
.. Fig. 1.17 Revegeta-
tion in mining reclamation
(Image courtesy Newmont
Mining Corporation)
1.5 · International Reporting Standards
21 1
use the mine sites recreational areas, gardens, uncertainty such as geological estimation and diffi-
parks, etc. Previously, an environmental impact culties to predict the future commodity price
assessment (EIA) is requested and presented. An (Dimitrakopoulos and Abdel Sabour 2007). Since a
EIA can easily be defined as a study of the effects of reserve is only a small portion of the total ore body,
a proposed mining project on the environment. variations in price obviously alter reserve estima-
The environmental impact assessment process is tions. For this reason, regulatory guidelines for
an interdisciplinary and multistep procedure to reserve estimation must take in consideration the
ensure that environmental aspects are included in potential economic variability in the complete life-
decisions regarding mining projects. time of the mining project (Evatt et al. 2012).
Potential environmental impacts linked to Mining is historically important in many
mining activities include impacts such as hazard- regions around the world, being the major mining
ous materials, land use, biodiversity, visual impacts, centers countries such as Australia, South Africa,
and air and water quality, among others. In general, the USA, and Canada. Thus, these countries,
underground mines are much less apparent than together with Europe (especially the United
surface mines, and they disturb a relatively small Kingdom), are the main sources of capital for min-
area of the land surface close to the principal shaft. ing projects. For this reason, these countries have
Where underground mining activities finish, the promoted the reporting standards most used
shafts can be sealed and the area returns to previ- worldwide. After its initiation in the USA, Australia
ous condition, especially in which respects to visual got ahead in providing codes and guidelines for
impact. In relation to the impact of waste disposal reporting and classifying mineral resources and
(tailings dam), which usually incorporate small reserves; omitting the McKelvey Box, really the
amounts of harmful elements, it can contaminate precursor to mining codes, the first International
surface and groundwaters. Occasionally, tailings Reporting Code was the JORC Code (Australia). It
dam failures cause huge environmental disasters, was published in 1989 and later updated.
as occurred in Alnazcóllar (Spain) in 1998, where Afterwards, a rapid increase in the creation of
Los Frailes Mine tailings dam failed and released these codes and standards in other countries was
five million cubic meters of acidic tailings. The produced. This process of creating new standards
fine-grained material contained dangerous levels of began in the late 1990s and continues today.
several heavy metals that travelled about 40 km These standards/codes derived from the glo-
before it stopped, just near a UNESCO World balization of the mining industry and their objec-
Heritage Site (Doñana National Park), which is one tives are to give a certain level of comfort to
of the largest National Parks in Europe. investors and other stakeholders regarding quality
and usefulness of valuation of mineral deposits
(see Bre-X Affair in . Box 1.4). The increasing
Box 1.4
1
The Bre-X Affair total market capitalization equal to its own due-diligence core samples
Bre-X Minerals Ltd., a member of approximately US$5 billion (Cana- showed «insignificant amounts of
the Bre-X group of companies, was dian dollars) on the open market. gold». As a result, Suharto post-
involved in one of the major scandals Near the maximum Bre-X share price, poned signing the mining deal. A
of the entire history of mining. David major banks and media were buying. third-party independent company,
Walsh founded Bre-X Minerals Ltd., In December 1996, Lehman Brothers Strathcona Mineral Services Ltd., was
a small Canadian exploration firm, Inc. strongly recommended a buy on brought in to make its own analysis.
in 1989 as a subsidiary of Bresea «the gold discovery of the century». They published their results on May
Resources Ltd. Initially, the focus of Obviously, major mining companies 4, 1997: the Busang ore samples
the company was to explore looking and top producers fought a battle to had been salted with gold dust.
for diamonds in the Northwest Ter- get a piece of Bre-X’s Busang deposit. A year later, David Walsh dies of a
ritories. The company did not make a This was because the gold amount brain aneurysm at his home in the
significant profit before 1993, when in the deposit was changing over Bahamas.
Walsh followed the advice of geolo- the years from 30 million ounces Consequently, Bre-X Minerals
gist prospector John Felderhof and (900 tons) in 1995 to 200 million collapsed in 1997 after the gold
bought a property in March 1993 in ounces (6200 tons) in 1997 (or up samples were demonstrated to be a
the middle of a jungle near Busang to 8% of the entire world’s gold). As fraud and its shares became worth-
River in Borneo, Indonesia, for US$ the estimated size of the deposit less, in one of the biggest stock
80,000. In August 1993, Bre-X began grew, so did the stock price and the scandals in Canadian history. Trad-
to explore in Kalimantan (Borneo), hysteria. ing in Bre-X was soon suspended
and it soon reported significant drill- At that moment, the Indonesian on the TSX and the NASDAQ, and
ing results at Busang. Assays of the government of President Suharto the company filed for bankruptcy
drill samples indicated consistent also got involved. It claimed that protection. Among the major losers
gold mineralization, extending from Bre-X was not playing by the were several Canadian public sector
the surface to a depth of hundreds «rules» of the country, and Bre-X’s organizations such as The Ontario
of meters, and estimates of the size exploration permits were revoked. Municipal Employees Retirement
of the resource steadily grew. The Stating that a small company like Board, the Quebec Public Sector
evaluation of geologist Michael Bre-X could not exploit the site by Pension fund, and the Ontario
de Guzman, Project Manager, was itself, the Indonesian government Teachers’ Pension Plan. The funda-
impressive: the first estimate was 17 suggested that Bre-X share the site mental problem was the lack of con-
million ounces of gold, which would with the large Canadian mining trol in the gold assays data because
have made it the richest gold deposit firm Barrick Gold in association with the results were clearly manipulated
ever. Thus, the company reported Suharto’s daughter Siti Rukmana. and falsified using a salt process;
in October 1995 an enormous gold Finally, a joint venture is reached in salt process in mineral exploration
deposit located in Indonesia. The 1997 that gives Indonesia 40% share, means to add metal (typically gold
company moves to the Toronto Stock Bre-X 45%, and Freeport-McMoRan or silver) to an ore sample to change
Exchange in April 1996 and splits its Copper and Gold Inc. at 15% share the value of the ore with an aim to
shares ten to one in May. The new of interests. The fraud began to deceive. Bre-X salt process can be
shares trade at $28.65 (Canadian unravel on March 19, 1997, when considered as the most elaborated
dollars). Bre-X geologist Michael de Guzman fraud in the history of mining and
Therefore, the stock’s price of jumped to his death on a suicide one of the biggest stock scandals
the company grew logarithmically (or was pushed) from a helicopter in Canadian history. This scandal
in the Toronto Stock Exchange. From in Indonesia. Meanwhile (January accelerated the development and
initial private offerings at 30 cents a 1997), a mysterious fire destroys at publication of standards worldwide
share, Bre-X stock climbed to $286.50 Busang the administration office and and particularly the publication
(Canadian dollars) per share by 1997 geology records. On March 26, 1997, of NI 43-101 in Canada to protect
(split adjusted). In its peak, it had a Freeport-McMoRan announced that investors.
which there has been insufficient exploration to Obviously, an Indicated Mineral Resource has a
estimate mineral resources. Exploration Results lower level of confidence than that applying to a
include data and information generated by min- Measured Mineral Resource and can only be trans-
eral exploration programs that might be of use to lated to a Probable Mineral Reserve, but has a
investors but do not form part of a declaration of higher level of confidence than that applying to an
Mineral Resources or Mineral Reserves». Inferred Mineral Resource. Finally, a Measured
The second main topic of the Template is the Mineral Resource in the Template is «that part of a
concept and the different categories of Mineral Mineral Resource for which quantity, grade or
Resources. A Mineral Resource is «a concentration quality, densities, shape, and physical characteris-
or occurrence of solid material of economic inter- tics are estimated with confidence sufficient to
est in or on the Earth’s crust in such form, grade or allow the application of Modifying Factors to sup-
quality and quantity that there are reasonable pros- port detailed mine planning and final evaluation of
pects for eventual economic extraction. The loca- the economic viability of the deposit; geological
tion, quantity, grade or quality, continuity and evidence is derived from detailed and reliable
other geological characteristics of a Mineral exploration, sampling and testing and is sufficient
Resource are known, estimated or interpreted from to confirm geological and grade or quality continu-
specific geological evidence and knowledge, ity between points of observation». Of course, a
including sampling». There are three categories of Measured Mineral Resource has a higher level of
Mineral Resources: Inferred, Indicated, and confidence than that applying to either an Indicated
Measured. Their definitions are somewhat different Mineral Resource or an Inferred Mineral Resource
from those shown in the McKelvey Box. An and it may be converted to a Proved Mineral
Inferred Mineral Resource is «that part of a Mineral Reserve or to a Probable Mineral Reserve.
Resource for which quantity and grade or quality According to the Template, this category «requires
are estimated on the basis of limited geological evi- a high level of confidence in, and understanding of,
dence and sampling. Geological evidence is suffi- the geology and the controls of the mineral deposit;
cient to imply but not verify geological and grade the choice of the appropriate category of Mineral
or quality continuity». An Inferred Mineral Resource depends upon the quantity, distribution
Resource has a lower level of confidence than that and quality of data available and the level of confi-
24 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts
.. Fig. 1.18 Modifying
1 factors and the conversion
of mineral resources to
EXPLORATION
RESULTS
INFERRED
INDICATED PROBABLE
MEASURED PROVED
dence that attaches to those data». A Competent Mineral Resources can be estimated mainly
Person or Persons, as defined above, must deter- based on geological information. However, Mineral
mine the appropriate Mineral Resource category. Reserves need consideration of the Modifying
The third topic of the Template includes the Factors affecting extraction. Thus, Mineral reserves
concept and categories of Mineral Reserves. Thus, should be estimated mainly with input from a dif-
a Mineral Reserve is «the economically mineable ferent discipline. It is also very important the type
part of a Measured and/or Indicated Mineral and characteristics of the technical studies. Scoping,
Resource; the term economically mineable implies prefeasibility, and feasibility studies are carried out
that extraction of the Mineral Reserve has been to establish the overall characteristics of the mining
demonstrated to be viable under reasonable finan- project in each stage of its development. The
cial assumptions». Therefore, Mineral Reserves descriptions of each type of study are detailed in
«are those portions of Mineral Resources that, 7 Sect. 4.5.1.
Mineral Resource; the confidence in the Modifying document is a complex combination of categories,
Factors applying to a Probable Mineral Reserve is subcategories, classes, and subclasses, and it is still
lower than that applying to a Proved Mineral not completely accepted in the mining world.
Reserve». Therefore, a Probable Mineral Reserve UNFC-2009 is a generic principle-based system
has a lower level of confidence than a Proved in which quantities are classified based on three
Mineral Reserve, but it is of sufficient quality to fundamental criteria: economic and social viabil-
serve as a basis for decision on the development of ity (E), field project status and feasibility (F), and
the deposit. Related to Proved Mineral Reserve, «it geological knowledge (G). Combinations of these
implies a high degree of confidence in the criteria and using a numerical coding system, a
Modifying Factors and represents the highest con- three-dimensional system is created. Categories
fidence category of reserve estimate». (e.g., E1, E2, E3) and, in some cases, subcategories
1.5 · International Reporting Standards
25 1
Sales
3 114 Commercial projects
Production 112 11 4
111 123 12
121 122 3 134 Potentially commercial
2 13
Socio-economic viability
E1 131 13 projects
Non-commercial projects
4
212 213 21 Exploration projects
211 2 2 3 224
221 222 234
2 233 Additional quantities in place
E2 231 23
Other combinations
Non-sales
3 314
Production 12 31
311 3 3 324 Extracted quantities
22 32
321 3 333 3
34
E3 3 1 3 3 2 344
3 3
42 34 123 Codification (E1; F2; G3)
F1 341 3
F
Project 2 F
3
G3 G4
Feasibility F4 G2
G1
Geological Knowledge
(e.g., E1.1) are defined for each of the three crite- accepted classifications as the CRIRSCO men-
ria. According to this classification, the first set of tioned above or the following 43-101 from Canada.
categories (the E axis) indicates «the degree of
favorability of social and economic conditions in
establishing the commercial viability of the proj- 1.5.3 National Codes
ect, including consideration of market prices and
relevant legal, regulatory, environmental and con- A National Code is a standard whose utilization is
tractual conditions». The second set (the F axis) obligatory in the proper country that promotes its
«points to the maturity of studies and commit- development. There are many national codes, but
ments necessary to implement mining plans or only some of them are accepted worldwide. This is
development projects». The third set of categories the case of NI 43-101, created in Canada but con-
(the G axis) «designates the level of confidence in sidered essential in many countries. Because many
the geological knowledge and potential recover- mines around the world are property of companies
ability of the quantities». which report their results on stock exchanges
This classification system is quite complicated within Canada, NI 43-101 is thoroughly used in
regarding definitions of the different concepts and the mining world. Other National or Regional
types of Mineral Resources and Reserves, always Codes more or less similar to NI 43-101 include
related to letters and numbers. Moreover, some the JORC Code (the first code in time, as stated
terms are misleading on purpose, since the before) and the VALMIN Code in Australia, the
Standard states that «reserves is a concept with dif- SME Guide in the USA, the SAMVAL Code and
ferent meanings and usage; even the extractive SAMREC Code in South Africa, the PERC
industries, where the term is carefully defined and Standard in Europe, the NAEN Code in Russia, the
applied, there are some material differences MRC Code in Mongolia, and the CCEP in Chile.
between the specific definitions that are used in The development of NI 43-101 in Canada is
different sectors. It indicates that it is not ideal as a partly related to the Bre-X Affair, which is consid-
basis for global communication of such an impor- ered the most elaborated fraud in the history of
tant quantity». Obviously, this remark is probably mining (. Box 1.4: The Bre-X Affair). In broad
true, but the solution is not to create an intricate terms, NI 43-101 is very similar to CRIRSCO
network of letters and numbers to explain con- Template and the rest of National Codes. It is clear
cepts already delimited in other classical and that most of the national codes are derived or
26 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts
43-101 and JORC Code technical reports are com- Item 11 Mineralization
monly regarded interchangeable, since their con- Item 12 Exploration
tents and scientific rigors are often very similar. As
Item 13 Drilling
a result, both codes are accepted as industry
reporting standards by numerous professional Item 14 Sampling Method and Approach
institutions. The difference lies in how the different Item 15 Sample Preparation, Analyses, and
classes of resources are used in economic studies, Security
especially the inferred resources, since the required
Item 16 Data Verification
levels of confidence can be change for every cate-
gory. For instance, inferred resources can be used Item 17 Adjacent Properties
with some cautions in economic studies in the Item 18 Mineral Processing and Metallurgical
SME Guide (USA) and the SAMREC (South Testing
Africa), but not in the NI 43-101 (Canada), because
Item 19 Mineral Resource and Mineral Reserve
of the low confidence and insufficient data. It Estimates
clearly states that inferred mineral resources may
be only utilized for internal planning. Item 20 Other Relevant Data and Information
Item 22 Recommendations
1.6 Distribution of Mineral
Resources in the Earth Item 23 References
Amount
Oxygen 46 CURRENT
Silicon 27 MINING
1 .. Table 1.3 Average crustal abundances and concentration factors for some of the most important metals
(Gocht et al. 1988). For example, aluminum (aver- crustal abundance, cumulative tonnage versus
age crustal abundance of about 8%) has a concen- grade, geometric probability, and discriminant
tration factor of 3–4 because a mineral deposit of analysis, among many others. The selection of the
aluminum (e.g., gibbsite mineral) can contain method to be employed in an assessment must be
between three and four times the average crustal based on different factors such as adequacy of the
abundance to be economical (between 24% and material to the problem, constraints in resources
32% aluminum). Obviously, this enrichment or (e.g., information or time forthcoming for the
concentration factor is very different for each ele- assessing), the level of uncertainty and acceptance
ment, ranging from low values (3–4 for alumi- of errors in the evaluation, and finally the require-
num) to very high values (4000–5000 for gold). ment for checking outcomes and approval of the
It is essential to estimate the amount of a given technique (Singer and Mosier 1981).
mineral resource in the world from its abundance McKelvey (1960) was one of the first authors to
in the Earth’s crust. The reason is that strategic analyze the distribution of mineral resources in the
planning for future supply of a mineral or a metal is Earth. He pointed out that «the tonnage of mine-
controlled by the estimates of prognostic resources, able reserves in short tons (R) for many elements in
although the predictions of undiscovered resources the United States was equal to crustal abundance in
quantifications are obviously very difficult. The percent (A) times 109 to 1010, and that the linear
methods proposed are usually based on extrapola- relation that appears to prevail between reserves
tion of resources in well-known regions to less and abundance is useful in forecasting reserves in
known, but geologically similar, parts of the Earth large segments of the Earth’s crust or over the
(e.g., Singer and Menzie 2010). However, the topic world at large». Even for purposes of estimating
of mineral resource assessment is quite complex. world reserves of unexplored elements, McKelvey
Assessment methods considered were time rate, affirmed that «a figure of A × 1010 to 1011 probably
1.6 · Distribution of Mineral Resources in the Earth
29 1
will give the right order of magnitude». In other applying mathematical laws to predict reserves of
words, reserves for some elements exhibit a con- ore deposits and to study how the recoverable
stant ratio to their average crustal abundance and reserves of porphyry copper deposits (a copper
for less explored commodities the reserves can be deposit type, see 7 Chap. 2) varied as a function
estimated from well-explored ones. With regard to of the usual selection criterion, the grade in Cu
the question as to whether or not the USA is a rep- percentage (. Box 1.5: Lasky’s Law).
resentative sample of the Earth’s crust, it does have The relationship between ore grade and tonnage
all the major kinds of geological terranes found in a mineral deposit can be analyzed in terms of
anywhere and may be accepted as a reasonably fractals (Turcotte 1986) because grade relations and
representative sample of the Earth’s crust. tonnage for economic ore deposits show a fractal
The total amount of different metals in the behavior if the tonnage of ore with a specific mean
Earth’s crust can be calculated combining crustal grade is proportional to this mean grade raised to a
abundance data and the McKelvey reserve- power. If it is assumed that the concentration of ele-
abundance relationship. Thus, the potential recov- ments in ores is statistically scale invariant, the
erable resource in metric tons for most elements renormalization group approach can be used to
should approach 2.45A × 106, where A is abundance derive a fractal relationship between mean grade
expressed in parts per million (Erickson 1973). If and tonnage. Moreover, the obtained results are
the abundance-reserve relationship is accepted, the independent of the mechanism of mineral concen-
amount expressed is a minimum total resource esti- tration as long as the concentration mechanism is
mate because the relationship is based upon cur- scale invariant. This approach would not be expected
rently recoverable resources and does not include to be valid if different concentration mechanisms
resources whose feasibility of economic recovery is are operative at different scales. Thus, in terms of
not established. The abundance- reserve relation fractals, the relationship between ore grade and ton-
should become more closely defined as analytical nage in a mineral deposit can be defined by using
techniques progress, as the understanding of geo- the following equation (Turcotte 1997):
chemical processes enhances, and as exploration
Core / Cmin = ( M min / M ore )
D /3
techniques advance and it was possible to explore
and examine the crust until a reasonable depth.
Estimating contemporary reserves is very use- where Core is the average grade of the tonnage More,
ful, but it is only a starting point because the focus Cmin is the minimal grade included of the mass
of the question is not on the short-term, but on Mmin, and D is the fractal dimension. Mmin may be
long-sighted availability (e.g., Graedel et al. 2011). the mass of ore exploited at the lowest grade mine
These authors tried to estimate the extractable or even source rock from which the ore in a dis-
global resource (EGR), that is, «the quantity of a trict is thought to be derived. Based on this corre-
given resource that is judged to be worthy of lation, undiscovered resources can be estimated.
extraction over the long term given anticipated Tonnage versus cut-off and average grade versus
improvements in exploration and technology», cut-off models can be outlined according to the
for most metals, considering that information fractal distribution of element concentrations,
available on the potentially extractable geological considering that the cut-off grade has great influ-
resources of metals is negligible. The main con- ence on the reserve and resource calculation in a
clusion of this study was that it is not possible at single deposit (Wang et al. 2010).
the moment reliably to estimate the extractable Another possibility is to combine the fractal
global resource (EGR) for any metal. modeling and geostatistics for mineral resource
The aforementioned aspects deal with the dis- classification to look for a clear separation, identi-
tribution of mineral resources in big areas or fication, and assessment of high-grade ore zones
regions, even in the Earth as a whole. However, a from low-grade ones in a deposit, which are
crucial point is to know how the resources/ extremely important in mining of metalliferous
reserves (grades and tonnage) are distributed in a deposits (e.g., Sadeghi et al. 2014). Compared to
mineral deposit with a gradation from relatively existing methods of mineral resource classifica-
rich to relatively poor mineralization, that is to tion, the technique that combines geostatistics
say, the relation between grades and tonnages in and fractal modeling can address the complexity
an ore deposit. Lasky (1950) was the pioneer in of the data for different parts of a mineral deposit.
30 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts
Box 1.5
1
Lasky’s Law is always preceded by a minus sign material in the resource analysis
Samuel G. Lasky, Chief Mineral to indicate the inverse relationship of groups of deposits as well as to
Resources Section of the U.S. Geo- between tonnage and grade. A individual deposits. However, it is
logical Survey, was a pioneer in typical curve for such a relation- also possible that a linear relation
applying mathematical laws to ship will be plotted as a straight is obtained if the logarithm of the
predict reserves of ore deposits downsloping line on a semiloga- tonnage is plotted against the
and to study how the recover- rithmic paper, with the grade on logarithm of the grade (Cargill et al.
able reserves of porphyry copper the logarithmic horizontal axis and 1981). One of the issues of this
deposits (a copper deposit type) tons of ore on the arithmetically relationship is that the projection
varied as a function of the usual spaced vertical axis. The cumulative of Lasky’s analysis to lower grades
selection criterion, the grade in Cu contained copper curves become is limited because the mathemati-
percentage. For the average U.S. flat at a point that Lasky called the cal formulation predicts physically
porphyry copper deposit, he found zero cut-off grade, at which the impossible situations below some
that a decrease in grade of 0.1% Cu copper grade tends to approach limiting grade: as average grade (G)
was associated with an increase in average abundance of copper in approaches zero, the derivative of
tonnage of about 18%. Thus, the the Earth’s crust. tonnage (T) with respect to average
famous Lasky’s equation (Lasky The most common mistake grade produces «astronomical»
1950), also known as Lasky’s law made in quoting Lasky’s law is to increases in tonnage. As a rule,
(Matheron 1959) or the arithmetic- assume that it states that the quan- Lasky’s law is only true for specific
geometric (A/G) ratio was derived tity of metal increases geometrically deposits, but it cannot be used as a
from production records of several as the ore grade declines arithmeti- general tool because Lasky’s tech-
porphyry copper deposits. The cally. In fact, Lasky’s results show a nique had geological limitations in
equation states that if ore grades definite limit to the cumulative addition to the empirical limitations
are distributed log-normally, the quantity of metal in a deposit. The of the equation at high or low
increase of reserves is exponential. aim in reporting the relationship was grade. Lasky’s relationship should
Therefore, the tonnage of ore to enable mining engineers to fore- be found notoriously ineffective for
that has been produced plus the cast the recoverable reserves from a the majority of mercury, gold, silver,
estimated reserves (T) and the given deposit. Therefore, his results tungsten, lead, zinc, antimony,
weighted average grade of this say nothing about the distribution beryllium, tantalum, niobium, and
tonnage (G) distribution follow the of different deposits, only about the rare earth deposits. Singer (2013)
equation: distribution of ore within a given affirmed that significant deviation
deposit (Chapman and Roberts from lognormal distributions of
G = K1 - K 2 ´ ln (T ) 1983). most metals when ignoring deposit
Lasky’s relationship is consis- types demonstrates that there is
where K1 and K2 are constants to be
tent with studies of the correlation not a global lognormal or power
determined for each ore deposit.
between average grades and cumu- law equation for these metals.
They usually have to be determined
lative ore tonnage of mineralized
empirically, using historical data. K2
consumption is increasing more quickly than Increased world demand for minerals will be
population as new consumers enter the market affected by three factors (Kesler 2007): applica-
for minerals and as global standard of living tions for mineral commodities, the level of popu-
rises. According to Glöser et al. (2015), the rapid lation that consumes these raw materials, and the
economic development of emerging countries in standard of living that will establish how much
combination with an accelerating spread of new each person consumes. As new materials and
technologies has led to a strongly increasing applications are found, markets for mineral com-
demand for industrial metals and minerals modities can expand considerably. In this sense,
regarding both the total material requirement present technologies utilize almost the entire
and the diversity of elements used for the pro- periodic table.
1.7 · Mineral Resources Consumption
31 1
80 40
60 30
40 20
20 10
0 0
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
.. Fig. 1.21 Global material extraction in billion tons from 1900 to 2005 (Modified from Krausmann et al. 2009)
Demand forecasting is difficult, but it is needed materials have been carried out in the past 15 years
to guide supply policies. Human population was 6.5 due to the current tensions in raw material markets
billion in 2005, with a 95% of population growing in (e.g., Speirs et al. 2013; Glöser et al. 2015).
developing world, and United Nations forecast near As a representative of the former school, there
ten billion by 2050 (an increase of 40%). The devel- is an impending shortage of two fertilizers: phos-
oping economies need minerals for construction, phorus and potassium, and these two elements
energy, etc., and in the near future mining deeper cannot be made, cannot be substituted, are neces-
will be necessary, with lower grades and larger sary to grow all life forms, and are mined and
scales, which means more health risks and carbon depleted (Grantham 2012). Therefore, according
footprint will increase as well. Nowadays, the easy to this author, their consumption must be com-
mineral resources, the least expensive to extract and pletely decreased in the next 20 or 30 years or the
process, have been mostly exploited and depleted humanity will start to starve. Grantham’s article
(Bardy 2014). There are plenty of minerals left to concluded that the society is actually in a hopeless
extract, but at higher cost and increasing difficulty. situation related to these two raw materials.
There are two competing views of mineral Similar are the conclusions of a study based on
depletion: the fixed stock paradigm and the oppor- potential substitutes for 62 different metals in all
tunity cost paradigm. Under the opportunity cost their major uses and of the performance of the
paradigm, mineral depletion is considered mainly substitutes in those applications (Graedel et al.
a matter of economics and availability a function of 2015). The study concludes that any of the 62 met-
price; long-term tendencies in real mineral prices als have exemplary substitutes available for all
indicate few problems of availability (Humphreys major uses. Other alarmist forecasts suggest that
2013). With regard to the effects of consumption for some minerals and metals, depletion may
on worldwide mineral supply, there are two classi- occur over relatively short timescales of a few
cal schools of thinking: those who think that min- decades or even years. These forecasts are usually
eral resources are being depleted and consequently based on reserves estimates. It seems that they are
will be exhausted, and those who believe that there untrustworthy previsions of the long-sighted
are infinite possibilities in the supply of mineral accessibility of metals since their definitions
resources. Numerous studies about the quantifica- depend on economics, present science, and tech-
tion of supply risks of mineral and metallic raw nology (Graedel et al. 2014).
32
Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts
Box 1.6
1
Hubbert Peak Theory magnitude far greater than that of of petroleum besides crude oil.
It is well known that there are three fossil fuels. This approach assumes However, although unconven-
main laws to describe the depletion that the level of production is tional oil is not included, the
of any finite resource: (a) production mainly driven by technical factors basic principle behind the Hub-
starts at zero, (b) production then that can reasonably be approxi- bert curve that production will
rises to a peak which can never be mated by a logistic function. eventually peak and decline still
surpassed, and (c) once the peak has Based on his theory, Hubbert stands. Oil production in the mid-
been passed, production declines presented a paper to the 1956 nineteenth century recovered 50
until the resource is depleted. These meeting of the American Petroleum barrels of oil per barrel that was
simple rules were first described in Institute in San Antonio (Texas, extracted. The number of barrels
the 1950s by Dr. Marion King Hub- USA), which predicted that overall recovered today is 1–5 per barrel
bert (American geophysicist) and oil production would reach the extracted. As ever, two views are
applied to depletion of the world’s peak in the USA at 10.2 million possible, optimistic and pes-
petroleum resources. In 1956, barrels of petroleum/day between simistic. Optimistic view holders
Hubbert developed a theory (The 1965 and 1970, which he consid- predict a world peak in oil pro-
Hubbert curve) now referred to as ered an upper-bound. The term duction around 2020, becoming
«The Hubbert Peak Theory» predict- Peak Oil refers to the maximum rate critical closer to 2030. Pessimistic
ing that petroleum supplies did not of the production of oil in any area view holders believe that a peak
come in an endless supply. The Hub- under consideration, recognizing has already happened. With the
bert peak theory says that the rate implicitly that it is a finite natural varying estimations of data, it is
of oil production tends to follow a resource subject to depletion. difficult to conclude when the
bell curve in which there is a point Almost everyone, inside and world will peak or if it has already
of maximum production based on outside the oil industry, rejected happened. Most data, however,
discovery rates, production rates, Hubbert’s analysis. However, the support optimism, placing a peak
and cumulative production. Later, controversy raged until 1970, when date around 2020–2030. This date
production declines because of the US production of crude oil varies from Hubbert’s predicted
resource depletion, and finally the started to fall: Hubbert was right. date due to the attempted regula-
oil production would enter in a final As an example, the oil production tion of Organization of the Petro-
decline. The theory can be applied in the USA by the mid-2000s had leum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
to any given geographical area, fallen to 1940s’ levels. Moreover, in and the use of alternative ener-
from an individual oil-producing 1974, Hubbert projected that global gies and unconventional oil and
region to the planet as a whole. In oil production would peak in 1995 gas. Regarding the former, pre-
fact, Hubbert has believed in 1956 «if current trends continue». dicting production for the OPEC
that nuclear energy would become The theory does not take has widely diverged from the
a long-term source of energy at a into account any other sources Hubbert curve since the 1970s.
One of the most classical examples of mineral However, the application of the peak concept to
resource exhaustion school is the peak theory in metals production has been criticized (Crowson
the context of an earlier debate about the future of 2011; Ericsson and Söderholm 2012). For instance,
the US oil production (Hubbert 1956) (. Box 1.6: data from the last 200 years show that prices of
Hubbert Peak Theory). Examining the world pro- major metals are mainly cyclical, with intermittent
duction of 57 minerals reported in the database of peaks and troughs closely to economic cycles.
the USGS, Bardi and Pagani (2007) affirm that Thus, declining production is usually generated by
eleven minerals where production has definitely falling demand rather than by declining resources
peaked and is actually declining while some more or lack of resource discovery. For this reason, the
can be peaking or near peaking; adjusting the pro- peak concept is not very useful for modeling min-
duction curve with a logistic function, the defini- eral resource depletion. The reserves could be
tive quantity extrapolated from the adjusting «infinite», but other problems can arise. For exam-
corresponds well to the quantity obtained adding ple, the reserves of some raw materials (e.g., coal)
the cumulative production so far and the reserves seem to be very extensive, but the use of these raw
calculated by the USGS. The results obtained by materials has a negative impact on the world’s cli-
these authors clearly indicate that in general the mate. Therefore, climate policies can be a more
Hubbert model is valid for worldwide production restrictive factor on raw materials use than its
of minerals and not just for regional cases. availability. Moreover, many of the important raw
1.8 · Sustainable Development
33 1
materials are located in countries that are econom- variety of constraints on mineral supply response
ically and/or politically unstable. Hence, exploita- (Humphreys 2013).
tion of these resources originates local conflicts, a
high risk of instability, and supply interruptions.
Regarding the former, these are the so-called con- 1.8 Sustainable Development
flict minerals because miners are forced to take
part in the illicit mining economy, and money The best way to mitigate the problem of mineral
earned from the sale of these conflict minerals is resources depletion is to use them in a sustainable
utilized mainly to promote violent causes and wars. way. The definition of sustainable development that
Regarding the second school of thinking, the is most commonly used today was presented by the
changes of global reserves to global consumption United Nations in 1987 (The Brundtland Report).
between 1995 and 2010 for several minerals show In this report, sustainable development is defined
that available reserves have been able to keep up as «development that meets the needs of the pres-
with global demands. Overall analysis suggests that ent without compromising the ability of future gen-
increasing demand and prices led to expansion of erations to meet their own needs». This has become
supply (Wellington and Mason 2014). The data also the most accepted definition of sustainable devel-
show that although there is a greater worldwide opment internationally. This report stressed the
demand for a selected number of minerals, new need for the world to progress toward economic
sources are being exploited and the global mineral development that could be sustained without per-
reserves should meet world demand for the next 50 manently harming the environment. In this sense,
years. In this sense, demand is likely to remain the the discovery of new reserves may be viewed as
dominant factor in world mineral supplies for the only a temporary possible solution to mineral
next few decades. Obviously, the problem of min- resource sustainability. Other potential solutions to
eral resources supply can be diminished by the sustainability of mineral resources include the fol-
application of more detailed mineral exploration lowing (Wellmer and Becker-Platen 2007): (1)
strategies, better mining and mineral processing improvement removal from the deposit, (2) finding
technology, resource efficiency and improvements new material to replace, (3) enhancing recycling
in recycling, and processes of substitution for many processes, (4) decreasing consumption by more
raw materials. For instance, in addition to identi- efficient use, and (5) looking for new possibilities.
fied copper resources of 2100 million metric tons On the other hand, the concept of sustainable
(Mt), a mean of 3500 Mt of undiscovered copper is production and consumption was implemented at
expected globally using a geology-based assess- the beginning of the 1990s. Its main goal is the cor-
ment methodology (Johnson et al. 2014). rect production and use of natural resources, the
On the other hand, history of mining proves minimization of wastes, and the optimization of ser-
that increasing demand for minerals and higher vices and products. Sustainable production and con-
prices will generally lead to technological and sci- sumption intends to provide the utilization of goods
entific innovations that result in new or alterna- and services over the life cycle so as not to jeopardize
tive sources of supply. the needs of future generations (Sustainable
According to Lusty and Gunn (2015), wide- Consumption Symposium in Oslo, Norway, 1994).
spread adoption of low-carbon mining technolo- Regarding substitution of mineral resources to
gies, supported by multidisciplinary research, and promote sustainable development, the impor-
incremented global use of low-carbon power tance of the hierarchy of relative mineral resource
sources will enable challenges such as power con- values must be emphasized. According to this
sumption and varying the present link between model (Wellmer and Becker-Platen 2007), «the
metal production and greenhouse gas emissions most valuable resources (energy resources)
to be met. In this sense, new focused research will occupy the top of the hierarchy; the next lower
improve the understanding of the processes mobi- value category consists of those mineral resources
lizing and concentrating these elements, enhanc- whose deposits are created by natural enrichment
ing the exploration models, and ability to identify (for example, metalliferous deposits and some
new deposits. In addition, while it may generally nonmetallic deposits like phosphate and barite);
be the case that properly functioning markets will the next lower level consists of bulk raw materials
provide solutions to mineral shortages, there are a such as those used in construction and those
34 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts
whose availability, from a geological viewpoint, is There is a growing awareness that the con-
1 unlimited in the Earth’s crust; finally, waste prod- struction structures, building, and other prod-
ucts and residues from beneficiation or burning ucts in the economy today could be the urban
of higher value resources occupy the lowermost mines of the future (OECD 2015). Thus, anthro-
part of the hierarchy». Obviously, if possible, the pogenic stocks have been less studied than geo-
main goal of any policy leading to mineral sus- logical stocks. They represent a growing area of
tainable development is to utilize low-value interest, particularly in industrialized economies
resources at the base of the mineral resources where geological stocks are limited but man-
hierarchy. Thus, the high-value resources at the made stocks are believed to be large. Much of the
top are conserved. Another relevant tool for com- study of anthropogenic stocks focuses on metals
paring materials consumption is eco-efficiency, because they can be infinitely recycled, and
which combines the notions maximum environ- unlike minerals, which dissipate with consump-
mental and economic benefit and minimum envi- tion (e.g., fossil fuels, salt for deicing), metals
ronmental and economic cost. Eco-efficiency also retain their chemical and physical properties
decreases raw materials consumption throughout over time. Many of the potential negative envi-
the life cycle to a limit more or less in line with the ronmental impacts associated with the produc-
Earth’s calculated capability. This concept focuses tion and consumption of metals can be reduced
heavily on effective resource consumption and the using these anthropogenic stocks with recycling.
reduction of waste (Fleury and Davies 2012). Simultaneously, pressure on virgin stocks could
The role of developed countries in sustainable be diminished.
development is crucial since these countries are
mostly involved in mineral resource consump-
tion and depletion. For instance, Europe environ- 1.9 Critical Raw Materials
mental footprint is one of the largest on the
planet; if the rest of the world lived like Europeans, The global market of mineral raw materials is
it would require the resources of more than two characterized by: (a) increasing demand for min-
earths to support them. For this reason, some erals from both industrial and developing coun-
developed countries such as EU countries have tries, (b) dramatic changes in where minerals are
elaborated extensive programs trying to resolve sourced, (c) volatile markets and pricing, and (d)
the dualism rich countries – poor countries. As increased vulnerabilities in the mineral supply
an example of these programs, the European chain. In this framework, modern society is
Union (EU) is developing the named «Sustainable increasingly dependent on mineral resources,
Consumption and Production and Sustainable which differ in their availability, the way of use,
Industrial Policy Action Plan». This plan includes the cost of production, and their geographical dis-
different actions, of which 11 are devoted to tribution. Raw materials are essential for the
Natural Resources. Europe 2020 strategy has as its development of the economy of industrialized
flagship initiative a «resource efficient Europe: to regions. Sectors such as construction, chemicals,
help decouple economic growth from the use of automotive, aerospace, and machinery are com-
resources», being the resource efficiency the key pletely dependent on access to certain raw materi-
political priority. als. European extraction covers only 29% of the
Previously, the EU Raw Materials Initiative of demand for concentrates necessary to meet the
2008 included an integrated strategy based on the requirements for production in metallurgical
following three pillars: «(1) ensure access to raw plants. Therefore, the potential effects of mineral
materials from international markets under the supply disruption are essential for maintaining
same conditions as other industrial competitors; and improving the quality of life.
(2) set the right framework conditions within the Moreover, a type of scarcity referred to as
EU to foster sustainable supply of raw materials «technical scarcity» or «structural scarcity» pres-
from European sources; and (3) boost overall ents a particular challenge and may be difficult
resource efficiency and promote recycling to reduce and expensive to alleviate. Technical scarcity
the EU’s consumption of primary raw materials applies chiefly (Graedel et al. 2014) to «a range of
and decrease the relative import dependence». rare metals used mostly in high-tech applications;
1.9 · Critical Raw Materials
35 1
many of these are not mined on their own, rather
.. Table 1.4 Primary supply (%) of some critical
they are by-products of the mining of the ores of raw materials from the most important producing
the more common and widely used metals (e.g. countries (European Commission 2014)
aluminum, copper, lead, and zinc); these by-
products are present as trace constituents in the Critical raw Supply Major suppliers
ores of the host metals and, under favorable eco- material (%) (>20%)
nomic conditions, they can be extracted from Antimony 93 China (87%)
these ores, which means that there is a little eco-
nomic incentive to increase production at times Beryllium 99 USA (90%)
of shortage». Borates 88 Turkey (38%)
Demand for a variety of mineral resources,
USA (30%)
such as rare earth elements (REEs), platinum group
elements (PGEs), beryllium, and lithium, among Chromium 88 South Africa (43%)
others, has increased with continued consumption Kazakhstan (20%)
in developed economies and the emergence of
Cobalt 82 DRC (56%)
other developing countries. Such elements are cru-
cial to a variety of manufacturing, high-tech, and Coking coal 94 China (51%)
military applications. In this framework, many Fluorspar 84 China (56%)
governments consider that a stable supply of some
mineral resources is essential for economic pros- Gallium 90 China (69%)
perity. It is important to note that the production of Germanium 94 China (59%)
minerals that supply many of these elements is
Indium 81 China (58%)
concentrated in a few countries. Thus, China pro-
duces more than 95% of the global rare earth ele- Magnesite 86 China (69%)
ments supply, and almost 80% of global platinum Magnesium 96 China (86%)
production is from South Africa. . Table 1.4
Threshold
are developed. critical
A more recent definition in the American
Mineral Security Act of 2015 (US Congress) says
that a critical mineral means «any mineral, ele-
ment, substance, or material designated as critical Threshold
pursuant to: (1) subject to potential supply restric-
tions (including restrictions associated with for-
eign political risk, abrupt demand growth,
military conflict, violent unrest, anti-competitive non-critical
or protectionist behaviors, and other risks
throughout the supply chain); and (2) important
in use (including energy technology-, defense-, A measure of economic importance or
expected (negative) impact of shortage
currency-, agriculture-, consumer electronics-,
and health care-related applications)». The term
does not include here fuel minerals, water, ice, or .. Fig. 1.22 General scheme of the criticality concept
snow. projected into two dimensions (Sievers et al. 2012)
With regard to the European Union, the last
report on critical raw materials for the EU (2014)
establishes that «non-energy raw materials are is a relative ranking of the materials across the
intrinsically linked to all industries across all assessment components, with a material classified
supply chain stages, and consequently they are as critical if it exceeds both the threshold for eco-
essential for EU way of life; sectors may rely on nomic importance and the supply risk (Sievers
these materials as direct inputs, for instance et al. 2012) (. Fig. 1.22). For a country economy,
metals refining relies on metallic ores as well as the importance of a raw material is difficult to
on industrial minerals; this primary industry determine as it presents not only data but also
underpins downstream sectors, which utilize conceptual and methodological difficulties. The
processed materials in their products and ser- analysis is carried out by evaluating the propor-
vices; thus, the healthcare sector uses equipment tion of each raw material associated with indus-
containing high performance magnets made trial megasectors at an EU level and then scaled to
from rare earth elements, electricity distribution define the overall economic importance for a
relies on pylons and cables constructed of alu- material. On the other hand, the overall supply
minium and copper respectively, and most vehi- risks are a combination of factors such as substi-
cles are equipped with tyres that are comprised tutability, high concentration of producing coun-
of natural rubber». The EU is in a particularly tries with poor governance, and end-of-life
vulnerable position on imports for many raw recycling rates.
materials (e.g., EU produced only 3% of the The last updated list of critical and noncritical
world metal production) which are increasingly raw materials (both metals or metallic ores and
affected by growing demand pressure. Moreover, industrial minerals) from the European
the production of many materials is concen- Commission (2014) includes 20 critical raw mate-
trated in a small number of countries. Supply rials (. Fig. 1.23). The main characteristics that
risks may arise as a result of political-economic make them critical for EU are: (a) the import
instability of the producing countries and export dependence of the EU (generally more than 70%;
or environmental restrictions imposed by these in most cases 100%), (b) their use is fundamental
countries. in emerging technologies, (c) they are produced
To assess criticality, the methodology utilized as by-products of other main metals treatment or
in the EU is a combination of two components: coupled elements, (d) their recycling rate is quite
economic importance and supply risk. The result low, and (e) the substitution options are limited.
1.10 · Mineral Resource Recycling
37 1
Feldspar Molybdenum
Materials
.. Fig. 1.23 Critical and noncritical raw materials in EU (European Commission 2014)
China is the major producer of the EU critical raw result of previous considerations. The aim of this
materials, and it is the most influential in terms of document is to secure and improve access to raw
global supply. Other countries such as the USA materials for the EU countries. Materials security
for beryllium and Brazil for niobium provide spe- and materials criticality have also been of growing
cific raw materials. interest for other international forums, leading to
The list of critical raw materials is being used a number of studies and initiatives related to raw
to help prioritize needs and actions. It serves as a material supply and criticality (e.g., Resourcing
supporting element when negotiating trade agree- Future Generations – IUGS).
ments, challenging trade distortion measures, or
promoting research and innovation. The list not
only includes the name of the raw material, but 1.10 Mineral Resource Recycling
also some data about main producers, main
sources of imports, substitutability index, and Waste management priorities are organized
end-of-life recycling input rate. These two last according to the named «the three R’s»: reduce,
indexes are essential for the supply of critical raw reuse, and recycling (. Box 1.7: The Three R’s). In
materials. According the European list, «the sub- a broad sense, there are three main groups of min-
stitutability index is a measure of the difficulty in eral resources that can be reused or recycled: con-
substituting the material, scored and weighted struction and demolition waste, industrial
across all applications; the end-of-life recycling minerals, and metals. Each of them has its own
input rate measures the proportion of metal and characteristics dealing with source and capability
metal products that are produced from end-of-life to be recycled. Recycling will never be 100% effi-
scrap and other metal-bearing low-grade residues cient and varies greatly among different mineral
in end-of-life scrap worldwide». The European commodities due to the use and functionality in
Commission adopted a strategy document as a their respective applications.
38
Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts
Box 1.7
1
The Three R’s benefits. As less material is used, given to the material and save it
Over the last half century, the pollution from its manufacture and from going to the landfill. Materi-
amount of waste created per person transportation is reduced, energy als like glass, plastic, aluminum,
in the developed countries has and water is saved, and material is and paper can be mass collected
doubled. Thus, the concept and pro- kept out of landfills. Waste reduction (. Fig. 1.24), broken or melted
motion of the three R’s was created therefore should be the main prior- down, and made into entirely
to help combat the drastic increase ity in the waste management plans. new products. The definition of
in solid waste production. As a Thus, reducing is the most effective recycling is varied. For instance,
rule, the three R’s (reduce, reuse, of the three R’s. Aluminum cans are according to the Waste Framework
and recycling) conserve natural a good example of source reduction Directive of the European Union
resources, landfill space, and energy. because they are now made with (Directive 2008/98/EC on waste)
The problem of the landfill space 1/3 less aluminum than they were recycling is defined as: «any
is nowadays very important, since 20 years ago. recovery operation by which waste
siting a new landfill has become The second most effective materials are reprocessed into
difficult and more expensive due strategy for environmental stew- products, materials or substances
to environmental regulations and ardship is to reuse. An item might whether for the original or other
public opposition. Moreover, the be reused for the same purpose or purposes. It includes the reprocess-
three R’s ensure that future genera- it might be used in a different way. ing of organic material but does
tions have clean air to breathe, clean Reusing extends the life of exist- not include energy recovery and
water to drink, as well as forests, ing materials and decreases the the reprocessing into materials
fields, and beaches to enjoy. For resources needed for new prod- that are to be used as fuels or for
instance, it is possible to create a ucts. This concept can be difficult backfilling operations». Recycling
compost pile of the organic, biode- because the life in the actual world again conserves resources and
gradable kitchen waste and apply includes many disposable items, diverts materials from landfills.
it to the garden. Organic material in and it takes some imagination The possibilities of recycling are
the compost stores carbon, keeping and creativity to see how items infinite. For example, metals form
it from entering the atmosphere can be reused. For instance, it is almost 9% of the municipal solid
as a greenhouse gas. Nutrients in estimated that a glass beverage waste (MSW) in the USA in 2012
compost encourage healthy bacte- bottle can make about 15 round- (EPA 2014). Sources of metals from
rial growth in soil, enabling plants to trips between the manufacturer MSW include residential waste
grow strong and healthy the natural and the consumer before it must (including waste from apartment
way. be recycled due to damage. houses) and waste from com-
The three R’s are really a waste Finally, the last resort is to mercial and institutional locations,
management hierarchy with reduce recycle. Recycling includes several such as businesses, schools, and
being the most important strategy. steps that take a used material and hospitals, and these include items
The best way to manage a waste is process it, remanufacture it, and such as packaging, food waste,
not to produce it. Reducing waste sell it as a new product. Where a grass clippings, sofas, computers,
yields the greatest environmental product is recycled, a new life is tires, and refrigerators.
.. Fig. 1.24 Recy-
cling at Grand Can-
yon (USA)
1.10 · Mineral Resource Recycling
39 1
1.10.1 Construction and but barriers to recycling the waste are numerous.
Demolition Waste Among them, the misconception about the qual-
ity of recycled products compared to new materi-
Construction and demolition waste (CDW) is als is the most important, since ignorance of the
one of the most significant waste streams in the good results of these materials in some applica-
world. It comprises very many materials such as tions probably will continue for years.
metals, glass, concrete, gypsum, bricks, wood,
plastic, solvents, and excavated soil, among oth-
ers, many of which can be recycled. CDW has 1.10.2 Industrial Minerals
high potential for recycling because many of the
components have high resource value. In particu- The valuable physical properties of many miner-
lar, there is a market for aggregates derived from als used in industrial and manufacturing pro-
CDW waste in roads, drainage, and other con- cesses are either destroyed in use or the minerals
struction projects. For instance, recycled and sec- are dispersed, and they cannot be recoverable in
ondary materials account for 30% of the aggregates their original form. Thus, plasticity of ceramic
market in Great Britain. They include construc- clays is lost during firing in the kiln. Some
tion and demolition waste, asphalt planings, used industrial minerals that are valued for their
railway ballast, etc. In the European Union, CDW chemical properties are impossible to reuse or
has been identified as a priority waste stream recycle. The most classical example is salt uti-
since it accounts for approximately 25% to 30% of lized to treat roads in the winter, and potassium
all the waste generated in the EU; approximately or phosphorous minerals that are the basis of
900 million tons per year, two tons per capita. The numerous agricultural fertilizers. However,
quantitative target set by The Waste Framework many industrial minerals can be recovered and
Directive of the EU at 2008 is the following: «by recycled in their manufactured form. For exam-
2020, the preparing for reuse, recycling and other ple, ceramic materials can be recycled as con-
material recovery, including backfilling opera- struction fills or as aggregates. Glass is an
tions using waste to substitute other materials, of outstanding case of material with high recycling
non-hazardous construction and demolition capacity (. Fig. 1.25). It is a manufactured prod-
waste … shall be increased to a minimum of 70% uct that may simply be melted and reformed in a
by weight». Concrete is the most important frac- similar way than metals.
tion in the CDW. It presents many treatment According to IMA Europe (2013), «in general,
options (e.g., landfill, recycling into aggregates for recovering these minerals from their end applica-
road construction, or backfilling, among others), tions would be technically complicated, time
consuming and, ultimately, environmentally back into high-grade materials than mining and
1 unsound; however, although the minerals them- refining processes. For this reason, carbon emis-
selves may not be recyclable per se, many of them sions from recycling are substantially lower than
lead second, third, fourth or even an infinite num- those derived from mining. As a rule, the main ben-
ber of lives». The Industrial Minerals sector in efits from recycling metals are: (a) lowering energy
Europe estimates that a total 40–50% of all the consumption by 60–95% compared to primary pro-
minerals consumed in Europe are recycled, which duction, (b) reducing CO2 emissions and environ-
is the case for about 73% of all silica used in mental impact on water and air, (c) preserving
Europe. Markets for this recycled silica are varied: primary geological resources, and (d) decreasing the
construction and soil, container and flat glass, dependency on raw material imports. Depending
foundry, ceramics, etc. Other data about recycling on the metal and the form of scrap, recycling can
rates for industrial minerals in Europe are 50% of save as much as an indicator of ten or twenty in
bentonite, 58% of calcium carbonate, 67% of feld- power consumption (Reck and Graedel 2012).
spar, 49% of kaolin, or 60% of talc. In the metals industry, the term recycling is
commonly used to include two fundamentally
different kinds of scrap: (1) new scrap or process
1.10.3 Metals scrap: the material generated during processing
and manufacturing, and (2) old scrap (. Fig. 1.26)
Despite the vast reserves of several industrially or obsolete scrap (also post-consumer scrap or
important metals, the growing world population end-of-life scrap): the material recovered after
cannot keep consuming metals at current standard being built into a construction or a manufactured
for the western industrialized society. This is no article that has been used and eventually dis-
doubt beyond what is likely to be sustainable. carded. Thus, scrap is generally categorized as
Altogether, metal production today represents new scrap or old scrap. A broad range of terms,
about 8% of total global energy consumption and a such as external scrap, home scrap, internal scrap,
similar percentage of fossil-fuel-related CO2 emis- mill scrap, prompt scrap, and purchased scrap,
sions. Obviously, recycling will help in decreasing have been developed to design scrap originated by
this footprint as it usually requires less energy than different industry operations (Papp 2014).
primary manufacture (UNEP 2013). When recy- Hagelüken (2014) affirmed that recycling
cling metals, energy use is diminished because scrap possibilities or recyclability of a product is based
metals commonly require less energy to convert on various technical, economic, structural and
currently possible but too expensive to produce the critical metals included in EEE and hence in
technical grade lithium carbonate out of recycled WEEE. With increasing gross domestic product
lithium compared to primary production. (GDP), world consumption of these products
In spite of the resulting benefits from an envi- accelerates and the size of their waste streams
ronmental, economic, and social perspective, cur- increases. WEEE volumes are already enormous,
rent recycling rates are still rather low for most estimated between 20 and 50 million tons
metals (. Table 1.5). The world’s most recycled
per annum, or 3–7 kg/person each year (assum-
material is steel, the metal used in 8–9 times greater ing seven billion people) (UNEP 2013).
quantity than all other metals combined. Of the In summary, recycling represents a major way
three R’s, recycling is probably the most recognized to mitigate negative impacts on increasing metals’
attribute of steel. «More than 475 million tons of demand and to ensure the potential of economic
steel scrap was removed in 2008 from the waste growth. For instance, the largest recycling park in
stream into the recycling stream; this is more than China is able to recover one million tons of cop-
the combined reported totals for other recyclable per per year. It is important to bear in mind that
materials, including paper, plastic, glass, copper, the largest copper mine in this country generates
lead, and aluminum; in 2012, the United States less than half of that amount of copper. This
recycled 69 million metric tons (Mt) of selected «urban mining» (anthropogenic stock) is impor-
metals, an amount equivalent to 59% of the appar- tant in producing recycled raw materials. Hence,
ent supply of those metals, and more than 91% of reinforcing the recycling of metals is a clear strat-
recycled metal was steel» (Papp 2014). Obviously, egy for a sustainable future (UNEP 2011).
42 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts
Cobalt +a + + +a
Indium + + + + + +
Lithium +a + + +a
Silver + + + + + +
Tantalum + + + +
Tellurium (+) +
Tungsten + (+) +
Gold + + + +
Beryllium + + +
Gallium + + + + +
Germanium + + + +
Palladium + + + +
Ruthenium + + +
aWithin batteries
1.11 Trade and Markets near the mine, and they are also subject to a sig-
nificant world trade. This is because of their high
International trade in metals and gemstones has mining and processing costs and geographically
been carried out from two or more millenniums restricted mineral deposits’ character. The high
ago or more, but intercontinental traffic in miner- value of these metals is commonly associated with
als and metals of all kinds increased quickly in the the rarity of their economic deposits, which
last two centuries. Nowadays, all minerals, metals, means that they can be transported over long dis-
and related products enter into the world trade, tances and still they can maintain their value.
and some of them are produced for local con- The commercial arrangements that govern
sumption while others are transported to markets minerals trade are the markets. A «market» is a
worldwide. In this sense, geology and economics hypothetical place where sellers and buyers of a
have constrained the location of the minerals and selected commodity meet to determine its price.
metals that can be economically mined, so many Mineral markets are material goods markets, and
of them need to be transported. many are regarded as world markets because of
Most transoceanic minerals trade accounts for the easy negotiability of the traded commodities.
relatively low-value bulk minerals (e.g., iron ore Markets may exist at several stages of production
. Fig. 1.27 or phosphate rock), since economic
and for several levels of quality. However, the
deposits are few and the minerals must be trans- market usually referred to is that of the standard
ported for further processing in the industrial trade quality for the mineral commodities most
countries. Metalliferous ores, such as copper, lead, important in world trade (Gocht et al. 1988). For
zinc, and nickel ores, are usually concentrated just instance, this is the case of Arab Light (34°API)
1.11 · Trade and Markets
43 1
.. Fig. 1.27 A merchant
vessel in Saldanha Bay
(South Africa) September
2015 to transport iron ore
from Kumba Iron Ore busi-
ness (Anglo American) to
Asian markets (Image cour-
tesy of Anglo American plc)
for crude oil, although the OPEC basket of crudes New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX),
daily price is made up to 12 crudes. The form of including COMEX, the division responsible for
market is defined by the extent of free competi- metals trading. Related to NYMEX and its activ-
tion and hence pricing (oligopoly, monopoly, and ity, the new entity was closely devoted mainly to
competition), the latter being usually a result of energy (oil, natural gas, coal, etc.), although some
peaceful adjustment. ferrous products are also traded. In both LME and
Regarding the competitive prices, mineral NYMEX, the prices for the commodities are
commodities, particularly metals, can be stan- established on a supply/demand basis on an open
dardized according to quality and quantity and market. At a regional level, the Asian Market
are thus negotiable on exchanges. Here, prices are offers price metals for base metals, minor metals,
subject to competitive supply and demand. The ferroalloys, rare earths, precious metals, scrap
major base metals and the precious metals are metals, carbon steel, stainless and special, steel
traded in open markets. Open market prices are raw materials, refractories, and industrial miner-
very important price indicators used by all the als. Also at a regional scale, APMEX includes a
parties concerned although most trade is through complete information about precious metals in
private contracts. Many bulk nonfuel minerals, the USA.
such as iron ore, coal, and potash, or metals such Regarding the relationship between stock
as titanium tungsten, and uranium, are almost markets and commodity prices, it has received
entirely set by private contracts between major substantial attention over the past decades. An
supplies and consumers. Since they are bulk com- investigation based on the commodity-stock
modities, transportation and shipping become an market nexus in gold and other metals, as well as
important aspect of the contract price. In these the relevant stock market indices and stocks
cases, although the prices are set by contract, a traded on the Toronto Stock Exchange for the
number of organizations (e.g., UX Consulting period 1982–2011, shows that there is no indica-
Company for uranium prices) publish contract tions that the market states detected for the indi-
prices, which provides a level of transparency to vidual stocks are related to those for the raw
the metal prices even though they are not traded material price (Ntantamis and Zhou 2015). The
on an open market (Stevens 2010). objective of the investigation was to assess
At present, there are two important metal whether commodity price fluctuations were
exchange in the world where competitive prices reflected in the stock prices of firms whose pri-
are fixed: The London Metal Exchange (LME) mary business is in extracting and trading the
(. Box 1.8: London Metal Exchange) and The
particular commodity.
44 Chapter 1 · Introduction and General Concepts
Box 1.8
1
London Metal Exchange in 1571. It was there that traders in beginning, but lead and zinc were
The London Metal Exchange is the metal and a range of other com- officially introduced in 1920, pri-
world center for industrial metals modities began to meet on a regu- mary aluminum was introduced in
trading. More than 80% of global lar basis. In the early nineteenth 1978, and was followed by nickel 1
nonferrous business is transacted century, there were so many com- year later. In 2008, the LME made
there, being the annual trading modity traders, ship characters, and a move into ferrous metals with
about USD$ 12 trillion. The prices financers using the Royal Exchange the introduction of two regional
on the London Metal Exchange are that it became impossible to do contracts for steel billet. In July
globally recognized and respected business and individual groups of 2010, these contracts merged into
by the industry. The Exchange pro- traders set up shops in the nearby a single global contract. The most
vides producers and consumers city coffee houses. At that moment, recent contract additions came in
of metal not only with a physical a merchant with metal to sell February 2010 with the launch of
market of last resort but also, would simply draw a circle on the two minor metals futures contracts
perhaps most importantly of all, dusty floor and call out «change» for cobalt and molybdenum.
with the ability to hedge against at which point all those wishing Currently, metals officially listed
the risk of rising and falling world to trade would assemble around in LME are nonferrous metals
metal prices. LME contracts trade the circle and make their bids. It (aluminum, copper, lead, nickel,
in US dollars although exchange was the origin of the so-called ring tin, and zinc), steel, and minor
rates for euro, GB sterling, and trading. In 1869, the opening of the metals (cobalt and molybdenum).
Japanese yen are also published. Suez Canal reduced the delivery The LME is also home to the LBMA
LME pricing has the following time of tin from Malaya to match Platinum and Palladium prices,
advantages: (a) unique price set by the 3-month delivery time for cop- which are discovered in a twice-
supply and demand, (b) transpar- per from Chile. This gave rise to daily auction. Each commodity
ent, (c) traded and tradable real- the LME’s unique system of daily information (e.g., copper) includes
time prices, (d) heavily regulated prompt dates for up to 3 months topics like stocks and prices, price
market, and (e) more accurate forward which still exists to this graph, historical data, average
hedging. Contrary to popular day. prices, production, and consump-
belief, gold and silver (precious As delivery tonnages grew to tion, among others. The date
metals) are not traded on the meet the increasing demands of structure is as follows: daily from
London Metal Exchange but in the industry, more and more mer- cash to 3 months; then weekly
London Bullion Market. chants were attracted to the metal from 3 months to 6 months (every
The origin of the LME can only be trading. New metals have been Wednesday); then monthly from
traced back as far as the opening introduced as demand dictated. 7 months (every third Wednesday);
of the Royal Exchange in London For instance, copper and tin have aluminum and copper contracts
been traded on the LME since the trade out to 10 years.
MINA DE REOCÍN
1856 –2003
Singer DA, Mosier DL (1981) A review of regional mineral Global Metal Flows to the International Resource
1 resource assessment methods. Econ Geol 76(5):
1006–1015
Panel. Reuter MA, Hudson C, van Schaik A, Heiskanen
K, Meskers C, Hagelüken C, 320 p
Speirs J, Houari Y, Gross R (2013) Comparison of material United Nations Secretariat (1979) The International
criticality studies – methodologies and results. UKERC/ Classification of Mineral Resources. Eco-nomic Report No.
WP/TPA/2013/002, Imperial College Centre for Energy 1. May 1979. Annex to: Natural Resources and Energy, vol
Policy and Technology (ICEPT), 30 p 4. No. 1, August 1979. Centre for Natural Resources, Energy
Stevens R (2010) Mineral exploration and mining essen- and Transport of the United Nations Secretarial, New York
tials. Pakawau Geomanagement Inc., Port Coquitlam, Wang Q, Deng J, Liu H, Yang L, Wan L, Zhang R (2010)
322 p Fractal models for ore reserve estimation. Ore Geol
Tercero L (2012) The role of emerging technologies in rap- Rev 37:2–14
idly changing demand for mineral raw materials. Wellington TA, Mason TE (2014) Effects of production and
Polinares Working Paper consumption on worldwide mineral supply. Resour
Turcotte DL (1986) A fractal approach to the relationship Policy 42:73–82
between ore grade and tonnage. Econ Geol 81: Wellmer FW, Becker-Platen JD (2007) Global nonfuel min-
1528–1532 eral resources and sustainability. Proceedings for a
Turcotte DL (1997) Fractals and chaos in geology and geo- Workshop on Deposit Modeling, Mineral Resource
physics. Cambridge University Press, New York, 398 p Assessment, and Sustainable Development. U.S.
UNEP (2011) Metal stocks & recycling rates. International Geological Survey Circular 1294, 16 p
Resource Panel, Working Group on the Global Metal Wolfe JA (1984) Mineral resources-a world review.
Flow. T.E. Graedel, Nairobi, 32 p Chapman and Hall, New York, 293 p
UNEP (2013) Metal recycling: opportunities, limits, infra-
structure. A Report of the Working Group on the
49 2
2.9 Questions – 117
References – 117
a ccording to the ore-forming processes and gen- (Turneaure 1955). The size of a metallogenic
esis. A combination of both classifications makes province can be as large as the Superior Province
it possible to describe in detail the overall charac- (Canadian Shield), and a metallogenic epoch can
teristics of mineral deposits. be as broad as the entire Proterozoic. A detailed
way to define metallogenic epoch and metallo-
genic province is «as those time intervals of Earth
2.2 Basic Vocabulary history and regions of Earth, respectively, which
contain a significantly greater number of deposits
There is basic vocabulary dealing with formation or larger tonnage of a specific deposit type than
of mineral deposits which is not used in other dis- would have resulted from average rates of min-
ciplines of mineral resources such as evaluation, eralization that have occurred over Phanerozoic
exploitation, or environmental impact. Some time» (Wilkinson and Kesler 2009). Another
terms are genetic, others are related to the geom- relevant term is metallotect, a geological, tec-
etry of the ore, and most of the following defini- tonic, lithological, or geochemical feature that is
tions are similar to those included in the Glossary believed to have played a role in the concentration
of Geology (Bates and Jackson 1987). Since metal- of one or more elements and hence is thought to
logeny is the synthesis of scientific endeavors to have contributed to the formation of ore deposits.
understand ore formation (Pohl 2011), expres- The use of genetic terms is also very varied.
sions such as metallogenic maps (. Fig. 2.2),
Thus, syngenetic denotes that ore or minerals
metallogenic provinces, and metallogenic epochs have formed at the same time as their host rock
are usually found in the literature related to min- (a rock serving as a host for a mineral or ore); it
eral deposits. A metallogenic province may be is commonly but not only used for sedimentary
defined as a mineralized area or region containing rocks. By contrast, epigenetic means that the ore
mineral deposits of a specific type or a group of or minerals have emplaced in pre-existing rocks
deposits that possess features (e.g., morphology, of any origin (e.g., veins). Both terms are essen-
style of mineralization, or composition) suggest- tial and commonly used in genetic descriptions
ing a genetic relationship; a metallogenic epoch of mineral deposits, although they have caused
is a geological time interval of pronounced for- intense controversies through time. Other used
mation of one or more kinds of mineral d eposits terms are hypogene and supergene. The former
52 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
Pb, Zn, Ag U
F, Ba, Sr Fe, Mn, Ti
Cu Sb (As, Ag, Hg, Au)
Au, Ag, As P
refers to ores formed by ascending solutions, deposit is limited to a determined part of the
whereas the latter deals with ore formation by stratigraphic column.
descending solutions, classically meteoric waters Many terms are used in relation to the shape
interacting with rocks during surficial weather- of a mineral deposit since it is very variable, from
ing. Endogenetic indicates concentrations caused concordant tabular and stratiform to discordant
by processes in the Earth’s interior (e.g., magma- veins and breccia bodies. Veins are sheetlike zone
tism), whereas exogenetic points to concentration of minerals that fill a fracture; they are formed
caused by processes in the Earth’s surface (e.g., from hydrothermal solutions and commonly
sedimentation). Stratiform and stratabound are composed of quartz and/or carbonates with
also essential terms in mineral deposits formed minor sulfide minerals. A breccia is a fragmented
by sedimentary processes. Thus, a stratiform rock in which the clasts are cemented together
deposit means a mineral deposit related to a con- by minerals; it is a good host for hydrothermal
crete stratigraphic bedding, while a stratabound mineral deposits. Other terms are disseminated
2.3 · Evolutionary Concepts About the Origin of Mineral Deposits
53 2
Mineral deposits can be named according to
different criteria. Sometimes the name of a place,
region, or city is used (e.g., Alpine type, Sudbury
type, Cyprus type, Mississippi Valley type).
Other times the deposits are known using their
acronyms (e.g., BIF means banded iron forma-
tion ores, MVT means Mississippi Valley-type
lead- zinc ores, or SEDEX means sedimentary
exhalative ore). In addition, the deposits may be
called according to the rock type, like pegmatite
(large crystals), porphyry copper (disseminated
stockwork linked to plutonic intrusives), and
skarn (calc-silicate rock). Finally, deposits can be
known by their shape, being the most representa-
tive example a type of uranium deposits, namely,
roll-front uranium deposit.
Box 2.1
Neptunism vs Plutonism
2 For the origin of mineral depos- to the Cenozoic; and (4) alluvial, not only to rocks but also to all
its, Abraham Gottlob Werner (superficial) deposits. The primitive mineral deposits. He delivered his
(1749–1817), father of neptunism formations would be found in the theory in two lectures to the Royal
(denominated after the Roman central parts of mountain ranges, Society of Edinburgh in the spring
God – Neptune – of the sea), dis- from which the water would have of 1785. Hutton claimed that ore
carded early theories about interior withdrawn first. Thus, the granites minerals were not soluble in water
source for the metals. Although were overlain by other layers of but were igneous injections, being
Werner was not the first to propose crystalline rock (metamorphic), thus one of the founders of plu-
water as origin of the rocks, he was followed by layers of sedimentary tonism (named after the classical
the most consequent supporter rock formed as a result of erosion mythology God – Pluto – of the
and divulgator of this theory. Wer- of the primitive crystalline rocks underworld).
ner was a careful mineralogist who and subsequent deposition. Rocks He recognized the signifi-
drew up an excellent system of clas- resulting from observed volcanic cance of the intergrowth texture
sification of minerals based on their eruptions were attributed to the between quartz and feldspar in a
properties. He became an insistent local action of «subterraneous sample of coarse-grained graphic
advocate of the theory that mineral fires. » In fact, geologists at that granite and concluded that granite
veins were formed by descending time had a clear understanding might have «risen in a fused condi-
percolating waters derived from of the formation of many mineral tion from subterranean regions»
the primeval universal ocean, from ores, especially gold, which is gen- and that the country rock should
which not only sediments but all erally formed by precipitation and therefore be broken, distorted, and
the igneous and metamorphic fluid-induced changes. Therefore, veined. Hutton also recognized the
rocks were precipitated. Because these processes are more similar importance of unconformities and
of his theory that what are known to ideas of neptunism than to pointed out that many igneous
today as igneous rocks originated plutonism. rocks clearly intruded surrounding
in the sea, Werner and his followers Opposite to Werner’s ideas, rocks and therefore were younger.
were called neptunists. James Hutton (1726–1797), a Because Hutton and his followers
According to Werner, by suc- prominent member of the Edin- held that igneous rocks came from
cessive sedimentation onto an burgh scientific community (the molten material within the Earth,
irregular terrestrial core, four types Royal Society of Edinburgh was at they were called plutonists, being
of formations were supposed to be that time one of the most active thus Hutton the founder of plu-
deposited: (1) primitive, crystalline scientific bodies in the world), tonism. The controversy between
rocks such as granite and gneiss; defined in his book entitled «The- plutonism and neptunism contin-
(2) transitional, limestones, slates, ory of the Earth» the true origin of ued into the nineteenth century,
and quartzites; (3) floetz, the magmatic and metamorphic rocks and eventually the plutonist views
layered rocks from the Permian and applied his magmatic theory on the origin of rocks prevailed.
whether they were products of mechanical or deposited. Simultaneously to this exotic theory,
chemical concentration and, if chemical, whether Bateman (1951) suggested that the formation of
they were deposited from surface waters, from mineral deposits is complex, and eight diverse
magmas, or inside rock bodies. processes can account for their formation: mag-
Other theories include extreme magmatic matic concentration, sublimation, contact meta-
views about the origin of mineral deposits. For morphism, hydrothermal action, sedimentation,
instance, many ore deposits have resulted from weathering, metamorphism, and hydrology.
the injection and rapid freezing of highly concen- The advent of plate tectonics (see next sec-
trated magmatic residues (Spurr 1923). A metal- tion) improved considerably the understanding
lurgical interpretation of the ore deposits was also of the lithotectonics of rocks and the ore occur-
proposed: during the former molten stage of the rences. Because mineral deposit systems require
Earth, the metallic minerals sank in deep zones a conjunction of processes to produce exceptional
due to their specific gravity, and they were later metal enrichment over background terrestrial
brought to the surface (Brown 1948). According concentrations that result in ore deposits, they
to this model, the upper layers first and the can form only under specific conditions in par-
lower layers later moved upward in the form of ticular tectonic environments. Thus, some min-
vapors, from which the metals and minerals were eral deposit types are diagnostic of given tectonic
2.4 · Mineral Deposits and Plate Tectonics
55 2
settings and can be used to define these settings 2.4 ineral Deposits and Plate
M
in combination with more conventional tectonic Tectonics
and petrogenetic evidence (Groves and Bierlein
2007). Taking in mind this view, a logical first- Plate tectonics is a theory of kinematic charac-
order grouping of mineral deposit types can be ter showing that the lithosphere is divided into
proposed in terms of geodynamic setting, and this a finite number of plates that migrate across the
is most conveniently seen in the context of plate surface of the Earth (. Box 2.2: Plate Tectonics). It
tectonics. As an example of modern theories on has revolutionized the theories about formation of
mineral deposit genesis, a classification based on mineral deposits since plate tectonics determine
the different geological processes that form min- the origin and distribution of many ore deposits.
eral deposits can be outlined (Kesler 1994). Thus, Thus, plate tectonics plays an essential role in the
ore-forming processes can be surface processes, detection of geological environments with differ-
including weathering, physical sedimentation, ent characteristics. Consequently, the classifica-
chemical sedimentation and organic sedimenta- tion of mineral deposits based on plate tectonics
tion, and subsurface processes, involving water is intensively used, particularly when discussing
or magmas. This broad expression of ore-forming the broad-scale distribution of ore deposits.
processes is the most used actually, and it will be Tectonic setting controls factors favorable
explained with more detail in 7 Sect. 2.6.
for the formation of mineral deposits such as the
Box 2.2
Plate Tectonics
The word tectonics derives from and related geophysical phenom- tal (. Fig. 2.4). The oceanic litho-
the Greek tektonikos, meaning ena to movement and interaction sphere has a 5–8 km-thick oceanic
«pertaining to building or con- of the rigid plates forming the crust (with a basaltic composition),
struction. » In geology, tectonics Earth’s crust. Thus, plate tectonics while the continental lithosphere
concerns the formation and struc- provides a unified mechanism has a 30–40 km-thick granitic-
ture of the Earth’s crust. From the explaining aspects such as the dioritic crust. The lithosphere is
late 1960s, the proposal of plate distribution of earthquakes and fragmented into pieces of variable
tectonics theory, supplanting the volcanoes, the origin of continents shape and size, the so-called plates,
geosynclinal concept of lithotec- and ocean basins, the distribu- and the edges of the plates are
tonic associations, clearly caused tion of fossil plants and animals, termed plate boundaries. The Earth
a revolution in understanding the or the genesis and destruction has seven major plates (Africa,
dynamic interaction of the Earth’s of mountain chains. Two major Antarctica, Australia, Eurasia, North
crust and mantle as well as geologi- premises of plate tectonics are: (a) America, South America, and Paci-
cal thinking. In fact, plate tectonics the outermost layer of the Earth, fica) and several minor ones (Adria,
is one of the most important dis- known as the lithosphere, behaves Arabia, the Caribbean, Nazca, the
coveries of the twentieth century. as a strong, rigid substance resting Philippines, and others). These
Earlier in this century, geologic par- on a weaker region in the mantle plates move independently relative
adigm was dominated by the belief known as the asthenosphere; and to one another, with a restricted
that ocean basins and continental (b) the lithosphere is broken into independence from the seven large
land masses were permanent and numerous segments or plates that plates, however. The average rates
fixed on the surface of the Earth. are in motion with respect to one of motion of the plates, in the past
The theory of plate tectonics another and are continually chang- as well as the present, range from
incorporates the ideas of continen- ing in shape and size. less than 1 to more than 15 cm per
tal drift and seafloor spreading in The Earth is composed of layers year.
a unified model. Wegener (1912) of different composition and physi- The motion of lithospheric
is usually considered the first to cal properties, principally the solid plates is a considerable conse-
have formulated the continental central core, the fluid peripheral quence of thermally driven mass
drift theory precisely, and seafloor core, the viscous mantle, and the movements on the Earth. Thus,
spreading hypothesis was pro- solid lithosph ere. The lithosphere plates move because of the intense
posed by Harry H. Hess in 1960. is comprised of the upper mantle heat in the Earth’s core, which
The theory of plate tectonics and the crust, the outer shell of causes molten rock in the mantle
attributes earthquakes, volcanoes, the Earth. There are two types of layer to move. However, the detailed
the mountain-building process, lithosphere: oceanic and continen- mechanism by which tectonic
56 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
Mid-oceanic ridge
Trench Ocean
2
Subduction
Continental Oceanic
lithosphere lithosphere
Cold
Convection
Upwelling
cell
Hot
Outer
core
Mantle
Inner
core
plates move is still a subject of much plates, such as the South American type of relative motion between
debate among Earth scientists Plate, consist of variable amounts the plates: divergent, convergent,
(convection cells vs slab pull). Plate of both oceanic and continental and transform. In a divergent
tectonics, the study of such relative lithosphere with a transition from boundary, two plates pull away or
motions and their consequences, one to the other along the margins separate from each other, produc-
allows relating surface, geological, of continents. The plates move ing new crust. Examples are Mid-
and geophysical structures with with respect to one another on the Atlantic Ridge and East Pacific Rise.
quantified movements attributed to ductile asthenosphere below. As In a convergent boundary, two
deep processes of the Earth. the plates move, they interact with plates move toward or collide with
Each lithospheric plate one another along their boundar- each other, consuming old crust.
consists of the upper roughly ies, producing the majority of Examples are India into Asia and
80–100 km of rigid mantle rock Earth’s earthquake and volcanic NW coast of the USA and SW coast
capped by either oceanic or conti- activity. Most plates contain both of South America. In the third
nental crust. Lithosphere capped oceanic and continental crust, and type of boundary (transform), two
by oceanic crust is often simply a few contain only oceanic crust. plates slide horizontally past each
called oceanic lithosphere, and Essentially, the continents are other. In this case, the process
lithosphere capped by continental lighter and more buoyant; hence, does not consume or create crust.
crust is referred to as continental they float higher on the Earth’s Examples are North Anatolian
lithosphere. Some plates, such as mantle than the ocean’s crust does. Fault (Turkey), Dead Sea Transform
the Pacific Plate, consist entirely The three basic kinds of plate Fault (Israel, Jordan), and San
of oceanic lithosphere, but most boundaries are defined by the Andreas Fault.
form and composition of igneous bodies, the for- also facilitates the interaction between fluid and
mation of sedimentary basins and the character- rock (Kyser 2007).
istics of sediments that infill the basins, and the The study of relationships between mineral
development of faults and shear zones that pro- deposits and plate tectonics has been particularly
vide conduits for mineralizing fluids or places for successful for many kinds of deposits (e.g., por-
ore location. Thus, it is not surprising that many phyry copper deposits, volcanic-hosted massive
authors have attempted to relate the distribution sulfide deposits, and much more) (. Fig. 2.5),
of mineral deposits to plate tectonics. Tectonics but others (e.g., Precambrian massive sulfide
not only controls the architecture of a basin but and Ni sulfide deposits) cannot yet be easily
2.4 · Mineral Deposits and Plate Tectonics
57 2
.. Fig. 2.5 Distribution of mineral deposits in relation to the main types of tectonic plate boundaries
assigned to specific plate tectonic processes. Initial hypotheses of the relationship between
Some plate tectonic settings, especially during distinct classes of ore deposits and their plate tec-
the Precambrian, are still highly controversial. It tonic locations were well established (e.g., Mitchell
is important to keep in mind the overall influ- and Garson 1981; Sawkins 1984). These accounted
ence of plate tectonics in each group of mineral for the distribution of some ore deposit types in
deposits. Since mineral deposits can be com- the Phanerozoic, but however there were limita-
monly separated into those originated by endog- tions (Kerrich et al. 2005): (1) at the time, genetic
enous processes and those formed by surficial hypotheses for many types of ore deposit were
ones, Sawkins (1984) proposed that: «the depos- based on syngenesis; (2) where consensus existed
its formed by endogenous processes are invari- on a syngenetic versus epigenetic origin, the age
ably associated with thermal processes and, in of mineralization was not well constrained; (3)
general, can be related more readily to magmatic epochs, or secular cycles, of metallogenic prov-
and tectonic events instigated by plate activ- inces were not accounted for; and (4) extrapola-
ity while deposits formed by surficial processes tion to the Precambrian met with uncertainties as
such as weathering or shallow marine sedimen- to tectonic processes during that era. Other classi-
tation will show relationships to their tectonic fications and descriptions include, for example, a
environment that are more tenuous.» Moreover, concise list of metallic and nonmetallic resources
since most mineral deposits are concentrated by for each era, including their geodynamic and geo-
subsurface chemical processes related to mag- logical settings (Windley 1995).
mas and hot waters as well as by near-surface During the period of plate tectonics revolu-
chemical and physical processes, such as erosion tion, other discoveries had a major impact on
and evaporation, these processes are much more theories of ore genesis such as the observable
common on the continental crust, and their natural concentration systems, actually active at
products are better preserved there because the or near the Earth’s surface. For instance, modern
continents are floating on the mantle. In con- seafloor prospection shows the great magnitude
trast, ocean crust sinks back into the mantle at of the manganese nodules outlined by the Chal-
subduction zones. Thus, the oldest known ocean lenger expedition. It demonstrates not only the
crust is only about 200 million years, whereas enormous potential resource of Cu, Co, Ni, and
the oldest rocks on the continents are about 4 other associated metals but also the potential of
billion years old (Kesler 1994). Consequently, cold seawater as a dilute-mineralizing fluid. The
the continental crust is the archive of Earth his- hot brine pools and underlying soft ferruginous
tory (Cawood et al. 2013). muds rich in Zn, Cu, and Ag in the Red Sea deeps
58 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
are also another example of this type of concen- formation emerged. Arndt and Ganino (2012)
tration systems. They were discovered in 1965 observed that through the twentieth century:
and show an exhalative deposit actually forming «many classifications were based on the types of
in a continental rift system. Finally, the discov- rocks hosting the ore deposits or on the geometry
ery of active «black smoker» hydrothermal vents of the deposit and its relation to the host rocks;
and massive sulfide deposits on the Mid-Atlantic thus, deposits in granites were distinguished from
Ridge (. Fig. 2.6) made a dramatic impact.
those in sedimentary rocks; vein- like deposits
were separated from layers conformable with the
stratification of the host rock; massive ores were
2.5 Criteria for the Classification distinguished from disseminated ores, and so on.»
of Mineral Deposits Criteria used to classify mineral deposits vary
widely. Since a perfect classification is utopic, a
Mineral deposits are found in so many different large number of items can be applied. A classifica-
forms, and under so many varying conditions, the tion accepted implies that it has been derived by
attempts of different writers to formulate a clas- systematic application of certain principles. It must
sification, founded upon a natural basis, have not be understandable for the user and must be open
been attended with much success (Park 1906). so that new mineral deposit types can be added
This assertion made more than a century ago is in the future. Geologists usually rank ore deposits
actually untruth since the knowledge of the min- according to the (a) commodity, (b) tectonic set-
eral deposit formation processes obviously has ting, (c) geological setting, (d) genetic model in
increased dramatically in a century, but it shows the genesis of the mineral deposit, and (e) other
how problematic it was to create a simple classifi- aspects (e.g., form of the deposit, temperature of
cation of mineral deposits. In many cases, the dif- mineral formation, etc.). For instance, Gabelman
ficulty to avoid the dispute between plutonist and (1976) shows up with different criteria to classify
neptunist was insurmountable. Prior to the twen- stratabound ore deposits such as major controlling
tieth century, models for the formation of mineral processes, direct emplacement mechanism, host
deposits were subject to the often polarized views lithology, chemical reactivity, source of metals
of either plutonist (all deep igneous origins) or and/or transporting fluids, direction of transport-
neptunist (all sedimentary origins) theories for ing fluids, and relative age of deposit and host.
the origin of rocks. It was really only in the twenti- The genetic classification schemes are the most
eth century that modern views of mineral deposit commonly used since they incorporate e lements
2.5 · Criteria for the Classification of Mineral Deposits
59 2
Parcial Diagenesis
Weathering erosion
melting metamorphism &
deformation
Mantle Crust
Residual and
supergene deposits
Meteoric,
Magmas
Ore marine, Placer
fluids connate deposits
Lavas waters
.. Fig. 2.7 Genetic classification scheme for ore deposits (McQueen 2005)
of composition, form, and association. This type categories tend to coincide with genetically derived
of classifications allows to develop predictive models; so even by using purely physically descrip-
models that can be used to search for geological tive classifications, there is often a close coincidence
environments in which appropriate ore-forming between these and models defined using genetic
processes have possibly operated (McQueen criteria (Herrington 2011).
2005). In this sense, some authors think that clas- The classification of mineral deposits based on
sifications by commodity are geologically useless; major Earth process systems is very easy. Rocks
thus, uranium deposits occur in sandstone and are classified universally as igneous, sedimentary,
in granites, their formation processes being radi- and metamorphic, which express the fundamental
cally different. However, knowledge of uranium processes active in the crust of the Earth. Likewise,
world production, regardless of their genesis, can since ores are rocks, they can often be associated
be essential for other purposes, such as mineral with each type of rock. Therefore, this character
supply, world trade, etc. Other authors underline (igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic) can rep-
that genesis is not a good classification criterion resent a good basis for classification as it reflects
because there is considerable controversy among the genetic process involved in ore formation. In
geologists as to the exact mode of formation of this sense, . Fig. 2.7 shows a genetic classification
many mineral deposits. for mineral deposits showing the major clusters of
A sound alternative is to classify deposits based ore-forming and modifying processes (McQueen
on empirical features such as type of minerals or 2005). The classification highlights the categories
host-rock associations, which will lead to the unique of ore-forming processes and the subsequent
fingerprint of a particular deposit (i.e., a descriptive overprinting that can suffer the deposits.
model). Even though no two mineral deposits are In summary, linking deposit types directly
identical, empirical descriptions of deposits tend to ore-forming processes and genesis is certainly
to show natural groupings into a small number of the preferred way to classify (e.g., Herrington
loosely definable categories or types. In turn, these (2011); . Table 2.1). It provides better criteria for
60 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
.. Table 2.1 Major classes of economically important mineral deposits (Herrington 2011)
Class Type/Subtype
2 Deposits in mafic
1 1.1 Layered chromite deposits
magmas
1.2 Podiform chromite deposits.
Magmatic diamond
2 Kimberlites and lamproites
deposits
Volcanic-hosted or
8 Mafic
volcanogenic massive
sulfide deposits Bimodal mafic
Pelitic mafic
Bimodal felsic
Siliciclastic felsic
Sediment-hosted
9 9.1
Sediment-hosted 9.1.1
Sedimentary exhalative Pb-Zn (Cu) in clastic
deposits sulfide deposits sediments (+Broken-Hill type deposits)
.. Table 2.1 (continued)
Class Type/Subtype
9.2
Sediment-hosted iron 9.2.1 Ironstones
and manganese
deposits Banded iron
9.2.2 9.2.2.1 Algoma BIF
formation (BIF)
9.2.2.2 Superior BIF
Sedimentary uranium
9.3 9.3.1 Unconformity vein type uranium
deposits
9.3.2 Sandstone-hosted uranium
Ores related to
10 10.1 Laterites 10.1.1 Bauxite
weathering
10.1.2 Nickel (cobalt) laterite
Supergene weather-
10.2 10.2.1 Secondary copper
ing
10.2.2 Secondary zinc
understanding the deposits with respect to asso- between both lists is the secondary importance of
ciated features such as its association with igne- metamorphism in the enumeration of substantial
ous rock suites, alteration patterns, etc. This will ore-forming process compared to its fundamental
lead to more efficient exploration models for their role in generating rocks. Another major differ-
discovery and evaluation. Nevertheless, descrip- ence is the essential function of hydrothermal
tive models are needed in practical terms to aid fluids (hot aqueous fluids) in the genesis of ore
engineers in the evaluation of particular deposits: deposits. The circulation of this kind of fluids in
choice of exploration tool, elements to analyze in the crust is usually cited as a factor that modifies
geochemical exploration, etc. (Herrington 2011). locally the composition and texture of previous
rocks. Ore-forming processes can be classified
into four main categories (Evans 1993): internal,
2.6 Ore-Forming Processes hydrothermal, metamorphic, and surficial pro-
cesses. The former three processes are related to
The list of captions in ore-forming processes is subsurface phenomena, while the last one covers
much larger than the list of geological processes those processes occurring at the Earth’s surface.
found in any geology text explaining the origin Hydrothermal should be further subdivided into
of rocks. Thus, some mineral deposits are formed magmatic, metamorphic, diagenetic, and surface
by magmatic processes, while other mineral to refine the nature of the hydrothermal process.
deposits are produced by sedimentation or sur- Therefore, the first approach to ore-forming pro-
face weathering. Probably, the main difference cesses can be outlined according to the next four
62 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
types described below: magmatic, metamorphic, are linked genetically to its cooling and solidifica-
sedimentary, and hydrothermal processes. tion pattern. It is recognized that different mineral
Whatever the ore-forming process, because of deposits are hosted in igneous rocks, and these
2 chemical and geological factors, some minerals/ deposits display different metal associations. This
metals tend to occur together in mineral depos- must be associated somehow to the environment
its, while others may be found associated with in which magmas are originated and the compo-
a particular rock type. Examples of the former sitional characteristics generated from specific
are galena with sphalerite, copper sulfides with settings. In this sense, it is broadly recognized that
molybdenite, gold with arsenopyrite or pyrite, most of the chalcophile and siderophile elements
and silver with galena. Regarding the association (e.g., Ni, Co, Pt, Au) more likely to be linked with
of mineralization/host rock, examples are lead- mafic rocks, while concentrations of most litho-
zinc in carbonates, copper or copper-lead-zinc phile elements (e.g., Sn, U, and W) are classically
with volcanic rocks, tin and tungsten with granite located in association with felsic or alkaline rocks
intrusions, chromite in large ultramafic intru- (Robb 2005). Essentially, this distribution was
sions, and uranium in sandstone and shales. understood because of the geochemical fate of
different metals during fractional crystallization
(solid-liquid fractionation) of silicate melt bodies
2.6.1 Magmatic Processes (Pohl 2011).
Where the magma enters the crust and crys-
In a broad sense, ore-forming processes related tallization starts, an immiscible sulfide liquid will
to the evolution of magmas emplaced at crustal divide from the silicate liquid if the concentra-
levels span a continuum. The two end members tion of sulfur exceeds the solubility. Experimental
of this continuum are (a) orthomagmatic pro- studies have shown that the solubility of sulfide
cesses, concentration of mineralization as a direct depends on external parameters, such as tem-
result of magmatic crystallization dominated by perature and pressure, and on the composition
silicate melt-crystal equilibria, and (b) (mag- of the melt. During fractional crystallization
matic) hydrothermal processes, concentration of of magma, the temperature drops, Fe content
ore minerals from magmatic hydrothermal fluids slightly changes, and Si content increases, which
by crystallization dominated by crystal-volatile lead sometimes to sulfide saturation and the
equilibria (Misra 2000). The second possibility is separation of sulfide liquid. Many parameters
considered here as totally controlled by the action influence these processes, including depth of
of hydrothermal fluids, and, accordingly, it will intrusion, tectonic activity, temperature gradi-
be included in the group of hydrothermal pro- ent in space and time, fractional crystallization,
cesses. A large and diverse group of ore deposits dynamics of the melt body, repeated injection of
originates by various processes during the forma- fresh melt, assimilation of country rocks, sulfur
tion, evolution, emplacement, and crystallization or external fluids, liquid immiscibility of ore and
of silicate melts (magmas) in the upper mantle silicate melts, and mixing or redissolution (Kerr
and in the Earth’s crust. Magmatic deposits may and Leitch 2005).
form as a result of (1) solid phases crystallizing Another mechanism to explain the formation
as a differentiate as the magma cools, (2) miner- of magmatic mineral deposits is the so-called
als crystallizing from the enriched residual fluids fractional crystallization (. Fig. 2.8). In this
formed as magma cools and crystallizes, (3) the model, dense minerals form a cooling magma
formation of a sulfide melt that developed by chamber and settle to the bottom producing a
immiscibility from a coexisting silicate melt, or sequence of layered rocks. The remaining liquid
(4) where a magma transports xenolithic or xeno- magma becomes saturated with sulfur, and sulfide
crystic phases that it has picked up on its passage minerals rich in some metals crystallize out of the
through the Earth’s crust (Herrington 2011). magma and settle to the bottom. For instance,
The processes of magmatic ore formation are these layered rocks formed by sulfides host PGE
related to intrinsic properties of the magmas and deposits.
2.6 · Ore-Forming Processes
63 2
.. Fig. 2.8 Illustration of
fractional crystallization
.. Fig. 2.9 Skarn tungsten mine at Los Santos (Salamanca, Spain) (Image courtesy of Daytal Resources Spain, S.L.)
and economically viable skarn deposits are asso- lead directly to the redistribution and accumula-
ciated with calcic exoskarns, a limestone (calcic) tion of specific minerals. Thus, these deposits are
being the host rock and the metasomatic assem- formed as a result of the differing physical and
blage external to the intruding pluton (exo – pre- chemical behavior of the minerals forming the
fix). Thus, tungsten skarns produce the bulk of the original rock, either hydraulic (water) or Aeolian
world production of tungsten (. Fig. 2.9) and are
(wind) being the physical processes. Examples of
typically associated with calco-alkaline intrusions these deposits are the already mentioned diamond
emplaced relatively deep in the crust. placer deposits (. Fig. 2.10) in river sediments
.. Fig. 2.10 Diamond placer deposit in river gravels (South Africa) (Image courtesy of Rockwell Diamonds Inc.)
of fallen trees. Bacteria can enhance dissolution and in the surface-crustal interface can lead to
of rocks and minerals containing metals, aid in residual upgrades or chemical dissolution and
metal transport, affect porosity and permeability reprecipitation mechanisms to concentrate the
of rocks, and cause the precipitation of biogenic metal/mineral of interest. Under these condi-
sulfur, sulfides, and carbonates. In particular, iron- tions, ore formation is driven by the circulation
reducing bacteria and sulfate-reducing bacteria of largely meteorically derived water at the Earth’s
may play important roles in low-temperature ore surface, although similar analogous processes
genesis. Thus, iron-reducing bacteria can cause can take place on the seafloor. These subsurface
reductive dissolution of Fe oxyhydroxides, such waters can dissolve and reprecipitate components
that it occurs in red beds, causing adsorbed and at favorable mineral sites or surface interfaces
coprecipitated metals to be released to solution. (Herrington 2011).
Organic compounds produced by bacterial deg- Supergene processes usually originate differ-
radation of a more complex organic matter could ent types of raw materials such as iron, manga-
enhance metal transport by formation of metal- nese, or aluminum ores. In supergene process,
organic complexes. Similarly, biogenic H2S could two basically different process types may lead
form stable aqueous metal- sulfide complexes to concentration: (1) the valued component is
leading to transport of certain metals such as Ag enriched in a residuum, while much of the rock
at low temperature (Kyle and Saunders 1996). mass is dissolved and carried away; an example
Weathering may also lead to residual concen- are laterite deposits, in which iron or aluminum
tration of weathering-resistant minerals of the is enriched in the clayey-sandy soils of the trop-
parent rock or of relatively insoluble elements ics and subtropics; and (2) the valued component
reconstituted into stable minerals (Misra 2000). is dissolved, transported, and concentrated on
In this regard, weathering is a very important reprecipitation; in this case, the transport distance
ore-forming process resulting in chemical change is commonly very short, meters to ten of meters
and redistribution of components in surface rocks (Pohl 2011). A special case of weathering would
by migrating solutions. The differential chemi- be the so-called supergene enrichment pro-
cal properties of minerals at the Earth’s surface cess, which involves the leaching of ore-forming
66 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
elements (e.g., copper) from surficial parts of chemical composition of the fluid such as where
a low-grade sulfide deposit and reprecipitation fluids react with a rock (Stevens 2010).
below the water table. The process involves the Hydrothermal processes can develop in
release of ore metals from unstable sulfide min- almost all geological environments. The applica-
erals to downward percolating meteoric water tion of new technologies in geosciences in the
and precipitation of more stable secondary oxide last 50 years (e.g., fluid inclusions, trace element
and sulfide mineral assemblages in the subsur- analysis, isotope geochemistry, among many oth-
face environment. These deposits are usually ers) has changed many of the geological concepts,
called «gossan» (. Fig. 2.11). In the nineteenth
including metallogenic thinking. For instance,
and twentieth centuries, gossans were important expelled fluids in sedimentary basins during
guides used by prospectors in their quest for bur- diagenesis can produce numerous metallic con-
ied ore deposits. centrations, excluding the participation of endog-
enous processes. In the past decades, many efforts
are carried out toward a better understanding of
2.6.4 Hydrothermal Processes the complexity of hydrothermal processes.
Although there are several natural processes
A big problem dealing with the word hydrother- that concentrate elements within the Earth’s crust
mal is its meaning. Hydrothermal means hot water, and form mineral deposits, the most important of
which is an extremely lax sense of the word because which is the hydrothermal process. Hydrothermal
hot water can range from 70 to 200 °C or even ore-forming processes are ubiquitous, and many
400 °C. The former temperature can be attained in mineral deposits on Earth have been originated
the sedimentary realm, during diagenesis, and the straightly from hot aqueous solutions flowing
others are characteristic temperatures of endog- through the crust. Direct evidence for the pres-
enous conditions. Hydrothermal fluids generally ence of hydrothermal fluids in the Earth’s crust
travel along temperature or pressure gradients, is surface manifestations such as hot springs and
from hot areas to cool areas or from high pressure fumaroles. In this sense: «the concept of hydro-
to low pressure. They migrate until they reach a thermal mineralization can be extended to depos-
suitable site for metal deposition. For this deposi- its related to fluids derived from sources other
tion, the following is necessary: a rapid decrease than magmatic solutions; such fluids include
in temperature such as where hot fluids exit at the those formed from metamorphic dehydration
seafloor, a rapid decrease in pressure such as where reactions, from the expulsion of pore fluids
fluids enter a fault cavity, and/or a change in the during compaction of sediment (the release of
2.6 · Ore-Forming Processes
67 2
.. Fig. 2.12 Yellowstone
(USA) hot springs
trapped water from sedimentary basins undergo- crust is being thinned. In the case of seafloor,
ing diagenetic change), and from meteoric waters; this phenomenon is common where a new ocean
it also considers seawater as a hydrothermal fluid is formed by the seafloor spreading through the
with specific reference to the formation of base formation of submarine volcanoes. On land, such
metal deposits on the ocean floor» (Robb 2005). hydrothermal fluids can be generated in zones
Magmatic hydrothermal fluids form as a body of crustal attenuation, often associated with sub-
of magma cools and then crystallizes. In some aerial volcanism. Surface manifestations of this
circumstances, the magmatic system can be a pas- process are the presence of hot springs on land
sive source of heat that drives the circulation of (. Fig. 2.12) or seafloor hydrothermal vents.
fluids exotic to the magma through adjacent frac- The various stages of diagenesis that result in
tured crust into which the magma is intruding. In the transformation from uncompacted particles
other situations, the magmas, particularly felsic of sediment to lithified sedimentary rock produce
magmas that form granitic rocks, include very sig- aqueous solutions that evolve with time and depth;
nificant amounts of miscible water, which is car- such type of fluids are often involved in the forma-
ried in the magma itself. As the magma cools and tion of ore deposits (Robb 2005). This process may
crystallizes, it becomes more concentrated and develop on a large scale in a sedimentary basin
eventually forms an immiscible fluid phase, which undergoing burial and lithification and is a related
in the process collects other components that pre- process to hydrocarbon generation. The released
fer to partition from a silicate melt into a hydrous water can pick up dissolved salts (becoming a
fluid phase. Williams-Jones et al. (2002) suggest brine; . Table 2.2), which then has a greater ability
that these metal-rich fluid phases can then migrate to transport many cations and ligands to a point of
away from the magma and interact with miner- deposition to form an ore deposit (Brimhall and
als and fluids in previously crystallized magma or Crerar 1987). In sedimentary basins, evaporite
outside rocks, which cause these to become altered beds may be a specific source of salts that can be
by chemical reaction and lead to precipitation of dissolved by the basinal water. Basins undergoing
new mineral phases, including the ore minerals. diagenesis become heated, and thus the basinal
Surface or seafloor hydrothermal fluids are brine may be a highly effective solvent for dissolv-
generated as deeply penetrating meteoric- or ing large quantities of metals. These basinal brines
seawater- derived waters descend and become can then migrate via crustal faults and permeable
heated deeper in the crust. This process is par- horizons to depositional environments.
ticularly apparent in regions where there is ele- Diagenetic process evolves to metamorphism
vated crustal heat flow, often where the Earth’s as rocks are gradually buried and temperatures
68 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
Fresh water 0–1000 <0.1% Energy commodities include mainly fossil energy
raw materials and uranium to produce nuclear
Brackish water 1000–10,000 <1%
energy. Coal was the first fossil energy raw mate-
Seawater 31,000–38,000 3.1–3.8% rial used by man at the beginning of the Industrial
Saline, or salty 10,000–100,000 <10%
Revolution, and this predominant role spanned
water until early in the twentieth century. Since then,
oil has displaced coal to a second rank (here the
Brine >100,000 >10%
terms oil and petroleum are used interchange-
ably, although some differences exist). In 2014,
the world’s primary energy supply was provided
overcome approximately 200 °C. Thus, meta- by 32.9% from oil, 23.7% natural gas, 23.8% coal,
morphic-hydrothermal fluids form as metamor- 6.8% hydroelectricity, 4.4% nuclear power, and
phism results in mineral-chemical processes 2.8 renewables (BP Statistical Review of World
that may release volatiles, often dominated by Energy 2016). Altogether they form the so-called
water but which may include gases such as CO2. primary energy. In the future, the Energy Outlook
Metamorphism is induced in rocks by external 2035 establishes that economic expansion in Asia
heat or pressure or by a combination of both. Heat will produce a continued growth in the world’s
may be provided by the deep burial of a rock mass demand for energy, rising by 37% from 2013 to
through time or alternatively by the intrusion of a 2035 or by an average of 1.4% a year.
magma body nearby. Pressure to cause metamor-
phism may be provided again during deep burial Petroleum
or else by tectonic processes. Petroleum (. Fig. 2.13) is derived from ancient
Box 2.3
Petroleum Formation
Petroleum (also known as crude oil toplankton died, they sank to the Increasing heat and pres-
or simply oil) is a fossil fuel that was bottom and accumulated in large sure cause the organic matter to
formed from the remains of ancient quantities in the oxygen-free sedi- change, first into kerogen, one of
marine organisms. Coal, natural ments. Over time, they were buried the products of anaerobic decom-
gas, and petroleum are all fossil deeper and subjected to a long position of organic matter (it is
fuels that formed under similar process of chemical conversion by found in various oil shales around
conditions. In fact, petroleum is bacterial decomposition followed the world) and then into liquid
frequently found in reservoirs along by the effects of high tempera- and gaseous hydrocarbons in a
with natural gas. In the past, natural tures. This caused the formation of process called catagenesis. Thus,
gas was either burned or allowed to liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons catagenesis comprises all pro-
escape into the atmosphere. Now, in the source rock (hydrocarbons cesses that act on rock matrix and
technology has been developed to are simply chemicals made up of organic matter after considerable
capture the natural gas and either hydrogen and carbon). Petroleum burial and that result in petroleum
reinject it into the well or compress source beds are fine-grained, clay- generation; higher pressure and
it into liquefied natural gas (LNG), rich siliciclastic rocks (mudstones, temperature are essential fac-
which is easily transportable and shales) or dark-colored carbonate tors of change. The main result
has versatile uses. rocks (limestones, marlstones), of catagenesis is the generation
Formation of naturally occur- which have generated and effec- of oil and wet gas while kerogen
ring raw petroleum takes millions tively expelled hydrocarbons. «matures. » At about 60 °C, oil
of years. Large amount of the Most of the economically useful begins to form in the source rock
organisms sourcing the petroleum petroleum deposits were depos- due to the thermogenic break-
remains settled to sea or lake bot- ited during the Phanerozoic. This down (cracking) of organic matter
tom, mixed with sediments and is thought to reflect the lower rate (kerogen). There is a temperature
buried under anoxic conditions. of organic carbon production and range in which oil forms. It is called
As the microscopic algae and phy- burial in the earlier eons. the «oil window» (often found in
70 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
the 60–120°C interval – approx. permeable rocks. Migration occurs pores, capillary entry pressures
2–4 km in depth). Below the vertically and laterally through are so high that they cannot be
minimum temperature, oil remains the fractures and faults until an overcome by the buoyancy of a
2 trapped in the form of kerogen, impermeable barrier is reached. high oil or gas column. The most
while above the maximum tem- Oil and gas migration takes thou- ideal and best sealing cap rocks
perature is converted to natural sands or millions of years and may are, however, evaporite strata like
gas through thermal cracking extend over tens of kilometers. anhydrite or rock salt. Such good-
(about 160°C). The gas produced Gravity forces the oil to move out quality cap rocks hold many of the
in this way is often separated from of the source rock and upward large petroleum accumulations in
the petroleum. If temperature toward the surface, looking for a the Middle East in place.
reaches high value (>250°C), the reservoir. Reservoir is a rock that If there is a suitable combina-
original biomass will be destroyed has the ability to store fluid such tion of source rock, reservoir rock,
and no gas or petroleum is formed. as sandstone where oil or gas can and cap rock and a trap in an area,
Typically lower temperatures dur- be between grains of sandstone. recoverable oil and gas deposits
ing petroleum formation will result Porous limestone is also a good may be discovered there. If there
in thicker, darker raw petroleum reservoir rock since many cavities is no cap rock, the oil and gas will
deposits, the most solid of which can be connected with each other. slowly continue to migrate toward
being a bitumen substance. Thus, reservoir rocks are porous the surface. In certain geological
After expulsion from the and always saturated with water, locations, as the oil migrated and
source rock (. Fig. 2.14), both
oil, and gas in various combina- came closer to the Earth’s surface,
oil and gas, lighter than water, tions. Petroleum reservoirs can microorganisms slowly consumed
migrate upward through perme- be found beneath the land or the the hydrocarbons, beginning with
able rocks (e.g., sandstones) or ocean floor. the lightest. The heavy oil and
fractures until they are stopped In addition, impermeable rock bitumen now being produced are
by a non-permeable layer of rock has to be present to stop petro- the remnants of that migration.
(e.g., shale). The production of leum escaping from reservoir rock. Heavy oil deposits (e.g., tar sands)
petroleum increases pressure Impermeable rock that forms a seal are the world’s largest known
within the rock because oils and over reservoir rocks is called cap liquid hydrocarbon resources and
gases are less dense than solids rock. Cap rocks of most petroleum comprise about 65% of all the
and, hence, take up more volume. fields are fine-grained, clay-rich liquid petroleum in the world. Very
The overpressure fractures the sediments like shales or mud- large deposits of tar sands occur
source bed, enabling migration stones. Due to their low perme- in northern Canada (Athabasca tar
of the gas and oil into adjacent abilities and very small-diameter sands) and eastern Venezuela.
Reservoir
Oil
Sandstone
mig
rati
on
Reservoir
Oi
lm
one
Sandst
ig
80°C
F
ra
tio
a
n
u
100°C
l
Source rock
t
120°C
H e a t 140°C
.. Fig. 2.14 Formation of petroleum reservoirs (Illustration courtesy of The Norwegian Petroleum Directorate)
2.7 · Mineral Resources Commodities
71 2
.. Fig. 2.15 Oil produc-
tion by region in million Asia Pacific 100
barrels daily (BP Statistical
Africa
Review of World Energy
2016) Middle East
90
Europe & Eurasia
S. & Cent. America
North America 80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
90 95 00 05 10 15 0
80
40
its point of use. Natural gas can be measured in oil sands, are a combination of bitumen, water,
cubic feet or, like other forms of energy, in Brit- clay, and sand, the bitumen being a heavy black
ish thermal units (Btu). The definition of a Btu viscous oil. Tar is a term for heavy and extra-heavy
is the following: 1 Btu is the quantity of natural oils (6–12°API) that are highly viscous and sulfur-
gas that will generate sufficient energy to heat 1 rich. It is the residuum of a degradation or nor-
pound of water by 1 degree at normal pressure. mal petroleum; degradation is essentially the loss
Regarding the production and reserves of natural of light hydrocarbons and an increase of N-S-O
gas, . Fig. 2.16 shows the reserves-to-production
compounds. Deposits of tar sands may be mined
ratios in 2015 by region. to obtain the oil-rich bitumen, which is later
2.7 · Mineral Resources Commodities
73 2
refined to produce oil. Because the bitumen in tar Bituminous Shales
sands cannot be pumped in its natural state, tar Oil shale or bituminous shale is a sedimentary
sand deposits are commonly mined using open- rock that contains up to 50% of organic matter.
pit mining. In other cases, the oil is extracted by In fact, it represents certainly an old petroleum
underground heating with additional upgrading. parent rock. Once extracted from the ground,
This process involves injecting steam into the the rock can either be used directly as fuel for
ground to melt the bitumen from the sands and a power plant or be processed to produce shale
pumping the bitumen up to the surface. oil and other chemicals and materials. With a
During many decades, the oil industry clearly few exceptions (e.g., fracking), these deposits are
ignored tar sands oil since the exploitation of this yet little exploited. Because environmental con-
energy source is much more expensive, difficult, siderations and other factors make extraction of
and, more important from an environmental view these raw materials relatively unattractive, the
point, dirty than conventional oil. Theoretically, strategical character of oil shales as a resource
much of the world’s oil reserves (e.g., 2 trillion of oil and gas depends on a number of criteria
barrels) are in tar sands form, although obvi- such as the ultimate destination of the raw mate-
ously it is not all mineable. The largest deposits rial, the basic cost of extraction and processing,
in the world of tar sands are found in Canada and the environmental costs, among many oth-
(Athabasca deposit) and Venezuela, although ers. The heating value of bituminous shale is low
various countries in the Middle East and Russia and similar, for example, to that of brown coal
have also important reserves. In this sense, only or average forest residues and less than half of
Canada has a large-scale commercial tar sands that of the average bituminous coal. This is dras-
industry. Exploitation of tar sands produces actu- tically changing with the introduction of frack-
ally a strong dispute in Canada, essentially for the ing or hydraulic fracture techniques (. Box 2.4:
Box 2.4
Hydraulic Fracturing
Natural gas produced from shale As the reserves of con- of factors, including technological
is often referred to as «unconven- ventional natural gas and oil advance, desire to decrease depen-
tional gas» by contrast to «conven- falling inexorably and could be dence from foreign energy, new
tional gas» produced from other nearly exhausted, the extrac- geopolitical realities, and high oil
kinds of rock usually sandstones tion of unconventional oil and prices, have made unconventional
or limestones. Conventional gas is gas trapped in shale appears gas and subsequently hydraulic
found in reservoirs in sandstone or to be an attractive alternative fracturing particularly attractive.
limestone where gas has migrated for several countries, especially Hydraulic fracturing is most
up from source rocks. In these the USA. Because shale is a fine- often performed in horizontally
rocks, organic matter becomes gas grained, sedimentary rock, the drilled wells (. Fig. 2.18). A typical
or oil through the action of heat gas and oil it contains do not horizontal well has an average lat-
and pressure over time. According easily flow and therefore must be eral extension of 1400 m (maximum
to the International Energy Agency released before it can be pumped of 3000 m). After a period of verti-
(IEA), the volume of unconven- from the ground. The technique cal drilling in order to reach shale
tional gas resources (including used to extract shale gas is called deposits (most of unconventional
shale gas, tight gas, and coalbed hydraulic fracturing or colloquially gas is trapped deep inside of shale
methane) is currently estimated at «fracking. » It consists of injecting formations at depths between 1500
340 trillion cubic meters, equiva- water, proppant (e.g., granules and 3000 m), a lateral extension of
lent to about 40% of global gas of sand), and chemicals at high up to 2000 m is drilled parallel to
resources. In this statistics, shale pressure into a shale or sandstone the rock layer containing the shale.
gas accounts for the biggest share formation. The buildup in pressure In the next step, fracking fluids are
of these resources. Thus, the emer- causes the formation to fracture, injected into the recently bored hole
gence of shale gas and shale oil has and the proppant fills the fractures in order to release the hydrocarbons
quickly changed the landscape of to keep them from resealing. This that are trapped; the fluid is injected
opportunities for energy provision allows the natural gas impounded under high pressure with the intent
and security in different regions of in the formation to rush into the of fracturing the soft shale. The rock
the world. well for extraction. A combination is hydraulically fractured multiple
74 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
.. Fig. 2.18 Hydraulic
fracking (Illustration
courtesy of National
2 Aeronautics and Space
Administration)
Groundwater
Water + additives
Natural gas
Water makes
cracks in the
Shale shale, and gas
escapes
times every 100 m along this hori- being produced typically less than These chemicals typically include
zontal extent. Occasionally, other 1 mm wide. The fracking fluid con- acids to «clean» the shale to
substances such as gels, foams, tains around 20 percent of sand, improve gas flow, biocides to
compressed gases, and even air are and this helps to open and keep prevent organisms from growing
injected. Chemical mixtures are usu- open the tiny cracks, allowing gas and clogging the shale fractures,
ally included in the injection, and to flow into the well. Fracturing corrosion and scale inhibitors to
their objectives are to increase the fluid consists of about 98–99.5% protect the integrity of the well,
permeability of the rock by dissolv- water and proppant. The rest gels or gums that add viscosity
ing various components. (0.5–2% by volume) is composed to the fluid and suspend the
Regarding the fracking fluid, of a blend of chemicals, often pro- proppant, and friction reducers
it can be injected at various pres- prietary, that enhance the fluid’s that enhance flow and improve
sures and reach up to 100 MPa properties. The concentration the ability of the fluid to infiltrate
(1000 bar) with flow rates of up varies depending on the geology and carry the proppant into small
to 265 liters/second, the cracks and other water characteristics. fractures in the shale.
.. Fig. 2.19 Transforma-
tion of the original plant
material to carbon and
types of coal according
their rank (Illustration cour- Time
tesy of Kentucky Geological
Survey)
Pressure
Heat
Peat
Lignite
(brown coal)
Sub-bituminous
Banded Bituminous
“black” Anthracite
coals
1.0 38.5
6.0
2.2 31.6
5.6
1.6
3.7 34.8
1995
Total 1031610 2005
Total 909064 2015
million tonnes
million tonnes Total 891531
24.3 million tonnes
32.7 27.5
28.0
32.3
30.2
.. Fig. 2.20 Distribution in percentage by region of coal-proved reserves in 1995, 2005, and 2015 (BP Statistical
Review of World Energy 2016)
76 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
.. Fig. 2.21 Fission
process
Fission product A
2
Fissile nucleus
Primary
neutron Secondaries
gamma &
neutrons
Uranium-235
Plutonium-239
Fission product B
Uranium is the raw material for nuclear power, because nuclear power plants need fuel with
a radioactive metal being present on the crust of U-235 enriched to a level of 3–5%, the material
the Earth. It is important to bear in mind that must be enriched to achieve this concentration.
nuclear power actually originates about 16% of Since enrichment process is produced in gas-
electricity of the world. Uranium can come from eous form, the «yellow cake» is turn to uranium
mining directly uranium-rich ore bodies or as hexafluoride gas (UF6). Enriched uranium (UF6)
a by-product from mining other minerals such cannot be directly used in reactors so that it must
as copper, phosphate, or gold. In this sense, the be converted into uranium oxide (UO2). Fuel
uranium concentration in the mineralization can pellets are formed by pressing UO2, which is
range from 0.03% up to 20%. The most impor- sintered (baked) at temperatures of over 1400 °C
tant uranium-rich ore producers in the world are to achieve high density and stability. The pellets
Kazakhstan, Canada, and Australia. There are are packed in long metal tubes to form fuel rods,
three methods to obtain uranium in the mine: which are grouped in «fuel assemblies» for intro-
classical open-pit and/or underground meth- duction into a reactor. As the spent fuel assem-
ods and in situ leaching. In the latter, uranium blies are very hot and radioactive, they must be
is leached directly from the ore. It is the leading removed from the reactor and are stored under
method to produce uranium today in a process water, which provides both cooling and radia-
called in situ leaching (ISL). The WNA (World tion shielding. After a few years, spent fuel can
Nuclear Association) reports that ISL mining be transferred to an interim storage facility. After
accounted for approximately 49% of world pro- 40 years in storage, the fuel’s radioactivity will be
duction in 2014. ISL processing implies that min- about a thousand times lower than where it was
ing solution is passed through the underground removed from the reactor. Some countries chemi-
ore body using several bores or wells. The ura- cally reprocess usable uranium and plutonium to
nium then is brought to the surface in a dissolved separate them from unusable waste.
state for further purification. After the chemical
treatment to separate uranium, the product is the
so-called yellow cake, which is a yellow powder 2.7.2 Metals
of uranium oxide (U3O8) where the uranium
concentration is reaching more than 80%. Despite some limitations such as their low specific
Natural uranium includes mainly two iso- strength or corrosion processes, metals are still one
topes: U-238 (99.3%) and U-235 (0.7%). The fis- of the most important components of our way of
sion process in the nuclear reactor is carried out life. This situation will continue in the future, thanks
2.7 · Mineral Resources Commodities
77 2
.. Fig. 2.22 Metallic
mercury from Almadén
(Spain)
to unique properties that make them irreplaceable. coke (also used as energy input to the process), and
According to Lu (2010): «metals possess much alternative reducing agents such as limestone and
higher fracture toughness than other materials: dolomite. The main application of this raw material
steels are the toughest known materials; secondly, is to produce steel, the toughest of all construction
the properties of metals are uniform in all direc- materials, which is an alloy made of low-carbon
tions (their strength is the same in tension and com- iron (steel production requires iron, steel scrap,
pression and it is usually predictable), being these and lime). Non-metallurgical uses of iron ore, such
features critically important for predicting fracture as chemical applications, pigments, and abrasives,
in engineering structures; third, most metals are consume a very small share of total iron ore produc-
more conductive than ceramics and polymers; and tion. Steel is obtained by blowing oxygen through
fourth, they have the best overall mechanical prop- molten iron, thereby reducing its carbon content
erties at temperatures up to a few hundred degrees; up to 2%. The properties of steel can be adapted
moreover, most metals are recyclable, making them by alloying it with other metals such as manganese,
more competitive for quantity applications». chromium, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, tungsten,
In order to separate the metals in groups, there and vanadium, the so-called steel metals.
is a general consensus that five clusters can be out- The most famous and used alloy steel is stain-
lined: (1) iron and steel metals; (2) base metals, less steel. Iron and the most common iron alloy,
copper, lead, zinc, and tin; (3) precious metals, steel, are relatively poor materials from a corrosion
gold, silver, and PGM; (4) light metals, aluminum viewpoint. In spite of this, there is a group of iron-
and magnesium; and (5) minor and specialty base alloys, the iron-chromium (Fe-Cr) alloys,
metals, this group is formed by numerous met- often with nickel (Ni) additions, known as stain-
als (e.g., mercury (. Fig. 2.22), antimony, arsenic,
less steels, which do not rust in seawater, which
bismuth, titanium, cobalt, tungsten, molybde- are resistant to concentrated acids, and which
num, and many others). do not scale at temperatures up to 1100 °C. The
combined effect of the alloying elements, heat
Iron and Steel Metals treatment and, to some extent, the impurities,
Iron ore is destined to the production of pig iron establishes the property profile of a certain steel
in the blast furnace. High iron concentration in type (Outokumpu 2013). Applications of stainless
ore, low content of SiO2 and alumina, and coarse steel include food handling/processing, medical
grain size are favorable properties. The basic mate- instruments, and structural/architectural uses,
rials for pig iron production are iron ore, coal and among many others (. Fig. 2.23).
78 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
.. Fig. 2.23 Santander (Spain) Sport Hall; the external cover is made with stainless steel
Base Metals
Base metals such as copper and zinc are widely
used in communication and information technol-
ogy. Copper and its alloys exhibit many desirable
properties. It is ductile, malleable, hard, tough,
strong, wear, and corrosion resistant. It also has
high-tensile strength, fatigue strength, and thermal
and electrical conductivity. The production of cop-
per is mainly utilized by the wire and cable markets,
taking advantage of properties such as the electri-
cal conductivity, corrosion resistance, and thermal
conductivity. Excellent malleability, ductility, and
resistance against atmospheric attack distinguish .. Fig. 2.24 Nickel briquettes (Image courtesy of Sherritt
International Corporation)
copper metal and its alloys (e.g., tin or zinc); copper
shows also strong antibacterial properties. Other
applications include structural and aesthetic uses. important properties of tin-based alloys are their
With regard to zinc and lead, there are few ore high resistance to corrosion, low-fatigue strength,
deposits that contain only lead or zinc, and most and compressive strength. For its part, nickel, also
mines produced both metals. Zinc is used predom- a base metal, is hard and ductile (. Fig. 2.24), and
inantly in galvanizing and alloys. Steel coated with the main application is in steel alloys.
zinc (galvanized steel) exhibits high levels of corro-
sion resistance. This application is responsible for Precious Metals
around 50% of total demand. Zinc-based alloys are Apart from copper, gold is one of the earliest met-
also used in die casting, ranging from automotive als intentionally looked for by humans. Gold was
components to toys and models. Lead is a heavy always a metal valued for wealth, adornment,
metal, soft, and malleable. Lead is commonly uti- and strong currency. There is little difference
lized in alloyed form, which increases its low-tensile today, and only 10% are consumed by industry
strength. When added to metal alloy, lead improves (e.g., electronics and dental applications). For
their machinability. Regarding tin, it is a soft, the future, an increasing role of nano-sized gold
weak, malleable, and ductile metal and has many particles as catalysts in chemical production, in
important uses as an alloy. It can be alloyed with pollution control, and in medical applications is
lead and with copper to produce bronze. The most predicted (Pohl 2011). In respect of silver, it is
2.7 · Mineral Resources Commodities
79 2
obtained mainly as a by-product from copper, Minor and Specialty Metals
lead, zinc, and gold ores. In fact, the economic via- The term minor metals encompasses a vast array
bility of many base metal and gold deposits relies of metals, including tungsten, titanium, cobalt,
on by-product silver. The use of silver is basically and molybdenum, to name just a few. These met-
in industrial applications, but nearly 40% is con- als are crucial to the global economy, and many
sumed in jewelry, coins, and silverware. of them are by-products of the major exchange
The platinum group metals (PGM) are used metals. Only the precious metals are more valu-
in several industrial applications as well as in jew- able than many of the minor and specialty metals.
elry. The six chemical elements normally referred Minor metals show relatively low annual produc-
to as the platinum group elements (PGE) are tion volume, compared to base metals, and they
ruthenium (Ru), rhodium (Rh), palladium (Pd), have commonly high-technology applications.
osmium (Os), iridium (Ir), and platinum (Pt). Uses include filaments in lightbulbs, electronic
Platinum and palladium are actually the most pastes, components in mobile phones and tab-
commercially important of the PGM with largest let Pc’s, agriculture, and flat panel screens as
utilization in the automotive industry where they well as alloying agents in specialist steels for the
are applied to decrease harmful emissions from automotive and aerospace sectors, among many
vehicle systems (Gunn 2014). Rhodium is the others; as technology progresses, new applica-
third more important PGM. It is also used in auto- tions are found which will create new supply and
catalysts, although its consumption is an order of demand patterns, as demonstrated by the growth
magnitude less than platinum and palladium. in renewables technology (Minor Metals Trade
Association – MMTA).
Light Metals Nowadays, one of the most important groups
Aluminum is the most important of the non- of these metals is rare earth elements (REE)
iron metals, and it is commonly produced from because their chemical properties make them
bauxite, which is a loose soil or a hard rock with indispensable and non-replaceable in many
30–65% Al2O3. About 95% of bauxite produced high-technology applications. For this reason,
is processed into aluminum metal. The remain- REE consumption is growing due to their daily
ing 5% serves as an industrial raw material for contribution to our lives in products like hybrid
numerous special products such as abrasives, cars, catalytic converters, wind power generators,
Portland cement, technical ceramics, glass, chem- household appliances, industrial motors, MRI
icals, paints, and refractories. Favorable attributes machines, iPods and computer hard drives, and
of aluminum metal such as lightweight, strength, green energy technology.
and excellent corrosion resistance (Lu 2010) allow
its use in many applications from building air
frames to food packaging. 2.7.3 Industrial Minerals
The other light metal is magnesium. Very
diverse raw materials, natural and industrial The use of the term «industrial minerals and
brines, and seawater are used for the production rocks» is very common in the literature (e.g.,
of magnesium and magnesium compounds. For Kuzvart 1984; Carr and Herz 1989; Jeffrey 2006),
instance, harvesting salts on the shores of the Great and it cover both types of raw materials. In this
Salt Lake is a source of magnesium. Applications section, industrial minerals are described sepa-
of the extremely light magnesium metal (density rately from industrial rocks because the char-
1.74 g/cm3) employ the pure metal or aluminum acteristics of the materials and applications are
alloys. Magnesium-aluminum alloys are mainly wholly different. The economically usable min-
consumed for beverage container making. About erals automatically classify themselves into four
40% of magnesium is used for die casting in the broad groups based on the stages of processing
car industry in order to reduce weight and fuel required for conversion to finally usable products
consumption. Other sectors include the space, air- (Chatterjee 2009): (1) those that are mainly used
craft, and chemical industry. Magnesium is mainly directly in consumer product industries, (2) those
utilized as magnesium oxide in applications such that are not used without first extracting metals
as refractory material (e.g., furnace linings for the from them, (3) those that are used in both ways
production of iron and steel), glass, and cement. but mainly valued for their metal content, and (4)
80 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
those that are used in both ways, but their direct Valley-type lead-zinc deposits or quartz, feldspar,
uses are of importance and their metal values and mica from pegmatites. Most industrial min-
are of minor significance. It has become a con- erals and rock commodities also have multiple
2 vention to refer to the first and fourth groups as uses. For instance, a pure limestone deposit could
«industrial minerals» (earlier called «nonmetallic supply material for lime, aggregate, and cement
minerals»), while the second and third groups are production, in granular form for flue gas desul-
considered as «metallic minerals. » furization, and in a range of powders for fillers,
Industrial minerals are valuable economic raw soil stabilization, and agricultural uses. Each of
materials that are not used in the production of these applications can command very different
metals or energy. Compared with metals and other prices per ton, so evaluating the overall value of
nonmetallic resources, they are mainly processed the deposit is difficult and involves assessing for
by physical methods. Both definitions, however, multiple quality requirements and variable prod-
are not without exceptions, and some attribu- uct splits. In many cases, the evaluation process
tions to the group are rather by tradition (Pohl for an industrial mineral resource is considerably
2011). Typical examples of industrial minerals are more technically complex than that for metal
talc (. Fig. 2.25), mica, and fluorite. Several ore
deposits (Jeffrey 2006).
minerals such as chromite, bauxite, and rutile also Globalization is an important economic driver
have industrial applications, but the bulk of pro- in the industrial mineral sector. Large interna-
duction feeds metallurgy. Because of multiple and tional corporations (e.g., Sibelco in Belgium) have
even changing uses and a wide genetic variety, the formed by consolidation and acquisition of smaller
most common classification of industrial miner- companies. In some cases, this process has led to
als is based in the alphabetical order. Occasionally, one or two corporations having dominant con-
final applications of the industrial minerals are trol over individual mineral commodities such as
used as a basis for their classification. borates, nepheline syenite, garnet, and talc. As the
Although the industrial mineral deposits are technical demands on specific minerals increase
generally exploited for single minerals, a signifi- or supplies are restricted, companies explore the
cant number are worked together as by-products possibilities of making synthetic mineral prod-
such as fluorite and barite from Mississippi ucts. This is especially true for gemstones, but
other mineral products, but all affect the demand chemical minerals (phosphate, salt, and sulfur),
for primary industrial minerals from new or exist- and (7) mixed-application physical and chemical
ing deposits. More often, a shortage of suitable minerals (olivine, chromite, fluorspar, gypsum,
mineral supplies, or the possibility of cost savings, and limestone).
leads to substitution by function. Other minerals Regarding the trade value of industrial miner-
that can perform the same role in a product are als, most of them are essentially high-volume, low-
then used instead. The increased use of fine-ground value commodities, while metals are the opposite,
or precipitated calcium carbonate at the expense of mainly precious metals. Beyond the difference in
kaolin in paper coating is a good example. scale of value between the two groups of commod-
As a tool to assist in teaching about industrial ities, a key issue is the fact that industrial minerals
minerals, a classification that defined seven groups do not have markets whose prices are set by an
of commodities based on the relative importance exchange system (e.g., London Metal Exchange in
of physical and chemical applications or a combi- metals). Some attempts have been made by vari-
nation of the two can be established (Smith 1999). ous organizations in recent years, especially with
.. Fig. 2.26 Clay (bentonite) quarry from Milos (Greece) (Image courtesy of José Pedro Calvo)
82 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
the advent of the Internet and e-commerce. For the basic structure, industrial minerals are also
the reasons outlined here, it is unlikely that any present in all parts of the building as a constituent
kind of industrial mineral pricing exchange will or during their manufacturing. For instance, all
2 be created in the foreseeable future. ceramic compounds of a house (e.g., tiles, tubing,
etc.) include industrial minerals. Even the wallpa-
Industrial Mineral Applications per, paints, and carpet lining contain important
The industries in which industrial minerals are amounts of industrial minerals.
utilized are cover paint, electronic, metal cast- Detergents such as the powder ones utilized for
ing, paper, plastic, glass, ceramic, detergent, laundry and dishwashers include a «bleaching sys-
pharmaceutical and cosmetic, environmental tem. » Two systems are currently in use: perborate
engineering, and construction (IMA Europe). For and percarbonate. Both rely on industrial miner-
instance, glass in buildings is manufactured with als, borates, or calcium carbonate, respectively,
industrial minerals, mainly silica. The following which are chemically processed up to the required
descriptions are a brief resume of the application properties. Detergents are a major consumer of
of industrial minerals in these sectors. silica, which makes a whole family of detergents
The glazes that cover ceramics are largely based on sodium silicate. Other industrial miner-
composed of minerals, mainly borates, silicates, als (e.g., bentonite and sepiolite) are also used in
and metallic pigments. Ceramics and refractory detergent applications because of their adsorption
articles are indispensable in buildings: pipes, tiles, properties. In this sense, sepiolite is the main com-
and refractory bricks are all 100% industrial min- ponent in making cat litter (. Fig. 2.27).
erals. Even if some ceramics are being replaced The nervous system of a computer is made
by resins, these also contain important amounts of silicon, this component being extracted from
of industrial minerals. Technological develop- silica sand or massive quartz rocks. This quartz
ments in the ceramic sector represent an area in crystals also pace actually the functioning of most
which industrial minerals are at the forefront of of clocks. After extraction, the silicon is delivered
progress. For instance, ceramic tiles protect space to the electronic manufacturers in the form of
shuttles in order to support the high temperatures «wafers» a few centimeters wide.
of the Earth’s atmosphere. Industrial minerals are crucial in water man-
Industrial minerals such as clays, sand, feld- agement, whether considering drinking water
spar, kaolin, and other minerals are basic to all preparation or wastewater treatment. Thus,
construction materials, from bricks to tiles and silica sands are used as filters, perlite, zeolites,
from cement to limes and plastics. Apart from or talc as flocculants or adsorbents, bentonite as
and glass wool are also members of this group. Papermaking Additives).
Box 2.5
Papermaking Additives
Papermaking starts with the papermaking, minerals are used especially useful in paper casting
production of the most important either as fillers or as a coating on and will appeal to papermakers
raw material: wood. The pulping paper. Some minerals, like talc, and model makers alike. Calcium
process then converts the wood are also used in pitch control carbonate provides an alkaline
into the most appropriate type (absorption of wood resins that reserve in paper which promotes
of pulp. Pulping of wood can be tend to obstruct the machines). acid-free archival qualities, being
done in two ways: mechanically or The use of minerals in paper also used as filler and in coating. It
chemically. In the case of mechani- production increases the speed retards shrinkage in paper castings
cal pulp, the wood is processed of the machine performance and and makes a smoother surface. In
into fiber form by grinding it fluidity. The final characteristics paper sheets, it improves opacity
against a quickly rotating stone of the paper (strength, whiteness, and whiteness. Talc gives paper a
under addition of water. In chemi- gloss, ink retention, etc.) are largely greasy or soapy feel and enables
cal pulp, the pure fiber has to be determined by the blend of miner- it to take a high finish. Kaolin
set free, the wood chips being als used. High-quality, glossy paper is one of the most used filler.
cooked in a chemical solution. The is obtained by applying a thin layer Lime is used in alkaline pulping
next step is pulp bleaching. It is a of industrial minerals on the sur- process. Magnesite is a common
complex process consisting of sev- face of the paper. As for fillers, the component of cigarette paper as
eral chemical process steps with final characteristics of the coating filler, being also considered as an
washing taking place between the and its fitness for use are governed excellent ingredient for harmless
various chemical treatments. The by the nature of the mineral blend. smoking; hydromagnesite and
paper machine then converts the The list of minerals used huntite are used to control the
pulp into a thin base paper, which, as additives in papermaking is burning rate of cigarette papers.
at the end of the production pro- impressive. Soda ash dissolves out Sodium silicate is utilized in waste
cess, is coated to give it a superb the noncellulose parts without paper deinking for wetting, ink dis-
flat surface and bright shade. weakening the finished paper. persion, and peroxide stabilization.
Coating a paper enhances its Titanium dioxide is a strong white Finally, many pigments and dyes
optical and tactile characteristics pigment which makes paper used in papermaking come from
(whiteness and shade, gloss, and whiter and more opaque, acting industrial minerals such as iron
smoothness), but it also improves as a filler and giving a smoother oxide, titanium oxide, zinc com-
its printing behavior, allowing the surface to the paper. The filling pounds (e.g., zinc sulfide or zinc
use of very fine screens, yielding effect is much stronger than with oxide), lead compounds, cadmium
more color in thinner ink layers, calcium carbonate, but it does not sulfide, etc. A type of mixture con-
and producing more contrast in have the ability to neutralize paper taining coprecipitates of titanium
printed images. acids. Titanium dioxide is also used and mica (or other minerals) is
In all the previous processes, to tint-colored pulps. China clay is used to make a pearlescent, which
many types of additives (fillers, a fine white powder, also known as is transparent and highly light
binders, and many others) are opal gamma kaolin, which is used refractive, imparting to the ink film
used to improve the efficiency to make paper more opaque and the luster characteristic of mother-
and quality of the final product. In smooth and reduce shrinkage. It is of-pearl.
84 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
examples are roads or railways: the construction become a marble. Other example is basalt, which
of 1 km of motorway consumes up to 25,000 tons is defined as granite in natural stone industry,
of aggregates, and the construction of 1 m of rail- although the former is a volcanic rock and the lat-
way for a high-speed train (TGV) uses up to 10 ter a plutonic one.
tons of aggregates. Drainage, dams, and breakwa- Ornamental rock blocks are exploited in
ters (. Fig. 2.28) are a few more of other impor-
quarries. Currently, the most common method
tant construction items involving aggregate. to extract the blocks is by using diamond wire.
Specifications for the most important applica- Diamond wires are cutting tools for rocks (marble,
tions of aggregates such as concrete and ballast granite, or slates). The wires are composed of a
are closely regulated and subject to industrial stainless steel cable over which are assembled dia-
standards (e.g., ASTM in the USA, EN in Europe, mond-sintered pearls, 10–12 mm in diameter and
ISO worldwide) and concern petrographical com- spaced 25 mm along the wire. The utilization of
position, geometrical properties such as particle this slabbing technology has expanded all over the
size and grain shape, mechanical and physical world due to its advantages facing other techniques
properties (e.g., resistance to wear or resistance such as explosives or thermal lance. After extrac-
to fragmentation), thermal and weathering prop- tion in quarries, the blocks are manufactured using
erties (e.g., boiling test for Sonnenbrand basalt), different techniques, which depend on the size of
and chemical properties (e.g., determination of the products and the type of rock. Marble or gran-
acid-soluble chloride salts). ite is commonly polished to perform products for
interior paving. Granite is also processed to obtain
Ornamental Rocks flamed granite, most used in pavements.
For centuries, natural stone has been used by
nearly all civilizations, being applied mainly in arbonate Rocks for Cement
C
architecture. Ornamental rocks are the main eco- and Lime
nomic component of the natural stone industry. Carbonate rocks are extremely important raw
The market is shaped by three rock types: granites materials for industry, construction, agriculture,
(. Fig. 2.29), marbles, and shales (. Fig. 2.30),
forestry, and environmental engineering. The
although they do not always represent the same most representative application of these rocks is in
typology of geological rock. Thus, limestone is a cement and lime industry. Cement is a fine powder
marble in natural stone industry, although obvi- that sets after a few hours when mixed with water.
ously the limestones need a metamorphism to It then hardens in a few days into a solid and strong
86 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
.. Fig. 2.29 Granite quarry for ornamental rock at Cadalso de los Vidrios (Spain) (Image courtesy of Marcelino Martínez)
.. Fig. 2.30 Underground shale quarry for ornamental rock (roofing) (León, Spain)
material. The so-called Portland cement is the most of mainly calcium, silicon, aluminum, and iron
classical type of cement although there are many (. Box 2.6: Manufacture of Cement). The main use
types of common cement. This product is manu- of cement is to make concrete, the most important
factured in a controlled chemical combination construction material in the last century.
2.7 · Mineral Resources Commodities
87 2
Box 2.6
Manufacture of Cement
Cement is a fine gray powder that, facture Portland cement is through ore, and much more. These are
when reacted with water, hardens the so-called dry method. The raw called correctors because they
to form a rigid chemical mineral material for cement manufacture must define the final proportions
structure that gives concrete its is a rock mixture of about 80% of all oxides. The clay and lime-
high strengths. The credit for its limestone (which is rich in CaCO3) stone and correctors are then fed
discovery is given to the Romans, and 20% clay or shale (a source of together into a mill where the rock
who mixed lime (CaCO3) with SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3). Lime and is ground until the material is less
volcanic ash, producing a cement silica provide the main strength of than 100–200 μm in diameter.
mortar that was used during the cement, while iron reduces the In the third step of manu-
construction of such impressive reaction temperature and gives the facturing, the fine-grained raw
structures as the Colosseum. When cement its characteristic gray color. materials are then dried, heated,
the Roman Empire fell, information Raw material preparation and fed into a rotating kiln
on how to make cement was lost includes a variety of blending (. Fig. 2.31). Here the raw materi-
and not rediscovered until many and sizing operations that are als react at very high temperatures
centuries later. Roman cement was designed to provide a feed with to form 3CaO•SiO2 (tricalcium
not improved upon until 1758, appropriate chemical and physical silicate), 2CaO•SiO2 (dicalcium
when Smeaton noticed that using properties. Thus, quarried clay and silicate), 3CaO•Al2O3 (tricalcium
a limestone that was 20–25% clay limestone are crushed separately, aluminate), and 4CaO•Al2O3•Fe2O3
and heating the mixture resulted and samples of both rocks are (tetracalcium aluminoferrite).
in a cement that could harden then sent off to the laboratory Minor compounds such as MgO,
under water. for mineral analysis. If neces- TiO2, Mn2O3, K2O, P2O5, and Na2O
Portland cement (the most sary, minerals are then added to are also present in clinker. The
common type of cement in com- either the clay or the limestone to cement kiln heats all the raw
mon use today) is manufactured in ensure that the correct amounts materials to about 1500 °C in huge
a four-step process: (a) quarrying, of aluminum, iron, etc. are present. cylindrical steel rotary kilns (60 m
(b) raw material preparation, (c) Since the four basic oxides must long). The materials are continu-
clinkering, and (d) cement milling be present in exact proportions ously and slowly moved to the
and mixing. The name Portland (calcium oxide, 65%; silicon oxide, lower end by rotation of the kiln. A
was given owing to the resem- 20%; alumina oxide, 10%; and iron burner is located at one end of the
blance of this hardened cement oxide, 5%), limestone and clay are kiln, and the ground raw materials
paste to the natural stone available mixed together with many other are introduced at the other end.
at a place called Portland in Eng- raw materials such as slate, marl, As the material moves through the
land. Most common way to manu- blast furnace slag, silica sand, iron kiln, some elements are driven off
.. Fig. 2.31 Rotating kiln to manufacture cement (Image courtesy of Grupo Cementos Portland Valderrivas)
88 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
in the form of gases. The remain- forms of calcium sulfate (as setting production process, the cement
ing elements are joined to form a retardant) and other materials. It industry is capable of coprocessing
new substance called clinker and is essential to note that cement (a) alternative fuels, which have
2 formed by gray balls. They are manufacture is an energy-intensive significant calorific value (e.g.,
discharged red-hot from the lower process. waste oils); (b) alternative raw
end of the kiln and commonly are One of the most significant materials, the mineral components
brought down to handling temper- challenges facing the industry of which mean they are suitable
ature in various types of coolers. into the twenty-first century is for the production of clinker or
The final step includes clinker a requirement to reduce CO2 cement (e.g., contaminated soil);
milling and mixing with other emissions. CO2 is produced dur- and (c) materials that have both a
components to obtain the so- ing the calcination phase of the calorific value and provide mineral
called Portland cement. Thus, after manufacturing process and also components (e.g., paper sludge,
the clinker is cooled, cement plants as a result of burning fossil fuels. used tires). Without coprocessing,
grind it in large ball mills to obtain Opportunity to reduce emissions the wastes and by-products that
a very fine powder (e.g., 20 μm). through increased energy effi- make up these materials would
Finally, it is then mixed with ciency is only possible on the latter have to be incinerated or landfilled
small amount of either gypsum of the CO2 emissions. In this sense, with corresponding greenhouse
or anhydrite, both of which are due to the characteristics of the gas emissions.
Regarding the other main product obtained components of the construction industries, and
from carbonate rocks, lime is a term specifically they are primarily utilized as building materi-
used to refer high-quality products such as quick- als. These include two big groups: (a) bricks
lime (CaO) and calcium hydroxide, also known and roof tiles and (b) ceramic tiles. Clay for
as hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2). The raw material for bricks and roof tiles is used in a wide range of
all this type of products is limestone, commonly buildings from housing to factories as well as
formed by almost exclusively calcium carbon- in the construction of tunnels, bridges, etc. In
ate (CaCO3). Limestone is processed to form brick- and roof tile-making terms, clay includes
lime, being heated in a specially designed kiln to a range of naturally occurring raw materials. In
over 900 °C. In this process, called calcination, manufacturing process, clay must possess some
a chemical reaction occurs and creates calcium specific properties and characteristics. It usually
oxide. The applications of lime are huge, but those shows the most important property to obtain
in environmental engineering are the most widely these products: plasticity. This property permits
consumed (e.g., soil conditioning or to neutralize clay to be shaped and molded when mixed with
the acidic effluents). water.
All types of clays used for bricks and roof tiles
Clays for Bricks and Tiles contain some percentage of silica and alumina
Clay rocks are cohesive unconsolidated or indu- sand, silt, and clay with varying amount of metal-
rated clastic sedimentary rocks where size frac- lic oxides. Metallic oxides act as fluxes promot-
tion lower than 0.002 mm is dominant. They vary ing fusion of the particles at lower temperatures
considerably in physical properties, color, and (950 °C). In geological terms, the key in the man-
mineralogical content. Clay rocks mainly consist ufacturing process is the mineral content of the
of clay minerals such as kaolinite, illite, mont- raw material. Due to variances in the age of the
morillonite, chlorite, and mixed-layer clay min- deposits, depositional conditions, and impurities
erals. Besides clay minerals, clay and claystone involved, there are variations between different
contain fine-grained clastic silicates (quartz, clay types even in the same deposit. These varia-
mica, and feldspar), biogenic matter (carbonate tions may affect the brickmaking process and the
microfossils, kerogen, and coaly particles), and properties of the finished product.
diagenetic minerals (marcasite, pyrite, carbon- Regarding the second group, ceramic (wall and
ate, and phosphate). These clays are mainly used floor) tiles (. Fig. 2.32), they are made from clay
for the production of bricks, roof tiles, ceramic and other inorganic raw materials that are ground
tiles, and other fired and sintered products. and/or mixed and then molded before drying and
Ceramic materials are one of the most i mportant firing at sufficiently high temperatures (1400 °C)
2.8 · Genetic Classification of Mineral Deposits
89 2
.. Fig. 2.32 Glazed ceramic tiles (Image courtesy of José Pedro Calvo)
to acquire the necessary stable properties. The 2.8.1 Magmatic Ore Deposits
raw materials that make up the ceramic tile are
essentially clays, feldspars, sand, carbonates, and A magmatic ore deposit is formed by an accumu-
kaolin. From a glazed point of view, ceramic tiles lation of magmatic minerals. Some of them are
can be unglazed or glazed. The former is fired extremely rare and almost never encountered in
only once, whereas glazed tiles include a vitrified common rocks (e.g., alloys of the platinum met-
coating between the firing. The manufacturing of als). However, other minerals such as magnetite
glaze and frit is a complex process involving many are common. A very large and diverse group of
different raw materials, such as carbonates, sili- ore deposits originates by magmatic processes.
cates, borates, and many others. According to Ardnt and Ganino (2012), many
magmatic ore deposits are hosted by granites, but
the ore results from precipitation of ore minerals
2.8 Genetic Classification from aqueous fluids and not from the granitic
of Mineral Deposits magma itself. The type of ore mineral in mag-
matic deposits is directly linked to the composi-
According to the main ore-forming processes, a tion of the host rock. For instance, deposits of
simple genetic classification of mineral deposits nickel, chromium, and platinum group elements
encompasses four main groups: (1) magmatic, (2) are founded in mafic-ultramafic hosts. By con-
hydrothermal, (3) sedimentary, and (4) metamor- trast, felsic rocks generate ores from the elements
phic/metamorphosed. The following is a descrip- confined that concentrate in evolved magmatic
tion of the main classes included in these groups. liquids. Some of these elements are present in
However, it is not obviously an exhaustive over- late-crystallizing phases such as ilmenite, which
view of all types of mineral deposits existing in contains Ti and cassiterite; the ore of Sn and oth-
the Earth’s crust. ers enter the water-rich fluid that separates from
90 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
«Currently, these deposits are estimated to account (Zimbabwe). The Bushveld Complex contains
for approximately 7% of the total value of annual the main type examples of ore deposits in a large
global metal and mineral mining and they include layered intrusion. Important podiform chromite
the world’s greatest concentration of metals: the deposits are located in Kazakhstan, Turkey, the
Bushveld Complex, which has an estimated total Philippines, New Caledonia, and Russia. Known
metal endowment value, representing past pro- resources of alluvial and eluvial placer deposits
duction and current reserves and resources, of US derived by erosion of such rocks are low in grade
$3.6 trillion» (Peck y Huminicki 2016). and of very minor importance (Misra 2000). The
The description of magmatic deposits can major stratiform chromite deposits also contain
be carried out according to the host rock asso- important contents of platinum, palladium, rho-
ciation or related to the commodity. The latter is dium, osmium, iridium, and ruthenium.
easier and allows to summarize the main groups Regarding the genesis of the deposits, little con-
of deposits present in the Earth’s crust from a sensus has been reached about the magma chamber
magmatic viewpoint. On this basis, four types of processes responsible for chromite segregation and
magmatic ore deposits can be defined: (1) chro- crystallization although extensive studies have been
mite deposits, (2) nickel (copper) sulfide deposits, carried out. In general, the most widely accepted
(3) platinum group element (PGE) deposits, and explanation involves the mixing of primitive and
(4) diamond deposits. Since the four types can fractionated magmas. Thus, the commonly cited
be considered as orthomagmatic deposits, a fifth hypotheses include: «(1) mixing of a parent magma
type related to granitic pegmatites can be added. with a more primitive magma during magma
.. Fig. 2.33 Stratiform
chromite at South Africa
(Image courtesy of Roland
Oberhänsli)
2.8 · Genetic Classification of Mineral Deposits
91 2
chamber recharge; and (2) contamination of the and to mostly small- to medium-sized dykes and
parent magma by localized assimilation of country sills, as opposed to the generally much larger
rock at the roof of the magma chamber; the mixing layered mafic-ultramafic intrusive complexes that
of magmas would produce a partially differenti- typically host sulfide-poor PGE-enriched depos-
ated magma, which could then be forced into the its such as Stillwater Complex in Montana (USA).
chromite stability field and result in the massive Nickel sulfide deposits can be classified into two
chromitite layers found in stratiform complexes» principal classes based on the petrology of the
(Schulte et al. 2012). In this sense, chromitite is a host rocks: peridotite-dunite class (komatiitic
term used for massive chromite containing 50% to association) and gabbroid class (tholeiitic associa-
more than 95% of cumulus chromite. tion) (. Fig. 2.34).
The sequences of massive chromitite layers According to Schulz et al. (2014): «sulfide
(>90% chromite) or seams of disseminated chro- deposits containing nickel and copper with or
mite (>60% chromite) are commonly found in the without (±) platinum-group elements (PGE)
lower ultramafic parts of the layered intrusions. account for approximately 60% of the world’s
These intrusions were emplaced in stable cratonic nickel production and they form where mantle-
settings or during rift-related events throughout derived, sulfur-undersaturated picrite or tho-
the Archean or early Proterozoic, although a few leiitic basalt magma becomes sulfide-saturated,
younger deposits exist. The intrusions extend any- commonly following interaction with continental
where from 2 to 180 km in diameter and can reach crustal rocks; sulfur saturation results in forma-
thicknesses of as much as 15 km. As a rule, the indi- tion of an immiscible sulfide liquid, which tends
vidual seams included in the intrusions range from to segregate into physical depressions in the lower
less than 1 cm to 5–8 m thick. The mineral occurs parts of dike- and/or sill-like intrusions because
in layers that reach a meter or more in thickness of changes in the magma flow dynamics; such
alternating with layers composed of other mag- dynamic systems appear to promote the inter-
matic minerals (Arndt and Ganino 2012). In some action of sulfide liquid with a sufficiently large
cases, the chromite deposit is not economic due to amount of silicate magma to concentrate chal-
the low grade of the mineralization or the low ton- cophile elements to economic levels». The ore
nage of chromite available for mining. metals nickel, copper, and the PGE are all chal-
Podiform chromite deposits, another impor- cophile and show a tendency to partition more or
tant source for chromite, are small magmatic less strongly into the sulfide. Nickel is lithophile
chromite mineralization originated in the ultra- as well as chalcophile, and in normal ultramafic
mafic part of an ophiolite complex in the oce- rocks, it is distributed between olivine and sulfide.
anic crust. Most podiform chromite deposits are Copper is moderately chalcophile, but the PGEs
located in dunite or peridotite close to the contact are enormously chalcophile. This means that any
of the cumulate and tectonite zones in ophiolites droplet of sulfide will extract most of the copper
(Mosier et al. 2012). Accordingly, chromite that and nickel and effectively all of the PGE from the
occurs in podiform deposits has a geotectonic surrounding silicate liquid. In this sense, if the sul-
environment distinctly different from the model fide droplets can then be concentrated effectively,
in stratiform chromite deposits. In podiform for instance, by gravitational processes, then an
deposits, chromite shows different textures such ore deposit is formed (Arndt and Ganino 2012).
as massive aggregates and banded, nodular, net, Deposits of magmatic Ni-Cu sulfides occur
or graded layers, which indicate relict cumulate with mafic and/or ultramafic bodies emplaced
features. Nodular texture is probably the most in diverse geological settings. They generally are
important feature to distinguish podiform chro- found in penetrating faults, which permit the effi-
mite deposits from stratiform deposits. cient transport of magma undersaturated in sulfur
from the mantle to relatively shallow crustal depths.
Nickel (Copper) Deposits For this explanation, sulfur-bearing crustal rocks
These deposits are referred as magmatic sulfide- such as black shales, evaporites, or paragneisses
rich Ni-Cu ± PGE deposits related to mafic and/ are near to many deposits and a potential source of
or ultramafic dyke-sill complexes. The name of the sulfur. These deposits range in age from Archean
deposits emphasizes the relation of these Ni-Cu to Cenozoic, but the largest number of deposits
sulfide-rich deposits to mafic and ultramafic rocks are Archean and Paleoproterozoic. Although the
92 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
.. Fig. 2.34 Aguablanca mine (Spain), a gabbroid class sulfide-rich nickel-copper deposit (Image courtesy of Lundin
Mining Corporation)
deposits occur in most continents, the biggest ones and between 0.2% and 2% of copper. Tonnages
are located in Russia, China, Australia, Canada, and of individual deposits range from a few tens of
Southern Africa. The major Ni-Cu sulfide mineral- thousands to tens of millions of tons bulk ore.
ogy typically consists of an intergrowth of pyrrho- Two giant Ni-Cu districts, with ≥10 Mt nickel,
tite, pentlandite, and chalcopyrite. In most cases, dominate world nickel sulfide resources and
the massive and matrix ore is zoned, with copper- production. These are the Sudbury district in
rich zones relatively enriched in gold, palladium, Ontario (Canada) where sulfide ore deposits are
and platinum. Those zones, as footwall dykes and at the lower margins of a meteorite impact-gen-
veins, either overlie or are separated from Cu-poor erated igneous complex and contain 19.8 Mt of
zones relatively enriched in osmium, iridium, nickel and the Noril’sk-Talnakh district in Siberia
ruthenium, and rhodium. The compositional (Russia) where the ore deposits are in subvolcanic
zonation is attributed to fractionation of mono- mafic intrusions and contain 23.1 Mt of nickel.
sulfide solid solution from a sulfide liquid. Cobalt, Three other Ni-Cu sulfide deposits in the world
PGE, and gold are extracted from most magmatic are also important: Voisey’s Bay in Newfoundland,
Ni-Cu ores as by-products, although such elements Kambalda in Australia, and Jinchuan in China.
can have a significant impact on the economics
in some deposits, the Noril’sk-Talnakh deposits PGE Deposits
being a good example, which produce much of the The concentration of PGE in terrestrial envi-
world’s palladium; in addition, these deposits may ronments ranges from sub-ppb level in rocks of
contain between 1 and 15% magnetite associated felsic and intermediate composition to generally
with the sulfides (Schulz et al. 2014). 1–100 ppb in mafic and ultramafic rocks. Eco-
The sulfide-rich Ni-Cu ± PGE deposits con- nomic deposits typically contain 5–10 ppm PGE
tain ore grades of between 0.5% and 3% of nickel and involve concentration factors in the order of
2.8 · Genetic Classification of Mineral Deposits
93 2
1000, similar to those for gold deposits. Anoma- is a group of thick chromite reefs that, in addi-
lous concentrations of PGE are known from tion to high PGE concentration, are also extracted
high-temperature magmatic to low-temperature for their chromium contents (Arndt and Ganino
hydrothermal and sedimentary environments, 2012). There is no consensus regarding the origin
but significant concentrations of PGE are virtually of these types of PGE deposits: one line of think-
restricted to ultramafic rocks. Two types of depos- ing argues that these deposits formed through
its, both intimately associated with Ni-Cu sulfides, magmatic processes, whereas the opposing view
account for about 98% of the world’s identified ascribes an important role to the migration of
PGE resources: (a) stratabound deposits in large, volatile-rich fluids. Arndt and Ganino (2012) also
layered complexes (e.g., Bushveld, Stillwater, and said that: «in the first case, a plume of primitive
Great Dyke) mined primarily for PGE and (b) magmatic liquid was injected into the base of the
Ni-Cu sulfide deposits mined primarily for Ni-Cu chamber and then mixed with evolved liquid to
sulfides, but containing recoverable amounts produce a hybrid magma that became saturated
of PGE as by-products (e.g., Sudbury, Noril’sk- in sulfide. The other view propose that volatile-
Talnakh, Jinchuan, and Karnbalda deposits) rich fluids migrated up through the cumulus pile,
(Misra 2000). The large layered intrusions contain leaching out the PGE from the cumulus minerals
about 90% of the world’s PGE resources, with the then redepositing them at favorable horizons.»
Bushveld Complex accounting for about 80%.
In general, the deposits generally occur as Diamond Deposits
sparsely dispersed sulfide minerals in basal units Diamonds form under extreme high pressures and
or stratabound layers or reefs in very large- to temperatures at depths greater than 150 km below
medium-sized, typically layered mafic and/or the surface, predominantly though not exclu-
ultramafic intrusions. In the Bushveld Complex, sively, in the Earth’s lithospheric upper mantle.
there are in the lower part important deposits of They are transported into the crust either rapidly
the platinum group elements mainly at two specific in explosively emplaced volatile-rich kimberlite,
horizons. The upper layer is the Merensky Reef, a lamproite, or related magmas or more slowly by
thin (1–10 m) layer of pegmatoid pyroxenite. The tectonic processes in rocks that have undergone
second principal mineralized layer, termed UG2, ultrahigh-pressure metamorphism (. Fig. 2.35).
Archaean
crust
50
Lithosphere Peridotitic Eclogite
diamond block Eclogitic
diamond
Approx.depth (km)
150
te
hi d
r ap on
200 G am
Di
Asthenosphere
Diamond ore deposits are confined to a minority the measurement of weight in diamonds (1 carat
of the volcanic sources and to secondary depos- equals 0.2 g). The value of the diamonds can be
its derived from them (Gurney et al. 2010). Since very variable depending on its size, shape, color,
2 diamonds only form beneath old, stable, and thick and quality. Large, equidimensional, colorless, and
parts of the Earth’s crust, this greatly restricts the clear diamonds without defects are most highly
global distribution of primary deposits. valued. Therefore, the common measure used to
Although diamond deposits are often very low assess the economic potential of a deposit is a com-
grade, the value of the individual diamonds makes bination of the grade of the deposit (carats per ton)
the overall deposit highly valuable. Thus, diamond and the dollar value per carat of the diamonds in
deposits represent some of the highest value mines the deposit (Stevens 2010). Diamond in kimberlite
globally. Grade values in diamond deposits com- is probably the best-known type of magmatic min-
monly range from 0.25 to 1.5 carats/t, carat being eral deposit (. Box 2.7: Diamond in Kimberlite).
Box 2.7
Diamond in Kimberlite
Diamond is one of the most mond producer in the world for 50 carry significant quantities of
sought-after gemstones on Earth. the next 90 years. diamonds. Of these, many are
They are formed mainly in the A variety of mantle-derived considered subeconomic either
Earth’s lithosphere where pressure igneous rocks comprise the primary because the quantity or quality of
conditions are appropriate for car- sources of diamond, with the princi- the diamonds or the quantity of
bon to crystallize as diamond, and pal hosts being kimberlite and lam- ore is insufficient. The presence and
they are brought to the surface, proite. Kimberlite is a special type quality of diamonds in a kimberlite
mostly through the eruption of of ultramafic magma and derived can only be determined with
alkaline igneous rocks. Following from the Earth’s mantle at more confidence by the collection and
the discovery of diamonds in river than 140 km depth. Lamproite, a processing of a large and represen-
deposits in central South Africa rock type similar to kimberlite, can tative sample.
in the mid-nineteenth century, it also contain commercial diamond The typical diamond deposit is
was at Kimberley where the vol- deposits. All kimberlite-hosted pipe- or carrot-shaped with a cir-
canic origin of diamonds was first diamond mines which exist in the cular surface diameter of 50–500 m
recognized. These volcanic rocks, world, like in south-central and and a depth extent of several
that were named «kimberlite,» Southern Africa, western Africa, hundred to one thousand meters
were to become the cornerstone Canada, China, Russia, and the USA, or more. The distribution of the
of the economic and industrial are located in Archean continental diamond xenocrysts is variable in
development of Southern Africa. blocks. They are virtually restricted the whole host rocks, and the con-
Thus, the name of the rock comes to ancient (>2.4 Ga) cratons and centration has a level of less than
from the town of Kimberley in the younger (>1.0 Ga) accreted 0.01–2.0 ppm. Strictly speaking,
South Africa, where the discovery belts of cratonized regions that are diamonds in kimberlites are not
of a diamond called «the Star of underlain by cratons (the ages of truly magmatic. Kimberlite magma
South Africa» in 1869 spawned a kimberlites range from Proterozoic is merely a vehicle that transports
diamond rush and creating the to Tertiary). Diamonds in economic the diamonds rapidly to the sur-
Big Hole (. Fig. 2.36). It is claimed
deposits are estimated to be mainly face under conditions that prevent
to be the largest hole excavated (99%) derived from subcontinental them from reverting to graphite,
by hand. Early mining of the kim- lithospheric mantle (Gurney et al. their unattractive low-pressure
berlites around Kimberley was a 2010). In both kimberlites and polymorph. Diamonds remain hid-
chaotic business with many claim lamproites, diamonds range in den, unless they are picked up by
holders digging small individual size from microcrystals smaller «younger» kimberlites, lamproites,
claims of 10 by 10 m. Later, as than 50 microns to macrocrystals or other magmatic rocks origi-
mining reached deeper levels occasionally over l cm in size. It is nated either within or below the
and became more difficult, claims important to remember that most mantle source region and intrud-
were consolidated into numer- kimberlites and lamproites contain ing fast enough for the diamonds
ous companies. In 1888 De Beers no diamonds. In fact, diamonds are to survive transport to the surface
Consolidated Mining Company a very minor xenocryst component or near-surface emplacement site.
was created, and this company (<5 ppm) in even the richest ore Probably, kimberlites move to the
consolidated all mining opera- bodies. Of the approximately 1000 surface through the mantle at
tions under the one company, individual kimberlite intrusions velocities of 10–30 km/h by crack
thereby creating the leading dia- known in South Africa, only about propagation processes.
2.8 · Genetic Classification of Mineral Deposits
95 2
.. Fig. 2.36 Kimberley mine in South Africa (The Big Hole) (Image courtesy of De Beers)
The famous diamond deposits at India and k imberlites of Africa (Angola, Botswana, Leso-
Borneo were the only diamond producers until tho, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Swaziland,
the eighteenth century. Some big and famous dia- Tanzania); the diamond deposits in Australia
monds such as Koh-i-Noor or the Great Mogul (Western Australia); and the kimberlite pipes in
Diamond were obtained from these countries. Canada (NWT). Secondary diamond deposits
Several decades ago, almost all diamond mines such as placer deposits are formed from these
were located in Southern Africa, but large and primary source kimberlite rocks by weathering
important deposits have been found and mined and transportation. The resulting deposits are
in Russia, Australia, and Canada. Examples of commonly very rich in high-quality diamonds.
these deposits are the Mir pipe in Yakutia (Rus- Examples include those of the Ural Mountains,
sia), perhaps the most diamond-bearing kim- the marine deposits of Namibia, and the alluvial
berlite pipe in the world, which contains only deposits of West Africa, Brazil, and Venezuela.
one part of diamond per every one and half mil- These deposits have supplied about 90% of the
lion parts of kimberlite; the d iamond-bearing world’s diamond output.
96 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
in pegmatites. In these rocks, metals like lithium, Th, REE, Mo, Bi, Sn, and W; the industrial min-
beryllium, boron, tin, niobium, thallium, and the erals muscovite, feldspar, kaolin, quartz, spodu-
rare earth elements are mined. Pegmatites are mene, fluorite, and gemstones; as well as rare
formed by the crystallization of melts expelled mineral specimens (emerald, topaz, tourmaline,
from granitic magmas. Pegmatitic rocks are very ruby, etc.) (Linnen et al. 2012), the complex-type
coarse-grained basement rocks abundant in pegmatites of the lithium-cesium-thallium (LCT)
quartz, feldspar, and/or mica, in places endowed family being an important class of rare-element
either with megacrystals of the aforementioned pegmatites. The NYF pegmatites are a different
rock-forming minerals or rare-element minerals. family of pegmatites and are enriched in niobium,
«Apart from the size of their crystals, it is the var- yttrium, and fluoride. Their current economic
ied spectrum of rare elements and the significant importance is much less than that of the LCT
number of extraordinary minerals resultant from family, but these pegmatites could be a source in
these elements, which renders these crystalline the future for rare earth elements and other stra-
rocks so different from granitic rocks» (Dill 2015). tegic metals.
Most pegmatites show a paragenesis of ortho- Pegmatites of the LCT family were emplaced
clase, microcline, albite, mica, quartz, and com- in orogenic hinterlands intruding metasedimen-
mon minor minerals including topaz, tourmaline, tary rocks, typically at low-pressure amphibolite
cassiterite, beryl, and lithium. Granite pegmatites to upper greenschist facies, the largest deposits
occur in the form of dikes, oval, and lenticular being Archean in age. Giant deposits of these
bodies, being homogeneous (without a change pegmatites include Tanco in Canada (2.1 Mt at
of mineralogy or texture from wall to wall) and 0.215% Ta2O5), Greenbushes in Australia (70.4
isotropic or strikingly inhomogeneous and aniso- Mt at 2.6% Li2O), and Bikita in Zimbabwe (12 Mt
tropic (zoned or complex pegmatites). Most peg- at 1.4% Li2O) (Bradley and McCauley 2013). On
matite bodies are relatively small with a thickness the other hand, NYF pegmatites are also some-
that rarely surpass tens of meters and a length times REE-enriched pegmatites. Traditionally,
of a few hundred meters (Pohl 2011), but with the vast majority of this kind of pegmatites has
increasing industrial request for high-technology been exploited for their major mineral con-
metals such as lithium and the rare earth elements tent: feldspar, quartz, and muscovite. Studies of
(Arndt and Ganino 2012). REE- enriched granitic pegmatites as a whole
2.8 · Genetic Classification of Mineral Deposits
97 2
lag severely behind those of LCT pegmatites in source of molybdenum, gold, and silver. Despite
terms of classification, numbers and detail of field relatively low grades, PCDs have significant eco-
descriptions, and mineral compositional data nomic impact due to their large size (commonly
(Ercit 2005). hundreds of millions to billions of metric tons),
long mine lives (decades), and high production
rates (billions of kilograms of copper per year).
2.8.2 Hydrothermal Ore Deposits With incrementing molybdenum/copper ratio,
these deposits are transitional to low fluorine
They represent an essential group of ore deposits (quartz monzonite type) porphyry molybdenum
because they are the source for most of the metal deposits; with incrementing gold/copper ratio,
production of the world. Hydrothermal deposits they are transitional to porphyry gold deposits
provide almost 100% of lead, zinc, molybdenum, (John et al. 2010). Thus, it is common to describe
and silver and 60–90% of copper, gold, and ura- several subtypes of porphyry deposits according
nium as well as gemstones and industrial materials to the dominant metal: porphyry Cu, porphyry
such as clay minerals and quartz. Hydrothermal Cu-Au, and porphyry Cu-Mo.
deposits are quite different, being located in a Porphyry copper deposits are constituted by
broad rank of geological and tectonic settings: disseminated copper minerals in veins and brec-
some of them are closely linked with granitic cias and form high tonnage (greater than 100 mil-
rocks, others form on the ocean floor, and still oth- lion tons) and low- to moderate-grade (0.3–2.0%
ers are in sedimentary basins; all the deposits have copper) mineral deposits. In contrast to VMS
common origin via the precipitation of metals or deposits (see next section), which normally are
ore minerals from hot aqueous fluids (Arndt and small (1–5 Mt) but of high grade (3–10% ore
Ganino 2012). The main examples of hydrother- metals), porphyry deposits are enormous but of
mal ore deposits include (1) porphyry deposits, (2) low grade. These deposits were the first group of
volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits, (3) metallic mineral deposits mined by large-scale,
sedimentary exhalative (SEDEX) deposits, (4) iron open-pit methods in the early twentieth cen-
oxide-copper-gold deposits, and (5) gold deposits. tury. The best-known deposits are in the cordil-
leras of North and South America, the Bingham
Porphyry Deposits mine in the USA (2.7 billion tons of ore grading,
Porphyry copper deposits (PCD) are large, low- 0.7% Cu and 0.05% Mo), and the Chuquicamata
to medium-grade, Cu ± Au ± Mo hydrothermal mine in Chile (11 billion tons of 0.56% Cu and
deposits related to igneous intrusions, being the 0.06% Mo) (Arndt and Ganino 2012) (. Box 2.8:
largest source of the world in copper and a major Chuquicamata Copper Mine (Chile)).
Box 2.8
that measures 14 km × 1.5 km. chalcopyrite, bornite, and digenite. present open-pit mine because
Virtually the entire ore deposit at The final phase of mineralization is currently the mine is producing
Chuquicamata is hosted by and represented by a partly preserved 400,000 tons of waste rock, and
related to this 36–33 Ma porphyry leached cap and extensive oxide ore since it increases the cost and
complex that comprises a number that replaces an upper chalcocite distance that must be reached to
of phases, many of which do not blanket which overlies a high-grade find mineralization, it generates
have well-defined contacts. The supergene blanket that persists higher costs. The geological data
porphyry copper ore body is rect- to nearly 800 m below surface in from drillholes indicate that below
angular in plan and dips vertically, the zone of fault brecciation and the final pit bottom, there are
being the zone’s porphyries largely pervasive pyritic main stage quartz- about 2.3 billion tons of ore with a
affected by potassic alteration. The sericite alteration. mean copper grade of 0.81%. The
great majority of the mineralization Finally, Chuquicamata under- project involves ore extraction by
at Chuquicamata occurs in veins and ground mine is a structural and macro blocks and block caving in
veinlets, the earliest of which are strategic project that represents an an underground mine at depths of
quartz and K-feldspar veinlets with important part of Codelco’s future 1300–1800 m. The underground
little or no sulfides. These are cut by and which considers transform- mine, scheduled to begin opera-
more continuous quartz veins rang- ing the world’s largest open-pit tions in 2020, will comprise four
ing up to 5 cm in width with molyb- mine into a gigantic underground production levels, a 7.5 km main
denite and traces of chalcopyrite. operation. This new underground access tunnel, five clean air injec-
The next generation is the pyritic mine is being developed to access tion ramps, and two air-extraction
main stage veins which carry pyrite, the ore body situated beneath the shafts.
The mineralization in the porphyry deposits span outside the zone of mineralization, and it is
consists of disseminated small concentrations of commonly utilized as a guide during the explora-
sulfide minerals in the highly altered upper por- tion of this type of deposits. Most PCD deposits
tions of the intrusion and in surrounding rocks. are located within felsic to intermediate igneous
Closely associated with the mineralization is a intrusions and in the country rocks that surround
moderate to intense alteration that shows a zoning the intrusion. Original sulfide minerals are pyrite,
concentric about the intrusion. This alteration also chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite, and molybdenite.
2.8 · Genetic Classification of Mineral Deposits
99 2
Gold is often in native form and is found as tiny and other non-magmatic waters, and near-sur-
blobs along borders of sulfide crystals, or it occurs face reactions between low-temperature meteoric
in sulfosalts like tetrahedrite. Molybdenite distri- water and earlier formed, high-temperature min-
bution is variable, and radial fracture zones out- erals; external saline waters such as sedimentary
side the pyrite halo may contain lead-zinc veins brines were probably involved in the earlier stages
with significant gold and silver contents. In depos- of evolution of some porphyry copper systems,
its with an extensive supergene enrichment zone resulting in sodic and sodic-calcic alteration».
developed in the upper parts of the deposit, copper
oxide minerals and native copper may be present. olcanogenic Massive Sulfide (VMS)
V
In many districts, plutons and batholiths that Deposits
host the mineralization are older and not related This type of deposits is referred to as volcanogenic
to the ore-forming system, although they can be massive sulfide (VMS) although similar terms have
part of long-lived magmatic successions. In other been used: volcanic massive sulfide, submarine
districts, they are only slightly older and range exhalative massive sulfide, and volcanic- hosted
from multiple large stocks to composite batholiths massive sulfide, among many others. More recently,
(John et al. 2010). The regional, deposit-scale, and the term polymetallic massive sulfide deposit has
local-scale environments of porphyry copper can been also applied by many authors to VMS min-
be very varied. They are widespread but mostly eralization on the modern seafloor that contains
localized in time and space through the evolution significant quantities of base metals. Volcanic mas-
of magmatic arcs along convergent plate margins sive sulfide deposits are small- to medium-sized,
where subduction of oceanic crust and arc-type moderate- to high-grade Cu ± Zn ± Pb ± Au ± Ag
magmatism generates hydrous, oxidized upper hydrothermal deposits hosted in volcanic and/or
crustal granitoids genetically related to ores. It sedimentary rocks. They are significant sources of
is possible that many porphyry copper deposits copper and zinc and, to a lesser extent, lead, sil-
are formed during unusual periods of subduc- ver, gold, cadmium, selenium, tin, bismuth, and
tion. Deposits have formed throughout most of minor amount of other metals. The polymetallic
Earth’s history, but because they generally form in and sometimes high-grade character of the depos-
the upper crust (less than 5–10 km depth) in tec- its make them a preferential target for exploration.
tonically unstable convergent plate margins and As in the case of the porphyry deposits, there are
are prone to erosion, more than 90% of known several subtypes of VMS deposits depending on
deposits are Cenozoic or Mesozoic in age. the dominant metal and host rocks.
PCDs are thought to derive from hydrothermal VMSs are among the best understood of all ore
fluids generated near the top of a cooling magma deposits due to the ore bodies that are relatively
body at depths between 1 and 5 km (Stevens simple, both in their structure and their composi-
2010). The close spatial and temporal association tion and mineralogy, and they have been studied
between the ore bodies and granitic intrusions is intensively over the last decades. They are one
clearly indicative that magmas are directly linked of very few deposits whose formation, by way of
to the ore-forming process. Porphyry copper precipitation of sulfides at or just below the ocean
systems are mainly formed by magmatic fluids floor, can be observed directly – black smokers.
that were released during shallow emplacement VMS deposits were among the first ever to be
of porphyritic granitoid stocks. The fluids cre- mined because this mineralization was mined in
ate a fracture network in the rocks as they travel, Cyprus and in Spain more than 2000 years ago,
thereby producing the characteristic stockwork providing much of the copper utilized in the
texture of this type of deposits. The ore miner- weapons of Roman centurions. The old Rio Tinto
als crystallize out of the hydrothermal fluids as a mine in southwestern Spain has one of the world’s
result of cooling of the fluid as it moves away from longest known mining histories with copper hav-
the magma body. Thus, formation of porphyry ing been mined there even before Roman times
copper deposits, as John et al. published in 2010, (. Box 2.9: Rio Tinto Copper Mine (Spain)). This
«involves a complex series of processes including mine was the foundation stone for the mega min-
magma generation, differentiation, emplacement, ing company that still bears its name. Rio Tinto
crystallization and degassing, high-temperature has subsequently gone on to become one of the
reactions between degassed fluids and meteoric world’s biggest diversified mining companies.
100 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
Box 2.9
sea bottom or a favorable level. in the Pyrite Belt is the fact that coarser grain and always display
The mineralization in Río Tinto is the massive sulfides seem to be replacement structures with the
found either as dissemination or formed in two different environ- hosting dacite. The mineralization
small veins in the stockwork areas ments. On one side, the miner- was supergenically altered and
within volcanic rocks and slates, alizations in Southern Lode and eroded during the Cenozoic. Origi-
or as massive sulfide lenses lying Planes – San Antonio – are hosted nally, there was a gossan (Cerro
atop or included in the stockwork in slates and have sedimentary Colorado) of 10–70 m deep mined
zones, or in gossan areas repre- structures, suggesting they were between 1974 and 2002 together
senting the supergenic alteration formed by exhalative processes with the copper of the underlying
of massive sulfides, sometimes in the sea bottom. However, the stockwork. The gossan was rich in
up to 70 m thick. What makes Rio mineralizations in the Northern Au, Ag, Pb, Sb, and Bi and poor in
Tinto different from other districts Vein hosted by dacite have a Cu and Zn.
Volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits are continental margin), back-arc basins, rifted conti-
stratabound concentrations of sulfide miner- nental margins, and pull-apart basins; the compo-
als precipitated from hydrothermal fluids in sition of volcanic rocks hosting individual sulfide
extensional seafloor environments. The term deposits range from felsic to mafic, but bimodal
volcanogenic implies a genetic link between min- mixtures are not uncommon and the volcanic
eralization and volcanic activity, but siliciclastic strata consist of massive and pillow lavas, sheet
rocks dominate the stratigraphic assemblage in flows, hyaloclastites, lava breccias, pyroclastic
some settings. Relation to volcanoes ranges from deposits, and volcaniclastic sediments; a zonation
proximity to quite tenuous connections to volca- of metals within the massive sulfide body from
nism, as in parts of the Southern Iberian Pyrite Fe + Cu at the base to Zn + Fe ± Pb ± Ba at the
Belt (Pohl 2011). VMS deposits are hosted in vol- top and margins characterizes many deposits»
canic rocks dominated by basalt. There are usu- (Koski and Mosier 2012). Deposits range in age
ally important felsic volcanic and sedimentary from Early Archean (3.55 Ga) to the present, and
rock layers closely associated with the deposit, significant occurrences of VMS mineralization
and small intrusive igneous rock bodies are often are found in greenstone belts of almost all Pre-
located beneath the deposits (Stevens 2010). cambrian shield areas. Of particular importance
The deposits are formed by two parts: a concor- are the Archean and early Proterozoic greenstone
dant massive sulfide lens (>60% sulfide minerals) belts of the Canadian Shield, the Lower Paleozoic
and discordant vein-type sulfide mineralization, volcanic belts of the Caledonides in Scandinavia
commonly called the stringer or stockwork zone. and the northern Appalachians of Newfoundland
Individual lenses are 2–20 m thick and extend for (Canada), the Upper Paleozoic Iberian Pyrite Belt
tens to hundreds of meters laterally. Large lenses extending from southern Portugal to southern
can reach more than 100 m thick and extent for Spain, and the Miocene Green Tuff Belt of Japan
more than 1000 m laterally. They show different (e.g., Kuroko sulfide deposits) (Misra 2000).
mineralization textures such as breccias, layering,
and laminations. The deposits are characterized edimentary Exhalative (SEDEX)
S
by abundant Fe sulfides (pyrite or pyrrhotite nor- Deposits
mally comprises more than 80% of the minerals Almost 100 million tons of sediment containing
in the massive sulfide bodies). 2% Zn, 0.5% Cu, and significant amount of Au and
VMS deposits are derived from hydrothermal Ag have precipitated from hot dense brine that
fluids that circulate through a sequence of volca- accumulated in the «Atlantis II Deep, » a 10 km
nic rocks and exit on the seafloor as a plume of diameter depression on the floor of the Red Sea. It
metal-rich fluids. They encompass a wide variety would constitute a very attractive ore body of the
of geodynamic and more local genetic settings. type referred to as a SEDEX or sedimentary exha-
Thus, «the main tectonic settings include mid- lative deposit. SEDEX deposits are medium to
oceanic ridges, volcanic arcs (intraoceanic and large sizes, moderate to high grade, Zn ± Pb ± Ag
102 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
hydrothermal deposits hosted in sequences of illion to 300 million years old, deposits younger
b
sedimentary rocks. Another example is the Salton than 300 million years not being documented.
Sea, a big and shallow lake in southern California The deposits are characterized by moderate to
that originated in 1905 where a canal transport- high grades of zinc and lead, and copper is an
ing water from the Colorado River breached and important by-product in some deposits.
flooded a salt pan (Arndt and Ganino 2012). The SEDEX Pb-Zn-Ag deposits are hosted in
two processes recorded in Red Sea and Salton Sea marine sedimentary rocks in intracratonic or epi-
examples are essential elements to understand the cratonic rift basins. The distinguishing features of
formation of SEDEX deposits. an idealized, unmetamorphosed, or mildly meta-
The term SEDEX, derived from «sedimentary morphosed SEDEX deposit may be summarized
exhalative» (Carne and Cathro 1982), is based as follows: (a) mineralization hosted mostly either
on the interpretation that the finely laminated or by marine, clastic sediments of continental deriva-
bedded sulfide ores represent chemical sediments tion, typically pyritic and carbonaceous shales, or
precipitated from hydrothermal fluids exhaled by platform carbonate rocks, with thin (1–10 cm
onto the seafloor. Examples of SEDEX deposits thick) tuff horizons in the sedimentary sequence
are Broken Hill, Mount Isa, and McArthur River in some cases; (b) a zone of stratiform mineraliza-
in Australia (. Fig. 2.40), Sullivan in Canada,
tion consisting of stacked lens-like, concordant,
and Navan in Ireland. These types of deposits tabular bodies of low-Cu massive sulfide ore; (c)
are the world’s largest source of zinc and a major a footwall zone of minor stockwork and vein-type
source of lead. SEDEX deposits are on average an sulfide mineralization associated with hydro-
order of magnitude bigger than VMS deposits thermal alteration (predominantly silicification);
(Stevens 2010). The dominant economic miner- (d) a distinct (Cu)-Pb-Zn-(Ba) lateral zoning of
als are sphalerite and galena, and in some depos- hydrothermally precipitated minerals and a less
its chalcopyrite, with silver primarily contained systematic (Cu)-Zn-Pb-(Ba) vertical zoning; (e)
with galena. SEDEX deposits range in age from 2 spatial association with a synsedimentary fault
2.8 · Genetic Classification of Mineral Deposits
103 2
system that was active at the time of mineraliza- includes a hydrothermal breccia complex sur-
tion and may have been reactivated during later rounded by Mesoproterozoic granite, the brec-
deformation; and (f) a general lack of demon- cia being composed mainly of granite clasts and
strable magmatic affiliation of the host rocks or of minor amount of Mesoproterozoic volcanic clasts.
mineralization (Misra, 2000). Very thick (>350 m) sections of bedded sedi-
The main ore minerals of SEDEX deposits, mentary facies occurring in the breccia complex
sphalerite and galena: «were probably precipi- include laminated to very thin planar mudstone
tated on or just below the sea floor from warm beds, thin to medium internally graded sandstone
100–200 °C, saline -10–30% total dissolved beds, and thick conglomerate beds. Lateral conti-
solids- basin brines that ascended along basin- nuity, provenance characteristics, great thickness,
controlling synsedimentary faults; deposition and below-wave-base lithofacies, and intracontinental
sequestration of metals occurred by precipita- setting suggest that these bedded sedimentary
tion of sulfide minerals as a result of mixing of facies are remnants of a sedimentary basin that
metal-transporting brine and locally derived H2S was present at Olympic Dam prior to formation
produced by bacterial and perhaps thermochemi- of the breccia complex (McPhie et al. 2011).
cal reduction of local seawater sulfate» (Emsbo Due to the very recent discovery of the deposit
2009). They are formed in a similar manner type, theories of ore formation are subject to
to VMS deposits, although there is little if any continual revision. According to Williams et al.
involvement of igneous rocks in their formation. (2005): «most theories call on large-scale mag-
matic events that drive large-scale flow of oxidized
I ron Oxide-Copper-Gold (IOCG) probably magmatic hydrothermal fluids into mid
Deposits to upper crustal levels along fault zones; mixing of
An iron oxide-copper-gold deposit can be defined these fluids with near surface meteoritic fluids or
as a breccia-hosted polymetallic mineral deposit brines is commonly invoked as the ore-forming
in which mineralization is spatially and tempo- process and brines and metals may be sourced
rally associated with granite and with iron oxide directly from underlying magmas, indirectly
alteration. The Olympic Dam deposit in Austra- by interaction of magmatic fluids with country
lia is probably the best example in the world for rocks or other fluids, or independently through
this group of deposits; other typical examples are modification of basinal or metamorphic fluids».
Kiruna in Sweden and Bayan Obo in China. IOCG However, although the Olympic Dam breccia
deposits range in age from recent to Precambrian, complex and ore body are primarily hydrothermal
and such deposits commonly show (1) Cu, with in origin, the Olympic Dam hydrothermal system
or without Au, as economic metals; (2) hydro- would have had access to and interacted with the
thermal ore styles and strong structural controls; overlying sedimentary succession, so this succes-
(3) abundant magnetite and/or hematite; (4) Fe sion should be considered as an additional source
oxides with Fe/Ti greater than those in most igne- of both fluids and metals (McPhie et al. 2011).
ous rocks and bulk crust; and (5) no clear spatial
associations with igneous intrusions as, for exam- Gold Deposits
ple, displayed by porphyry and skarn ore deposits Trace amounts of gold are present in a wide vari-
(Williams et al. 2005). IOCG deposits are found in ety of mineral deposits, ranging from <0.01 ppm
a wide range of rock types (sedimentary, volcanic, Au in Mississippi Valley-type deposits to concen-
and igneous), and common forms of mineraliza- trations in some sulfide deposits high enough to
tion include breccia zones, tabular bodies, veins, be recoverable as a by-product; main types of ores
stockworks, volcanic pipes, and disseminated that routinely produce by-product gold are Ni-Cu
mineralization. Hydrothermal iron oxide-copper- sulfide ores associated with mafic and ultramafic
gold deposits can include mainly various combi- rocks, VMS ores, and Cu ores of porphyry cop-
nations of metals such as Fe, Cu, Au, Ag, U, Th, F, per deposits. However, most of the important
Co, Bi, W, and rare earth elements (REE). gold deposits belong to one of the following seven
The supergiant Olympic Dam Cu-U-Au-Ag types: (a) young placer deposits, (b) deposits
ore deposit of South Australia has the largest ura- hosted by quartz-pebble conglomerates (Witwa-
nium resource and the fourth largest copper and tersrand type), (c) volcanic-associated epither-
gold resource in the world. The tectonic setting mal deposits, (d) sediment-hosted, disseminated
104 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
deposits (Carlin type), (e) deposits hosted by 4. Ore and associated minerals occur domi-
banded iron formations, (f) intrusion-related nantly as open-space fillings, producing char-
deposits, and (g) lode deposits (Misra 2000). acteristic banded and crustiform textures.
2 Type (c) is possibly the most important gold type 5. Gold and silver are the principal economic
deposit of hydrothermal affiliation. Other essen- metals; main ore minerals in the veins are
tial types for gold extraction (e.g., Witwatersrand native gold and silver, electrum, argentite,
type) are also described below. Ag-bearing As-Sb sulfosalts, and Au-bearing
Volcanic-associated epithermal gold deposits pyrite; associated base metal sulfides, which
got the name «epithermal» according to the classi- are generally concentrated below the precious
fication of Lindgren (1913), who coined this term metal horizon, include sphalerite, galena, and
for deposits that form from hydrothermal fluids chalcopyrite.
at shallow crustal levels, occurring in a variety of 6. Quartz and calcite are the most abundant
structural settings. They are commonly associated gangue minerals in the veins.
with subduction-related calc-alkaline to alkaline 7. Hydrothermal alteration of wall rock is a
arc magmatism as well as back-arc continental characteristic feature of all epithermal pre-
rift magmatism. Because of their relatively higher cious metal deposits (Misra 2000).
grades and amenability to cheaper open-pit min-
ing and heap-leach extraction of gold, epithermal Vein Deposits
deposits have been a favored target of exploration The most convincing examples of hydrother-
since the early 1970s. mal deposits are vein systems discordant to
The main distinguishing characteristics of epi- stratification or lithologic boundaries in host
thermal gold deposits are the following: rocks (. Box 2.10: Panasqueira Tungsten Mine
1. Andesitic volcanic and pyroclastic rocks are (Portugal)). They represent dominantly open-
the more common host to ore (early to late space filling of structurally controlled fractures
Tertiary). and faults. Some vein-type deposits are believed
2. The deposits formed in extensional tectonic to be genetically related to exposed or buried
settings, in zones with well-developed tension igneous (especially felsic) intrusions because fluid
fracture systems, and in normal faults that inclusion and isotopic data provide evidence for a
could channel hydrothermal fluids and local- major contribution of magmatic water in the ore-
ize mineralization. forming fluids. Ore fluids for other types of vein
3. (c) The mineralization is epigenetic and deposits may have been dominated by magmatic
occurs commonly in the form of quartz veins. water, meteoric water, or basinal brines.
Box 2.10
units primarily composed of system. Intrusives are an important coarse grained and very erratically
graywackes, shales, and schists of component of the mineralizing distributed in the quartz veins.
late Precambrian to Cambrian age. events at Panasqueira. The most Wolframite mineralization occurs
Intruding this flysch sequence are dominant and important structural as very large nugget-like crystals
the Epi-Hercynian synmetamor- feature at the Panasqueira mine is or large crystal aggregates, usually
phic muscovite-biotite granites a flat open joint system prevalent concentrated toward the margins
or post-metamorphic biotite-rich throughout the mine workings. of the quartz veins or, occasion-
granites. The Panasqueira deposit The remobilized ore-bearing ally, close to the central portion
consists of a series of stacked, sub- fluids migrated from the intrusive of the quartz veins (. Fig. 2.41).
horizontal, hydrothermal quartz to these flat joints to form the The Panasqueira mine is renowned
veins intruding into the Beira stacked quartz vein system. throughout the world for the
schists and shales. A second set The dimensions of ore body extraordinary size and quality of
of non-wolframite-bearing quartz are 2500 m (length), 400–2200 m the minerals wolframite, apatite,
veins (veins contain minor chal- (width), and 500 m (depth). arsenopyrite, cassiterite, and
copyrite, galena, and pyrite) also The principal tungsten-bearing quartz crystals that occur in cavi-
exists at the Panasqueira deposit mineral is wolframite, and by- ties in the quartz veins. Wolframite
and is aligned with the vertical products include tin (cassiterite), crystals of this size are reportedly
foliation and cut by the later tung- copper (chalcopyrite), and silver. rare in other tin-tungsten occur-
sten-bearing hydrothermal vein The mineralization is generally rences.
Many veins in this type of deposit are devel- a minimum of 2 m width. The distribution of
oped upward into a fan of thinner veins and vein- veins in space ranges from horizontal to vertical,
lets, which resemble a branching tree. Thickness, although steeply dipping veins are the majority.
vertical extent, and horizontal length of veins vary From a tectonic viewpoint, many veins are associ-
widely. Less than 0.5 m in thickness may allow ated with large-scale tensional tectonics including
profitable mining of high-grade gold and silver rifting and late-orogenic relaxation of orogens.
ore veins (. Fig. 2.42), whereas tin and tungsten
However, veins may also originate during conver-
require a width of 1 m and barite and fluorite gent tectonics (Pohl 2011).
106 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
The most important control on vein forma- 2.8.3 Sedimentary Ore Deposits
tion is related to the mechanical properties of
the host rocks. Fractures form more readily in Sedimentary mineral deposits are those that form
competent rocks than in ductile materials. Very by sedimentary processes. They include placers
brittle rocks such as dolomite or quartzite use to originated by erosion, transportation, and sedi-
create a network of short fractures instead of spa- mentation processes as well as deposits related
tially separated longer ones. In that case, hydro- to water infiltration, supergene alteration, and
thermal activity may result in stockwork ore. diagenetic processes. The boundary between sedi-
Stockwork ore bodies consist of numerous short mentation and diagenesis is subtle. Moreover, dia-
veins of three-dimensional orientation, which are genetic ore deposits can be many times considered
so closely spaced (e.g., 30 veins/m) that the whole as diagenetic/hydrothermal mineral deposits.
rock mass can be mined.
The distribution of ore in veins is usually Supergene Enrichment Deposits
inhomogeneous, and only a small part of the If the sulfide mineralizations are exposed at the
total vein fill is exploitable. Veins commonly surface of the Earth, it is very common that these
consist of quartz (sometimes of several varieties, minerals become oxidized, the ore metals being
e.g., chalcedony). This quartz commonly occurs leached downward and usually concentrated at
as interlocking crystals with a great variety of the top of the water table. Thus, supergene enrich-
sizes or as finely laminated bands parallel to the ment is a consequence of near-surface oxidation
walls of the vein. Minor amount of sulfide and caused by meteoric water seeping downward
other gangue minerals such as calcite and vari- through the unsaturated zone. This oxidation
ous clay minerals occur. Typical mineral associa- process can be very useful if the previous miner-
tions in vein deposits are gold with pyrrhotite, alization has a low-grade character. In some cases,
gold with arsenopyrite, gold with pyrite, gold the copper grade can increase from 0.8% Cu in
with chalcopyrite, gold with minor sulfides (free the primary ore to 2–3% in the thick layer of
gold), silver with galena and galena-sphalerite, supergene enrichment. Consequently, these lay-
silver with tetrahedrite, or antimony or copper- ers of supergene enrichment contain two to five
arsenic sulfides. times more ore metals than the primary ore, and
2.8 · Genetic Classification of Mineral Deposits
107 2
.. Fig. 2.43 Ambatovy (Madagascar) nickel-cobalt laterite deposit (Image courtesy of Sherritt International Corporation)
that include parent rock, climate, chemistry/rates bauxites form through a combination of processes:
of chemical weathering, drainage, and tectonics.» (1) the presence of Al-rich (and Fe-poor) parent
In some cases, these deposits can be later subse- rocks such as alkali granite, syenite, tuff, or clay-
quently weathered, redeposited, reconcentrated, rich sediment and their metamorphosed equiva-
and probably covered by new sediments. lents; (2) an appropriate balance of temperature
108 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
and rainfall (high temperatures favor Fe-rich lat- type of deposits. In this deposit, uranium is quickly
erites); and (3) a pronounced alternation of wet dissolved from rocks such as granite, gneiss, and
and dry seasons (Arndt and Ganino 2012). As a felsic tuff and then transported during hundreds
result of these restrictions, the most important of kilometers by rivers, until infiltrating into an
bauxite deposits in the world are located mainly in aquifer where reduced conditions produce the pre-
equatorial countries with tropical climates such as cipitation and concentration of uranium minerals
Guinea, Australia, Brazil, and Jamaica. In parts of (uraninite (UO2) or pitchblende, UO3, U2O5). The
Africa, South and Central America, and Australia, critical aspect to the formation of uranium depos-
the concentration of Al2O3 increases from about its is the great different solubility of uranium in
15% in the source rock to close to 60%, the level in oxidized and reduced fluids. Uranium occurs in
rich Al ore (Ardnt and Ganino 2012). two valence states, the reduced form U4+ and the
oxidized form U6+. The latter is highly soluble in
Infiltration Deposits oxidized fluids where it forms stable complexes
Infiltration mineral deposits are formed where with fluoride, phosphate, or carbonate ligands;
meteoric water takes up a substance that is dis- under these conditions, uranium is readily trans-
solved by weathering and it is concentrated after ported in the fluids that circulate along sedimen-
considerable transport by infiltration in a different tary basins. Some deposits of metal such as copper,
geological setting. The so-called «roll-front» ura- iron, vanadium, silver, and Pb-Z-Ba-F could have
nium deposits are the most typical example of this a similar genesis (Pohl 2011).
2.8 · Genetic Classification of Mineral Deposits
109 2
Aquitard mudstone
Permeable
Hematitic core sandstone horizon
Roll
Groundwater flow front
Regionally reduced
Aquitard mudstone
From a geological viewpoint, roll-front ura- etals); and gemstones such as diamond, garnet,
m
nium deposits host in coarse-grained permeable or ruby.
sandstones, which at depth contain a reduced Moreover, in this type of deposit the valuable
array of pyrite, calcite, and organic matter. The minerals are clearly denser than other minerals that
age of this host sediment ranges from Upper are transported at the Earth’s surface. This allows
Paleozoic to Cenozoic. In many cases, the sand- minerals to be separated from detrital minerals or
stone bed is confined above and below by shale or rock fragments that constitute the overall sediment
other impermeable rocks (. Fig. 2.45). This forces
load and finally to become concentrated in ore bod-
the groundwater to flow through the sandstone ies. Therefore, a simple washing in a gold pan easily
and provides a better opportunity to form an eco- separates light minerals of valuable ones. There are
nomic deposit. The Colorado Plateau region in many classifications of placer deposits of economic
the USA is the most famous place showing this importance, but the most useful separate them as
type of uranium deposit. residual, eluvial, colluvial, fluviatile, and coastal;
marine and beach placers are also terms used for
Placer Deposits coastal placer deposits. Other types include Aeolian
A placer ore body is a deposit of sand, gravel, or placers and placers in glacial sediments, but they
soil containing eroded particles of valuable min- commonly have no economic significance.
erals. Due to the chemical and physical properties Placer gold deposits have produced two-thirds
of the minerals, they can resist and become con- of the gold mined over time. The fluvial placers of
centrated in the surface environment. Classical California, Australia, and elsewhere were mined out
minerals in placer deposits are platinum metals; very rapidly in the gold rushes, usually over periods
gold, present in the native or metallic form; many of only a few years. At present, production continues
heavy minerals such as rutile, ilmenite, zircon, in the Witwatersrand ore bodies of South Africa, a
and monazite (they are sources of titanium, zir- hydrothermally reworked conglomeratic paleopla-
conium, niobium, and other high-technology cer deposit that is the largest gold deposit in the
110 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
.. Fig. 2.46 Features commonly used to describe shoreline (strandline) depositional environments associated with
deposits of heavy-mineral sands (not to scale) (Van Gosen et al. 2014)
tion in sedimentary basins. phate deposits, and sodium and potassium nitrates
With regard to iron and manganese, autoch- and sulfates (. Fig. 2.49). Regarding bedded man-
thonous ores are chemical, partly biogenic marine ganese deposits, they are formed in a similar
sediments. Although manganese nodules and manner to iron formations, and the mineralogy
crusts of the deep oceans may become an essential assemblage is formed by pyrolusite (MnO2) and
source of these metals, actually the most impor- rhodochrosite (MnCO3), which precipitate from
tant raw materials of this group are enriched parts seawater as bedded sedimentary rocks. Manganese
of marine-banded iron formations and manga- deposits occur in rocks of all ages, the largest
nese formations (predominantly formed in the deposits occurring in Proterozoic ore bodies of the
Paleoproterozoic) and ooidal or massive iron and Kalahari in South Africa. Phosphorites, which are
manganese ore beds that are of Phanerozoic in mined to be used as fertilizers, form on shallow
age. The so-called banded iron formations (BIF) continent shelves either through direct precipita-
constitute by far the most abundant and economi- tion from seawater or by diagenetic replacement
cally the most important iron-rich sediments. of limestone.
112 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
.. Fig. 2.49 Potassium sulfate underground mine (Brazil) (Image courtesy of Vale)
.. Fig. 2.50 Evaporation of brines to obtain common salt (Spain) (Image courtesy of José Pedro Calvo)
obtain common salt, sylvite (KCl), gypsum, and Brine, typically carrying 200–1400 milligrams per
anhydrite. Evaporites including halite or gyp- liter (mg/l) of lithium, is pumped to the surface
sum can also form from seawater evaporation in and concentrated by evaporation in a succession
broad inland seas where there are extensive water of artificial ponds, each one in the chain having a
evaporations. Sodium and potassium nitrates and greater lithium concentration. After a few months
sodium sulfates are also evaporation deposits. In to about a year, a concentrate of 1–2% lithium
this sense, one of the driest regions in the world, is further processed in a chemical plant to yield
the Atacama Desert of Chile, includes the world’s various end products, such as lithium carbonate
largest natural deposits of sodium nitrate. and lithium metal.
On the other hand, the process of evapora-
tion can be induced artificially, as occurs in some Diagenetic Deposits
lithium brine deposits. These deposits account for As aforementioned, diagenetic deposits form
about three-fourths of the world’s lithium pro- a complex group of mineral deposits where
duction. Lithium brine deposits are accumula- the qualification of the ore-forming fluid as
tions of saline groundwater enriched in dissolved diagenetic or hydrothermal is almost impos-
lithium. All producing lithium brine deposits sible, since both are sometimes the same. The
share a number of first-order characteristics such previous described stratiform sediment-hosted
as arid climate, closed basin including a playa or copper deposits are a good example of this con-
salar, tectonically driven subsidence, associated troversy. The Mississippi Valley-type Pb-Zn-
igneous or geothermal activity, adequate lithium F-Ba deposits hosted in marine carbonates
source rocks, one or more suitable aquifers, and are probably the most representative mineral
enough time to concentrate a brine (Bradley et al. deposit type of this group (. Box 2.11: Reocín
.. Fig. 2.51 Atacama
Salar (Chile) (Image cour-
tesy of SQM)
Box 2.11
Galena is present as skeletal or very abundant in this deposit. The important to bear in mind that
dendritic growths, evidence of following minerals are found in the deposit was discovered in the
rapid precipitation. Carbonate the open-pit showing supergenic eighteenth century due to the
gangue is usually dolomite; at alteration: smithsonite (ZnCO3), presence of a pervasive gossan,
Reocín, several precipitation hydrozincite (Zn5((OH)3CO3)2), although there are evidences for
stages of this carbonate have been goethite (FeOOH), hemimorphite the extraction of the oxidation
recognized. Marcasite is locally (Zn4(Si2O7) (OH)2H2O), etc. It is area since Roman times.
.. Fig. 2.52 Typical
mineralization from
Reocín (Santander,
Spain)
Mississippi Valley-type (MVT) deposits are and within extensional domains landward of the
a large and heterogeneous group that contains a orogenic belts to form MVT deposits.
substantial amount of the reserves of zinc and lead This type of deposit is typically stratabound
in the world. They are the main source of these and takes place in dolostones, although limestone
metals in the USA and contribute significantly or sandstone can also include this mineralization,
to the production of lead and zinc in Canada and always at shallow depths along the flanks of
and Europe, usually occurring in districts (clus- sedimentary basins. The most common deposi-
ters) that may extend over hundreds of square tional setting is represented by platform carbon-
kilometers and contain up to 500 million tons of ate sequences, commonly reef facies, located in
ore. These deposits constituted a wide group of fairly undeformed foredeeps or in foreland thrust
lead-zinc mineral deposits that occur mainly in belts. MVT deposits are mineralogically simple,
carbonates of any age from the Proterozoic to the although considerable variation exists among dis-
Cretaceous (no MVT deposits have been reported tricts in terms of the total ore-gangue assemblage.
from the Archean). In spite of the abundance of Thus, the most typical mineralogy includes sphal-
appropriate carbonate rocks, the Proterozoic con- erite and galena as dominant minerals and lesser
tains only a few MVT deposits. MVT deposits amount of pyrite, marcasite, dolomite, calcite, and
display their maximum presence from Devonian quartz. The textures of the sulfide minerals are
to Carboniferous. By that time, vast and perme- very varied, and examples are coarse and crystal-
able carbonate platforms and abundant evaporites line to fine-grained textures and/or massive to
are formed. According to Leach et al. (2010), the disseminated ones. One of the most characteristic
intense orogenic activity during the assembly of structures in this type of deposit is banded and
Pangea in relatively low latitudes created abun- colloform structure, which is common as a result
dant opportunities for the migration of sedimen- of deposition in open spaces. Other recogniz-
tary brines into the interior carbonate platforms able processes consist mainly of dolomitization,
116 Chapter 2 · Mineral Deposits: Types and Geology
brecciation (mineralization in breccias is one of skarn deposits do possess enough special char-
the most characteristic features of Mississippi acteristics to be treated as a distinct class (Misra
Valley-type deposits), and host-rock dissolution. 2000).
2 Fluid inclusion studies invoke low- The term skarn, an old Swedish mining term,
mineralization deposition temperatures ranging encompasses a large variety of generally coarse-
from 50 to 200 °C. However, these temperatures are grained calc-silicate rocks enriched in calcium,
higher than those attributable to normal thermal iron, magnesium, aluminum, and manganese,
gradients within the sedimentary pile. Regarding regardless of their association with minerals of
the composition of the ore fluids, they were dense potential economic value. They were formed by
basinal brines, commonly containing 10–30 wt. % replacement of originally carbonate-rich rocks
dissolved salts. Classical examples of this type of by metasomatic processes (Einaudi et al. 1981).
deposit are Viburnum Trend (Southeast Missouri, Carbonate rocks such as limestone and dolos-
USA) and Pine Point (Canada). Regarding the tone are by far the most common protoliths of
origin, the general framework of genetic models skarns, although occurrences of skarns in shales,
for typical MVT deposits is constrained by two quartzite, and igneous rocks have been reported.
important common factors: the ore fluids were A diagnostic feature of typical skarns is their min-
moderately hot, highly saline brines, and the min- eral assemblages; the primary assemblage varies
eralization was epigenetic. Controversies are cen- with the compositions of the skarn-forming flu-
tered in the origin and migration of ore fluids, the ids and the invaded rocks but is characterized
source(s) of the mineralization constituents, and by anhydrous Ca-Fe-Mg silicates and pyroxenes
the mechanisms of mineral precipitation. (including pyroxenoids), and garnets are of spe-
cial importance.
Skarn deposits can be classified on the basis
2.8.4 Metamorphic and Metamor- of the dominant economic metal(s): iron, copper,
phosed Mineral Deposits molybdenum, gold, tungsten, tin, and zinc-lead.
The main ore minerals of these skarn types are,
As commented previously, mineral deposits in respectively, magnetite (. Fig. 2.53), chalcopyrite
metamorphosed rocks can have been originated ± bornite, molybdenite, electrum, scheelite, cas-
before, during, or after metamorphic processes. siterite, and sphalerite-galena (e.g., Misra 2000).
The first category, which is of premetamorphic In addition to distinctive metal associations, the
origin independent from later metamorphic skarn deposits exhibit a systematic variation in
overprinting, is the class of metamorphosed ore skarn mineralogy, especially in terms of pyroxene
deposits. Some authors consider that the skarn- and garnet compositions, for instance, a decrease
type deposits can be included in the magmatic in diopside component of pyroxenes through the
domain but here are considered as metamorphic sequence Cu ≥ Fe ≥ W≥ Zn-Pb skarn deposits.
ore deposits because they are a product of contact From an economic point of view, seven major
metamorphism. On the other hand, the formation skarn types can be distinguished: iron (calcic),
of ore deposits by regional metamorphism is now iron (magnesian), copper (calcic), molybdenum
generally accepted (Pohl 2011), and examples of (calcic), tungsten (calcic), tin (calcic), and zinc-
these deposits are orogenic gold, graphite veins, lead (calcic). Skarn ore bodies are also a major
and several large talc deposits, among others. source of many industrial minerals, including
The most important ore deposit type is wollastonite, graphite, asbestos, magnesite, talc,
undoubtedly the skarn deposits. They represent boron, and fluorite.
a very diverse class in terms of geological setting As an example of this type of deposits, skarn
and ore metals, which range from Precambrian gold deposits «consist of disseminated to massive
to late Cenozoic in age, and constitute the world’s sulfide lenses and crosscutting veins in carbonate
premier source of tungsten and important sources platform sequences superimposed by volcanic
of copper, iron, molybdenum, and zinc. A con- and/or plutonic arcs; mineralization is associated
tinuum exists between the porphyry-type and the with Al-rich garnet-pyroxene skarn assemblages
skarn-type ore deposits, and at least some skarn replacing limestone, calcareous siltstone, and
deposits appear to be mineralized in carbonate carbonatized volcanic rocks adjacent to diorite
wall rocks within porphyry systems. Nevertheless, or granodiorite stocks, dykes, or sills» (Robert
References
117 2
.. Fig. 2.53 Mineraliza-
tion of magnetite and sul-
fides in Cala mine (Spain)
(Image courtesy of César
Casquet)
et al. 1997). Sometimes, the deposits occur in 55 What are the main examples of hydrother-
districts along with porphyry Cu-Mo mineraliza- mal ore deposits?
tion, tending to be linked with more mafic, hot- 55 Describe very briefly the genesis of the
ter intrusions. Mineralogy includes the following so-called «roll-front» uranium deposits.
minerals: pyrrhotite, pyrite, arsenopyrite, and 55 Explain why Mississippi Valley-type
lesser amount of telluride minerals, presenting deposits are typically stratabound.
also wide variations in their gold-to-silver ratios
(Au/Ag = 1:10 to 10:1). ??Long Questions
55 Identify relationship between mineral
deposits and plate tectonic settings.
2.9 Questions 55 Explain the industrial minerals applications.
??Short Questions
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121 3
Mineral Resource
Exploration
3.1 Introduction – 122
3.6 Questions – 219
References – 220
3. It is undertaken in various stages of investiga- means unknown territories where ore deposits
tion, each phase conditioned by the results of are not already known to be present (. Fig. 3.2).
The mineral deposits to explore now for the of the mineral deposit. The target is later drilled
mining companies are mainly hidden by leached to study the mineralization in depth; drilling is
and weathered outcrops, with soil or other cover. undertaken only in advanced mineral explora-
For this reason, very sophisticated exploration tion. In increasing order of cost per km2, the main
techniques are actually needed to find them since methods used in mineral exploration are remote
most mineral deposits located at or near the sensing, geological mapping, geophysical surveys,
Earth’s surface have probably been discovered. geochemical surveys, and drilling.
As a general rule, the first stage of prospection/ Regarding the exploration trends in the world,
exploration involves locating prospective deposits mining companies reacted to the poor market
using knowledge of ore genesis and occurrence conditions of the last years with a strong decrease
models. Thus, geological environments associated in their exploration expenditures. The result was a
with the wanted type of mineral deposit are tar- 19% decline in worldwide nonferrous metal explo-
get of investigation. Methods such as geological ration budgets in 2015, compared with the previ-
mapping and sampling, geophysical surveys, and ous year, with final investment of about USD 9.2
geochemical analysis are commonly used at an billion (SNL Metals &Mining). . Figure 3.3 shows
early stage of exploration to define potential ore the main destinations for nonferrous exploration
deposits. Thus, the goal of geophysical/geochemi- in 2015. Nonferrous exploration means to look
cal exploration is to find an anomaly something for precious and base metals, uranium, diamonds,
different from the normal or expected; anomalies and several industrial minerals; it particularly pre-
can indicate the presence of minerals and could cludes exploration for commodities such as iron
be a target for drilling. An anomaly is a geological ore, coal, aluminum, or oil and gas. Regarding
incongruity that has the possibility of being an ore allocation of exploration, «Latin America has been
deposit. Obviously, an anomaly does not neces- considered the leading region for mineral explo-
sarily imply a mineral deposit, but every mineral ration by many companies for the past decade
deposit was first an anomaly, that is, something owing to its promising geology, its long history of
out of the ordinary (Hartman and Mutmansky world-class discoveries, the perception of its min-
2002). Where a mineral deposit has been identi- eral policies and its successful historical record of
fied, the next step is to map it more extensively to mineral production and development» (Wilburn
obtain a first evaluation of the grade and tonnage and Karl 2016).
3.2 · Mineral Resource Exploration Stages
125 3
.. Fig. 3.3 Top destinations for nonferrous exploration in 2015 (SNL Metals & Mining)
Technicians, usually geologists and/or geophysi- contrary, negative results reveal that the prospect
cists, design the exploration program that prom- will be commonly abandoned, although further
ises the best results in the search for such target. follow-up is possible if the economic conditions
According to Sillitoe (2000), the keystone to have changed. The first stage of mineral exploration
prospecting organization is to have the best forth- is the reconnaissance exploration, although it can
coming staff and appropriate finance in order to be named also in a variety of ways: simply prospec-
3 generate confidence throughout the organization. tion, target identification, early and extended
The economic parameters vary widely depend- reconnaissance, and many others. In turn, it typi-
ing on the expected exploration and development cally includes two steps: regional appraisal and
of the type of mineral deposit sought and on the reconnaissance of region. The main goal of the
economic factors and mine life. The conduct of a process is to identify an ore deposit that can be the
good prospecting program is aimed at the discov- target for subsequent exploration; the quantities
ery of a maximum number of mineral deposits at estimated for the deposits are with a low level of
minimum cost. In this searching process, geolo- confidence, and these estimates are inferred, that is,
gists decide the types of deposits to explore and based on interpretation of geological, geophysical,
which geological and exploration models should and geochemical results.
be applied. Previously, the management staff Reconnaissance exploration aims at rapid and
chooses the commodity or commodities. low-cost sorting out of prospective parts of an
The intensive use of mineral deposit models area. Regions ranging from 2000 to 200,000 km2
is a defining feature at this stage. This is because are evaluated with an analysis of accessible infor-
the first step in a new program is to acquire infor- mation, and parts of a region that cover 100–
mation about the study areas to be investigated. 5000 km2 are studied through field examination,
Thus, favorable regions are selected, either on the spaced geochemical sampling with wide grids,
basis of known potential as expressed by existing and geophysical exploration. In this sense, an
mines or mineral occurrences or on the basis of invaluable information to surface regional geol-
general knowledge of their geological characteris- ogy is that obtained with regional geophysics.
tics. In summary, the area to be explored is identi- Airborne magnetic, radiometric, and regional
fied based on literature search, looking at history, gravity data are available in a great part of the
reports and maps, and thesis works, among many developed world (. Fig. 3.4), and these tech-
others; these are called desktop studies. At the niques lead to refining geological interpretation.
end of this stage, exploration procedures are rec- Regional geochemical surveys also provide much
ommended to the management by the geological information in areas of poor outcrop.
staff, and a time schedule and general budget are
established. Regarding the exploration costs, the
exploration manager commonly considers them
as an expenditure within an organization while
it is as a geologist on a specific exploration proj-
ect that one becomes involved in the exploration
costs within the context of the project (Moon and
Whateley 2006). Prospection can be commodity-
or site-specific. In other words, the search can be
limited to a particular mineral or metal or to a
particular geographic area.
Classical techniques for this stage are com- they must be sent to a laboratory for their analysis
prehensive geological mapping and sampling; (. Fig. 3.6). Cost should not be the main factor to
detailed geochemical surveys, with an elaborated select the laboratory. For this decision, accuracy,
grid pattern sampling and analysis; detailed geo- precision, and an effective proceeding are also
physical surveys, usually on the ground; drilling, requested (Moon and Whateley 2006). Before
logging, trenching, and geophysical survey in the samples are submitted to the laboratory, it must be
3 holes; and bulk sampling. Drilling involves vari- ensured that all the elements that can be associated
ous types, initially with a relatively wide spacing of with the explored ore deposit are incorporated in
holes. In areas of poor outcropping, trenching or the analysis and very important that this analysis
pitting is essential (. Fig. 3.5) to verify the bedrock
comprises possible pathfinder elements.
source of a geological, geochemical, or geophysical The further decision to carry out a feasibil-
anomaly. Once the samples have been obtained, ity study can be obtained from the information
.. Fig. 3.6 Preparing
samples for analysis in the
laboratory (Image courtesy
of Anglo American plc.)
3.2 · Mineral Resource Exploration Stages
129 3
provided by detailed exploration, since resource/ that a pre-feasibility study is almost always carried
reserve estimations for the deposits are with a out during the previous step. Thus, the main goal of
high level of confidence. This is probably the most this type of study is to assess the various possibilities
critical stage of exploration because decisions and possible combinations of technical and business
involving high costs and potential costs have to be issues, to evaluate the project sensitivity to changes
made in view of the results. If a decision is taken in the individual parameters, and to rank various
that a potential ore deposit has been delineated, scenarios prior to selecting the most likely for fur-
the costs of subsequent exploration will drasti- ther and more accurate study. Upon completion of
cally increase, usually at the expense of other a pre-feasibility study, geological confidence is such
prospects. At this stage, it is essential to consider that it should be possible to publicly declare ore
that if it is decided to make the decision to close reserves (from measured and indicated resources)
prospection of a mineral deposit after this stage, (. Table 3.1) and any other mineral resources that
there is always the option that an ore body has can become mineable in the future with further
been lost (Marjoribanks 2010). study (Scott and Whateley 2006). The results of the
pre-feasibility study determine whether the increas-
ingly large expense derived from full geological,
3.2.4 Pre-feasibility/Feasibility technical, and economic evaluation of a prospect
Study is justified. In other words, this study will detect if
the costs involved in exploration are suitable for the
The final step in mineral exploration process is earnings that logically can be expected.
the preliminary feasibility study that analyzes all The feasibility study is the final evaluation of
components (geological, mining, environmental,
the profitability of a mining venture in light of the
sociopolitical, and economical) relevant to the results of exhaustive geological exploration; assess-
determination to develop a mine. In very large ment of mining and processing cost; environmental
projects, the costs involved in evaluation are high so factors, including mine reclamation; and market
.. Table 3.1 Example of mineral resource and reserve data presented in a pre-feasibility study of a mining
project
Total proven and 528.0 0.585 0.321 6.02 6.8 5.45 102.1
probable
130 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
analysis. This study usually forms the basis for the 3.3 Mineral Deposit Models
«go/no go» decision on developing a mine (Gocht
et al. 1988), that is, it is the basis for an investment To predict and have a better knowledge of how and
decision or decision to proceed to the next stage where an ore deposits can be present, scientists
of development. Obviously, feasibility studies are developed mineral deposit models (. Fig. 3.7). A
of higher level of rigor than pre-feasibility studies. working definition of «model» in the context of
3 Thus, in feasibility studies, social, environmental, mineral deposits is «the systematically arranged
and governmental approvals, permits, and agree- information describing the essential attributes
ments, commenced during the pre-feasibility study, (properties) of a class of mineral deposits» (Cox
will be in place or will be approaching finalization. and Singer 1986). Models are very useful to orga-
A feasibility study incorporates all types of nize the information about a mineral deposit
detailed information obtained in previous stages of because they are simplifications and abstractions
mineral exploration such as geology, mining, envi- based on a large number of individual observa-
ronmental, infrastructure and service, financial data, tions. As such, they need refinement as new data
marketing, economic viability, and many other fac- are acquired and have to be set as exploration is
tors. Moreover, sufficient sample collection and test carried out. In fact, it is very difficult to find a
work have taken place during a feasibility study for paper in the contemporary literature on economic
more of the resource estimate to be reported in the geology of a mineral deposit that does not utilize
measured category. Several million dollars are com- the expression «mineral deposit model.»
monly spent in large projects, to bring the project to Mineral deposit models are developed from
feasibility study level and sensitivity analyses. They the information of a particular important deposit
will have been established to analyze the main fac- or the combined information of several equivalent
tors that can have a definitive impact upon the deposits. Thus, the grouping of deposits based
reserve estimation. This will help to calculate the risk on common characteristics forms the basis for a
associated with the reserve data, which at this stage classification, but the specification of the features
will enter within the acceptable risk category of the needed for being included in the group is the basis
company. It is very common that financial institutes for a model (Barton 1993). Consequently, mod-
utilize independent consultants to audit the resource els contain an element of prediction, particularly
and reserve estimations. where certain physical attributes are characteristic
Oceanic Continental
intraplate Continental rift/back-arc
Mid-ocean volcanoes margin arc
Island arc basin
Back-are ridge
g
basin
Sea level
Continental
lithosphere
Mantle
plume
Subducting
slab
Explanation
Volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits
.. Fig. 3.7 Model showing volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits in different tectonic settings (Schulz 2012)
3.3 · Mineral Deposit Models
131 3
of ores of a well-defined deposit type. Models try be classified or the data that cannot be explained
to be constructed as much as possible «inde- by a previous existing model are commonly those
pendent of site-specific attributes and therefore that originate an advance in the knowledge of ore-
contain only those features that are transferable forming processes.
from one deposit to another; this goal is difficult However, some pitfalls in the utilization of
to attain, because it is not always known which mineral deposit models have been frequently
features are site-specific» (Cox and Singer 1986). developed. Thus, Hodgson (1990) suggests up to
According the definition of a mineral deposit a total of five different pitfalls in the making and
model, it can aid in identifying areas favorable for using of models all related to corporate or insti-
finding valuable deposits since they describe all of tutional cults and affect industry, academic, and
the essential features of a selected group of min- government institutions to an equal extent:
eral deposits (Singer 1995). Obviously, there are 1. The cult of the fad or fashion: an obsession
a great number of mineral deposit models, new with being up to date and in possession of the
models being created as new types of deposits newest model.
are identified. The scale of the models can vary 2. The cult of the panacea: the attitude that one
from regional size (regional-scale models are con- model is the ultimate and will end all
structed through metallogenic studies) to smaller controversy.
local ore bodies, or even refer to some highlighted 3. The cult of the classicists: all new ideas are
part of an ore body. rejected as they have been generated in the
The application of a particular deposit model hot house research environment.
will depend on the quality of the database. Some 4. The cult of the corporate iconoclasts: only
deposit types (e.g., placer gold) are easy to under- models generated within an organization are
stand and supported by well-developed models valid; all outside models are wrong.
while other deposits such as the Olympic Dam 5. The cult of the specialist: in which only one
mineral deposit model are not still well established aspect of the model is tested and usually not
and can be represented only by a single deposit. In in the field.
these cases, the information about the deposit is
very difficult to obtain. Thus, the models should
be used with caution and with understanding of 3.3.1 Types of Models
their limitations. The current trend in exploration
and mineral deposit modeling is to incorporate A subdivision of mineral deposit models into var-
every possible component of individual metal ious subtypes can be proposed (Cox and Singer
deposits in a database and carry out correlative 1986). These are dependent on the attributes used
analyses using computers. This approach is sim- in their definition and on the specific fields of
ply a continuation of the mindset that created the application the modeler has in mind (e.g., appli-
descriptive model and the availability of a new cations such as exploration/development, sup-
tool: the computer. Nonetheless, this model is in ply potential, land use, education, and research
reality a simulation, with its inherent case-specific guidance). The following subtypes are proposed
limitations, and as well can give misleading results (Cox and Singer 1986): (1) descriptive models, (2)
with limited utility for an emergent phenomenon occurrence models, (3) grade and tonnage mod-
(Robinson 2007). els, (4) occurrence probability models, (5) quanti-
The geological surveys of Canada and the tative process models, and (6) genetic models. The
USA have originated the vast majority of min- first three are empirical or descriptive models and
eral deposit models as well as a great number of the last three are conceptual or genetic models.
publications describing various mineral deposit Previously, three basic model types, descriptive,
types. They are the main source to obtain a com- grade and tonnage models, and genetic models,
plete information about the topic. Interactions were considered. Basically, the model can be
between the constructors of published models empirical (descriptive), in which several attri-
and the explorationists who use them are criti- butes are considered essential, or it can be theo-
cal to the evolution of more accurate and useable retical (genetic). In the latter, the attributes are
models. In this regard, the deposits that cannot interrelated using some fundamental concepts.
132 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
Thus, the empirical or descriptive model is based Attributes can be considered on at least two
on deposit descriptions, and the genetic model scales: the first deals with local characteristics
explains deposits in terms of causative geological that can be obtained immediately in the field
processes. (mineralogy, local chemical halos, among many
Another model type that is very useful for others), whereas the second incorporates features
initial economic analyses is the so-called grade related to the regional geological setting and that
3 and tonnage model. This type of model displays must be interpreted from the local studies or can
grade and tonnage data for known deposits, being be inferred from global tectonic considerations.
possible from this information to assess the aver- For instance, «the rock sequence under study
age size and grade of a mineral deposit and the represents a deep-water, back-arc rift environ-
cash-flow if one was met (Evans and Moon 2006). ment, or the area is underlain by anomalously
Ideally, mineral deposit types should reflect how radioactive high-silica rhyolite and granite» (Cox
the mineral deposit was actually formed. In many and Singer 1986).
cases, there is considerable debate among geolo-
gists as to how a specific deposit was formed, and Grade and Tonnage Models
thus classifications based purely on a given genetic Grade and tonnage models had a profound influ-
model will encounter problems. ence on the creation of mineral deposit mod-
els. The idea of relating grade and tonnage data
Descriptive Models appears to have originated long time ago (e.g.,
The classification of mineral deposits based on Lasky 1950). Grade and tonnage models of ore
empirical features will lead to the unique finger- deposits are very helpful for quantitative resource
print of a particular deposit (Herrington 2011). estimations as well as to schedule an exploration
Thus, descriptive models derive from the docu- program. They are useful to classify the known
mentation of the geological, geochemical, and deposits in a region and provide information
geophysical characteristics of individual mineral about the potential value of undiscovered depos-
deposits. Of the various kinds of mineral deposit its in the exploration area. Thus, the frequency
models, well-documented descriptive models are distributions of average grades and tonnages of
of the most direct use in mineral exploration or deposits of various types are calculated and dis-
resource assessment. A descriptive model can be played graphically. In a limited area showing
constructed from a single deposit but more com- favorable geological features, grade or tonnage
monly includes the essential common informa- frequency distribution curves are used to estimate
tion of a group of related deposits. The attributes the amount of metal that possibly exists in the
or properties of a mineral occurrence are, of area (. Box 3.1: Grade and Tonnage Models for
Box 3.1
different from the normal distribu- form at least 60% of the ore. For chromite deposits can be used
tion at the 1% significance level. In chemical ores, the chromite must as models of the grades and ton-
most cases, the departures of the be fine grained, and the chromic nages of undiscovered deposits.
grades from normality appear to oxide grades can be very low as Some examples of these frequen-
be typical for grades greater than long as there is enough to make cies are plotted in . Figs. 3.8 and
10% in other deposit types. chromium salts at a feasible rate. 3.9. Grade and tonnage models are
The reporting of very low Such a range of chromic oxide presented in a graphical format to
grades may be influenced by grades can contribute to multiple make it easy to compare deposit
favorable economics or technol- peaks or skewness in the data set. types and to display the data. The
ogy in processing low-grade If there were no differences grade and tonnage plots show the
ores and may indicate regional in grades or tonnages among cumulative proportion of deposits
differences that allow lower cutoff deposit types, it could be used versus the tonnage or grade of
grades. Because these are at the one model for all types. However, the deposits. Individual symbols
low-grade tail of the distributions differences in tonnages or grades represent the deposits, and inter-
and represent a small number of among the subtypes suggest cepts for the 90th, 50th, and 10th
deposits, they may not be impor- they should be represented by percentiles are plotted. Percentiles
tant for modeling purposes. For different models. For example, the of grades and tonnages are based
this analysis, grades lower than deposits associated with major on the observed distributions.
30% chromic oxide are excluded. podiform chromite are signifi- Relations among grade and ton-
Reports of very high grades may cantly larger than those associated nage variables are important for
be from deposits where hand with minor podiform chromite simulations of grades, tonnages,
sorting of ore was an important and banded podiform chromite, and estimated number of undis-
processing practice. For metal- and banded podiform chromite covered deposits. These relations
lurgical ores, grades less than deposits are significantly larger also affect the understanding
45% chromic oxide are usually than minor podiform chromite of how deposits form and the
rejected at the mills and a Cr to deposits. assumptions about resource avail-
Fe ratio of 3:1 is preferred. For Frequency distributions of the ability. Correlation tests among
refractory ores, coarser chromite tonnages and grades of chromic the variables reveal the relations
is preferred, and chromic oxide oxide, rhodium, iridium, ruthe- of grades and tonnage. In general,
grades can be low as long as the nium, palladium, and platinum in most of the variables show no rela-
alumina content combines to the three subtypes of podiform tion to each other.
.. Fig. 3.8 Cumula-
tive frequency of ore n = 246
tonnages of major 0.9
podiform chromite
deposits. Each red
dot represents an 0.8
individual deposit (n
is the total number of 0.7
deposits). Intercepts
Proportion of deposits
0.2
0.1
0.0004 0.011
0.54
0.0
0.0000016 0.000025 0.0004 0.0063 0.1 1.6 25
Tonnage in million tons
134 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
34 45 51
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Chromite grade in percent Cr2O3
The mineral deposit density area is a variation understanding of the physics and chemistry of
of the grade and tonnage model. Deposit density ore-forming processes. Therefore, the developing
modeling can be used to produce a quantitative of a mineral deposit model is an iterative process
mineral resource assessment by estimating the (Duke 1990). Genetic models are more power-
number of undiscovered deposits (Singer et al. ful than descriptive models because they provide
2001). In this type of model, the grade and ton- a basis to distinguish essential from extraneous
nage model is carried out, and then the number of attributes. In general, the information of a descrip-
deposits per unit area is determined for a specific tive model is a necessary precondition to create a
deposit type from a well-explored region. The genetic model.
process originates a frequency distribution that Genetic models describe the origin of a deposit
is utilized either directly for an estimate of the or deposit type and represent the combination of
resources in a mineral deposit or indirectly as a a descriptive model with one or more process
guideline in some other method. models. Process models simulate physical and
chemical ore-forming processes (. Fig. 3.10), and
a
Initial surge of magma Entrained sulfide
droplets
.. Fig. 3.10 Illustration of the continued flow of magma through an idealized magma conduit (process model) in mag-
matic sulfide-rich nickel-copper-(platinum-group element) deposits (Schulz et al. 2014)
by the appropriate grade and tonnage models, problems at abandoned mine sites; (3) land-use
occurring within a given area. The latter are planners that are involved in permitting proposed
models that describe quantitatively some process mines or reclaiming abandoned mine lands; and
related to ore deposit formation, being in fact (4) industry interested in mine planning and min-
only branches of the genetic model. All these eral exploration (Seal et al. 2002).
models can be parts of the «final» model, and
3 recycling of the model back to the early grouping 3.3.2 Maturity of Descriptive-
phase assists in refining the selection procedure
Genetic Models
(Cox and Singer 1986).
Other types of models have also been described
The current level of genetic knowledge varies con-
by different authors and applied to mineral depos-
siderably from one deposit type to another. For
its: cause-effect models (Knox-Robinson 2000;
example, placers and evaporites are genetically
Sirotinskaya 2004), fractal and multifractal mod-
well-known types of deposits, and the problems in
els (Mandelbrot 1983), fluid flow-stress mapping
their exploration concern mainly local site-specific
models (Heinrich et al. 1996), statistical/probabi-
geological problems rather than mineral genesis.
listic models (Agterberg 1974), structural models
In contrast, deposits such as the Coeur d’Alene
(Kutina 1969), and spatial-temporal models (Lud-
Ag-Pb-Zn veins remain genetic enigmas despite
ington et al. 1993). As an example, probabilistic
extensive research for a long time. Other deposits
regression models have been especially attractive
are geologically well understood regarding their
and useful to mineral resource exploration. In
origin but still very poorly understood in terms of
this model, an area of concern is splitted into a
the reasons for their existing at any particular site.
grid of square cells, and the presence or absence
Thus, the rate of acquisition of information is very
of the various predictive attributes (e.g., different
irregular. The several scarps between plateaus in
lithologies, hydrothermal alteration, geophysical
the knowledge curve for some mineral deposit
or geochemical anomalism) is expressed for each
models might mark, successively, the recognition
cell, in the form of magnitude, counts or occur-
of very important aspects related to the genesis
rences, or percentage area occupied.
of the deposit, while plateaus denote periods of
absence of new knowledge. For instance, «a scarp
Geoenvironmental Models in the Mississippi Valley-type ores might involve
Geoenvironmental models are specific because recognition, from fluid-inclusion evidence, that
they are designed as natural extensions of mineral the ores were deposited from warm, about 100 °C,
deposit models. A geoenvironmental model of a highly saline solutions that could represent nei-
mineral deposit can be defined as «a compilation of ther simple surface nor marine waters» (Cox and
geological, geochemical, geophysical, h ydrologic, Singer 1986).
and engineering information pertaining to the Moreover, some aspects of any model always
environmental behavior of geologically similar remain to be determined and the model never
mineral deposits prior to mining» (Plumlee and reaches a definitive format. Indeed, «the approach
Nash 1995). Thus, the model offers information to complete understanding is asymptotic, and a
about natural geochemical variations associated lot of additional effort to clear up the last uncer-
with a particular deposit type and geochemical tainty in a nearly perfect model is probably
variations associated with its mining effluents, unwarranted» (Cox and Singer 1986). However,
wastes, and mineral processing facilities, includ- new ideas and new technologies can provide the
ing smelters. Such information should prove ben- impetus for new improvements in knowledge for
eficial to (1) environmental scientists interested until now incomplete models. Obviously, differ-
in mitigating potential environmental problems ent deposit types can require different amounts of
associated with proposed mines; (2) environmen- effort to achieve a similar level of genetic under-
tal scientists interested in remediating existing standing.
3.4 · Exploration Methods
137 3
3.4 Exploration Methods forthcoming since the late 1970s, the data from land
observation satellites have supplied a powerful tool
The geological, geophysical, and geochemical meth- for the exploration of mineral resources. Moreover,
ods applied at different stages of mineral resource satellite imagery (. Fig. 3.11) investigates the geo-
exploration are described in the next sections. The logical characteristics of remote areas of the surface
methods are organized in order of scale and stage, of the Earth without the requirement to access the
from remote sensing to drilling, through photoge- region on the ground. Thus, remote sensing is pro-
ology, geophysical, and geochemical surveys. viding information on mineral deposit exploration
targets without being in contact with the objects.
Remote sensing can highlight ore bodies and
3.4.1 Remote Sensing their respective mineralization or alteration sig-
natures as well as associated other features such as
Remote sensing is the characterization of the surface lineaments and faults. For instance, this method
of the Earth based on measurements of its reflected originates strong signals where gossans associated
or emitted electromagnetic radiation in wavelengths with hydrothermal alteration and oxidation of
from 0.3 to 3 m, being satellites the main observa- porphyry deposits are present. Another example
tion platforms. These wavelengths cover the range would be the discovery of fractures and faults in
from the ultraviolet to the microwave radar spec- volcanic regions with veins of precious metals.
trum although a great number of measurements On the other hand, the interpretation of satellite
are made in the visible range by passive methods, in imagery can originate very useful models before
which the reflected natural radiation is estimated. the start of geophysical investigations. In turn,
Remote sensing lead to the recognition of major geological and geophysical data can gage models
regional topographic features and geologic rela- obtained from this technique.
tionships and helping in the discovering of regions The resolution of remote sensing is restricted
with mineral potential. Since remote sensing was by the resolution of the imagery. According to this
.. Fig. 3.11 Satellite
image (Landsat) used
in mineral exploration
(pixel = 14.5 m × 14.5 m)
138
Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
factor, satellites can be classified into three main features. In the context of geological mapping, elec-
categories: (1) VHR (very high resolution), sub- tromagnetic methods can be classified as (1) pas-
meter pixels; (2) HR (high resolution), 2.5–10 m sive optical methods (utilize the sunlight as the
pixels; and (3) MR (mid resolution), greater source and estimate the reflectance of the surface of
than 10 m pixels. An image with 50 m resolu- the Earth in the visible and infrared spectral bands)
tion would start to pixelate at scales larger (more (e.g., Landsat 7 ETM+ and the ASTER instrument
3 detailed) than 1:100,000. By contrast, a very high- from the Terra satellite) and (2) active microwave
resolution (VHR) satellite scene with a 50 cm res- radar methods (use a microwave source onboard of
olution could be viewed at scales to 1:2500 before the satellite and calculate the backscatter from the
pixelation became apparent. Mid resolution data Earth) (e.g., Radarsat-1 and the radar sensor from
can be used for the initial, broad-scale study, to the Shuttle Radar Tomographic Mission [SRTM]).
derive, locate, and designate smaller areas of For its part, infrared imagery is divided into three
interest, while higher-resolution data are utilized classes: (1) very near infrared, which detects partic-
for subsequent analyses. ularly vegetation; (2) short wave infrared, the best
In contrast to electrical, magnetic, and gravity possibility to discriminate sedimentary rocks; and
methods that compute force fields, remote-sensing (3) thermal infrared, utilized to discriminate dark
technique is usually referred to methods that use the materials such as non-sedimentary rocks (Laake
electromagnetic energy as radio waves, light, and 2011). The most famous satellite used in geological
heat as the means of finding and measuring target studies is Landsat (. Box 3.2: Landsat Program).
Box 3.2
Landsat Program
The Landsat program is a series of Since 1972, Landsat satellites the Landsat series was designed
Earth-observing satellite missions have continuously acquired initially to provide multispectral
jointly managed by NASA and the space-based images of the Earth’s imagery for the study of renew-
US Geological Survey. In the mid- land surface, coastal shallows, able and nonrenewable resources,
1960s, stimulated by the USA’s and coral reefs. Landsat satellites geologists immediately recog-
successes in planetary exploration image the Earth’s surface along nized the geological potential
using unmanned remote-sensing the satellite’s ground track in a of the Landsat images, and the
satellites, the Department of the 185 km-wide swath as the satel- bands 5 and 7 in the TM were cho-
Interior, NASA, and the Depart- lite moves in a descending orbit sen specifically for their geologi-
ment of Agriculture embarked on (moving from north to south) cal applicability. The approximate
an ambitious effort to develop over the sunlit side of the Earth. scene size of TM images is 170 km
and launch the first civilian Earth Landsat 7 and Landsat 8 orbit north-south by 183 km east-west,
observation satellite. Their goal the Earth at 705 km altitude. and the radiance measured by the
was achieved on July 23, 1972, They each make a complete orbit Landsat sensor is a measure of the
with the launch of Landsat 1, every 99 min, complete about integration of soil, rock, and veg-
originally named «ERTS» for Earth 14 full orbits each day, and cross etation characteristics. Landsat
Resources Technology Satellite. every point on Earth once every 7 carries the Enhanced Thematic
Thus, the Landsat program, a 16 days. Mapper Plus (ETM+), with 30 m
joint effort of the US Geological For most geologists and other visible, near-IR, and SWIR bands,
Survey (USGS) and the National Earth scientists, multispectral a 60 m thermal band, and a 15 m
Aeronautics and Space Adminis- imagery is synonymous with panchromatic band. Landsat 8 is
tration (NASA), was established NASA’s Landsat series. The primary the latest satellite (2013) in this
to routinely gather land imagery sensor onboard Landsats 1, 2, and series (. Fig. 3.12) and operates
from space. NASA develops the 3 was the Multispectral Scanner in a near-circular, near-polar,
remote-sensing instruments and (MSS), with an image resolution sun-synchronous orbit with a
spacecraft, then launches and of approximately 80 m in four 705 km altitude at the equator. It
validates the performance of the spectral bands ranging from the carries two push-broom sensors:
instruments and satellites. The visible green to the near-infrared the Operational Land Imager
USGS then assumes ownership (IR) wavelengths. In July 1982, the (OLI) and Thermal Infrared Sen-
and operation of the satellites, in launch of Landsat 4 saw the inclu- sor (TIRS), both of which provide
addition to managing all ground sion of the Thematic Mapper (TM) improved signal to noise ratio and
reception, data archiving, product sensor with a 30 m resolution 12-bit radiometric quantization of
generation, and distribution. and 7 spectral bands. Although the data.
3.4 · Exploration Methods
139 3
The use of satellite imagery associated with mineral deposits, IR) of Landsat satellite, with wave-
is now a standard technique in and to produce maps of regional lengths between 2.08 and 2.35
mineral exploration, and Landsat and local fracture patterns, which micrometers and resolution of
imagery has been used to pro- can have controlled mineralization 30 m, is very useful for mapping
vide basic geological maps, to or hydrocarbon accumulations. hydrothermally altered rocks asso-
detect hydrothermal alteration For instance, TM band 7 (reflected ciated with mineral deposits.
.. Fig. 3.12 Artist concept of Landsat 8 (Image courtesy of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center)
3.4.3 Geological Mapping this early mapping was done to locate bedrocks
suitable for construction of canal systems, geo-
Publication in 1815 of the first colored, hand- logical maps (. Fig. 3.14) are used as a means of
painted geological map of England and Wales by presenting the observations as well as construct-
William Smith heralded the birth of modern geol- ing geological hypotheses. Geological mapping
ogy (Winchester 2001). Today, two centuries after plays an important role throughout the mine life
142 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
cycle, from regional- to district-scale exploration based mapping tools, recent technological
targeting, through drilling and ore discovery, to advances incorporate global positioning systems,
deposit assessment, ore-reserve estimation, pre- pen tablet computers, and laser ranging devices
production mine planning to production, and, that all support direct (paperless) field-based digi-
ultimately, mine closure. tal geological mapping. In this sense, geographic
Geological mapping has been used exten- information systems (GIS) revolutionized explora-
3 sively for mineral exploration for more than tion practices (. Box 3.3: Geographic Information
Box 3.3
.. Fig. 3.15 GIS image released with QGIS (a free and open-source geographic information system) including
different types of information such as geology or mining data (Image courtesy of Miguel Ángel Sanz)
There are two main reasons that mapping as the basis for preliminary examinations to assess
remains an essential part of mineral explora- mineral potential, frequently in conjunction with
tion. First, mapping creates the geometric pat- geochemical, geophysical, or remote-sensing sur-
terns that represent the geological attributes of veys or compilation of mine and prospect data.
an exploration target. Second, there are scientific, However, geological maps available today,
engineering, and financial implications of map- either published by government surveys or in
ping because subsequent geophysical modeling, many scientific journals, are generally not well
ore-reserve estimation, financial forecasting, and suited for special needs of mineral exploration
economic evaluation are based on the interpreta- and development and require exploration geolo-
tion of such work (Brimhall et al. 2006). The qual- gists to undertake specialized mapping. Whereas
ity and scale of the geological map will vary with published maps of general geology do outline
the importance of the program and the finance information essential to exploration, including
available. Scales of geological maps range from rock units, stratigraphy, ages of rocks, and general
reconnaissance (1:24,000 or smaller) to detailed structure, they are in most cases not sufficiently
project scale (1:100 to 1:12,000). detailed to help delineate mineral deposits that
Geological mapping is widely used in planning are typically 1–2 km2 in outcrop area even for
exploration strategies such as the selection of regions world-class deposits. Consequently, the geologi-
to explore for certain types of ore deposits. Prior to cal mapping at this stage generally is done at a
mapping campaigns, existing geological maps are more detailed and larger scale than published
examined and can be compiled to emphasize key mapping, and key lithologic units and features
geological features to assess exploration potential. of mineralization or hydrothermal alteration are
Exploration geologists commonly use existing maps mapped using the reconnaissance techniques.
144 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
Since geological information is commonly economic minerals will produce them, but even
recorded on maps and cross sections at a scale the presence of a clear physical contrast between
appropriate to the aims, property geology must be mineralization and surrounding rocks does not
defined at a scale of 1:5000, while mineral deposit imply a significant anomaly (Milson 2006).
geology must be mapped to a scale of 1:1000 or Geophysical measurements in the natu-
even more detailed. Information displayed in this ral environment will be contaminated with
3 type of map includes faulting, folding, rock types, unwanted information. This is called noise, which
fracture/vein density and orientation, evidence is a source of error, while the information being
of primary porosity/permeability, and phases of sought in the measurement is known as signal.
mineralization, among many others. Signal amplitude should be as high as possible
Regarding geological mapping in underground whereas noise signal should be as low as possible,
mines, it can play an essential role in mineral explo- in order to obtain an accurate measurement of the
ration. Abandoned mine workings are the most parameter of interest. In any case, suppression of
direct guides of the mineralization in a region and noise is of outmost importance and must be con-
provide the immediate information on ore occur- sidered at every stage of the geophysical program,
rences. If the workings are active, they provide a from data acquisition to presentation of the data
series of fresh geological exposures with each for interpretation (Dentith and Mudge 2014).
meter of advance, and they supply well-located Geophysical methods can be classified as
sites for underground drilling and sampling. passive (magnetism, specific gravity, and radio-
activity) and active methods (electric conductiv-
ity, electromagnetic properties, and seismicity).
3.4.4 Geophysical Exploration Passive methods use natural sources of energy,
of which the Earth’s gravity and magnetic fields
Introduction are two examples, to investigate the ground. The
Mineral exploration is increasingly being geophysical measurement is made with a detector,
addressed to searching for buried and deep tar- sensor, or receiver, which measures the response
gets since there are few large ore bodies to be of the local geology to the natural energy. In turn,
found at the surface. Unlike geochemistry and active geophysical methods involve the deliber-
other remote-sensing techniques, geophysics ate introduction of some form of energy into the
helps to look at into the subsurface and to provide ground, for example, seismic waves or electric
information about the concealed geology. Thus, currents. Again, the response of the ground to the
geophysics is an integral part of most mineral introduced energy is measured with some form
exploration programs. Geophysical techniques of detector (. Fig. 3.16). These methods are more
have been used in mineral prospecting for the complicated and expensive to work with.
past 300 years, beginning in Sweden around 1640
with the use of magnetic compasses in explor-
ing for iron ore. These techniques are essential in
areas where outcrop is poor or has been subject
to intense mineral search over a long period. In
some cases, geophysical techniques also enable
for quick regional appraisal of areas where ground
access is almost impossible, for instance, rain for-
est terrain or developing countries with insuffi-
cient infrastructure (Marjoribanks 2010).
For a geophysical technique to be useful in
mineral exploration, there must be a clear contrast
in the physical characteristics of the minerals,
rocks, and ores related to the existence of valu-
able minerals. Geophysical anomalies, defined
as differences from a constant or slowly varying .. Fig. 3.16 Geophones for receiving seismic signal
background, can be recorded. Ideally, the actual (Image courtesy of International Geophysical Technology)
3.4 · Exploration Methods
145 3
The geophysical signal can be directly related matched with surface geological data to decide if it
to mineral deposits, for example, a magnetic is worth proceeding with further exploration.
anomaly caused by magnetite ore in an iron Geophysical techniques are routinely used in
deposit. More commonly, geophysical methods exploration programs to help the project geologist
provide indirect evidence that leads to interpre- delineate areas favorable for the type of target being
tations of the subsurface geological distribution pursued. They can be used to directly detect some
of rocks, but it does not directly or necessarily minerals, indirectly detect others, and map geologi-
reflect the presence of a mineral deposit. These cal and structural features in exploration programs.
types of methods are applied to both mineral Direct detection includes using induced polariza-
discovery and geological mapping. They are use- tion (IP) to find disseminated sulfides, magnetics
ful because geophysical responses of materials to delineate magnetite-hosting rocks, and gravity
can be measured through vegetation, soil cover, and electrical techniques for massive sulfides. For
and extraneous overburden. In many cases, geo- instance, indirect detection of targets includes
physical measurements provide the only means of «using IP to detect pyrite in association with
interpreting the geological characteristics of the sphalerite and gold (both non-responders to IP
subsurface short of drilling, which is much more geophysical techniques), and copper and molybde-
expensive (Gocht et al. 1988). num in porphyry systems; magnetics are routinely
Over the area of interest, geophysical instru- used to search for hydrothermal alteration in asso-
ments are deployed in the field to measure varia- ciation with porphyry systems, and can be used to
tions in a physical parameter associated with map buried stream channels (e.g. magnetite sands)
variations in a physical property of the subsur- that might host placer gold» (Mukherjee 2011).
face, and the measurements are used to infer Seismic surveys are highly effective for investigat-
the geology of the survey area. Of particular sig- ing layered stratigraphy, so they are the mainstay
nificance is the ability of geophysical methods to of the petroleum industry but are comparatively
make these inferences from a distance and, for rarely used in the minerals industry. Regarding
some methods, without contact with the ground. costs of geophysical surveys, the seismic method is
A considerable number of geophysical explora- the most expensive, while airborne magnetic and
tion methods are available for mineral explora- radiometrics are the less expensive.
tion, and each method exists in several variants. It is very important to note that most impor-
The specific choice is a function of the geological tant advances in geophysical exploration for ore
and exploration model of the targeted deposits; of deposits in the last 25 years dealt with advances
general conditions such as remoteness, climate, in theory or practice of the different methods but
and human land use; and of the costs (Shen et al. also with the development of more sophisticated
2008). Through either ground, airborne, or in- instrumentation and especially more powerful
ground (downhole) methods, geophysical studies data processing. These advances together with the
employ the types of surveys cited above to detect use of GPS for survey positioning control have
anomalous signals related to the presence of min- greatly reduced the cost and time involved in
erals. all geophysical surveys and have increased their
The chief advantages of airborne surveying resolution in the detection of anomalous signals
relative to ground surveying are the greater speed in the data.
of data acquisition and the completeness of the Traditionally, most geophysical data has been
survey coverage. After their introduction in the presented for interpretation in the form of contoured
1950s, airborne geophysical surveys became com- or raster plans and sections that can be interpreted
monly used as a first step in geophysical explora- in terms of the geology and ore mineralization that
tion. They provide the quickest, and often the most they represent. However, new methods of analyzing
cost-effective, ways of obtaining geological infor- and presenting geophysical data have been intro-
mation about large areas. Two or more methods duced in the last two decades to revolutionize the
are commonly combined in one survey to obtain interpretation process. These methods are gener-
data that are more accurate. In surface geophysics, ally referred to as «data inversion» (McGauchy
geophysical work on the ground is normally rather 2007; Oldenburg and Pratt 2007) (. Box 3.4: Data
slow. Results from airborne and surface surveys are Inversion in Geophysical Exploration).
146 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
Box 3.4
.. Fig. 3.17 3-D
geophysical inversion a
images. a 3-D con-
ductivity model from
frequency-domain
electromagnetic field
inversion (Geosoft
VOXI Earth Modelling);
b 3-D susceptibility
model from magnetic
field inversion (Geosoft
VOXI Earth Modelling) b Gridded
observed
(Images courtesy of data
Geosoft)
Y X
3.4 · Exploration Methods
147 3
models, the product of inversion its construction. It is a feature of measured in the field. Choosing
modeling is only as good as the geophysical inversion models between different possible mod-
geological choices made in set- that shows they are not unique: els requires geological knowledge
ting up the model parameters many different models can be about the area, and the better
and the accuracy of the geophysi- constructed that will reproduce that knowledge, the more useful
cal properties that are used in the geophysical pattern that was and realistic the inversion model.
mGal
57.574
57.547
57.531
57.514
57.502
3
57.488
57.478
57.467
57.456
57.448
57.438
57.431
57.421
57.414
57.405
57.398
57.389
57.381
57.373
57.364
57.357
57.348
57.340
57.330
57.322
57.311
57.300
57.290
57.277
57.265
57.248
57.231
57.205
57.173
.. Fig. 3.19 Bouguer anomaly map (Illustration courtesy of International Geophysical Technology)
heavy minerals will also affect gravity at a given used for mineral exploration if substantial density
point and will produce an anomaly above nor- contrasts are expected. Thus, chromite and sulfide
mal background levels. Anomalies of exploration bodies possess very high densities, and buried
interest are often about 0.2 mgal, and data have to channels, which can contain gold or uranium,
be corrected for variations due to elevation, lati- can be detected because they have relatively low
tude, and other factors. density. In fact, gravity surveying is rarely used
Much less can be deduced about the shape or in reconnaissance exploration because it is rela-
the depth of the investigated mineral deposit. A tively slow to execute and therefore expensive.
deeper body will, other things being equal, give However, gravity methods are very useful as a
rise to a broader and flatter anomaly. Likewise, the follow-up method utilized on a target defined
peaks of gravity anomalies are generally situated by another, more cost-effective method. In this
just above the causative bodies (a causative body sense, gravity surveys, along with regional aero-
is a rock unit of different density from its sur- magnetic data, played a significant role in the dis-
roundings), which is not the case for many other covery of the giant deeply buried Olympic Dam
geophysical methods. Regarding the interpreta- mineral deposit in Australia (Rutter and Esdale
tion of the measurements, «the reliability of any 1985), and the discovery of the Neves Corvo sul-
interpretation, no matter how sophisticated the fide deposits in Portugal was carried out utilizing
technique, depends, of course, on the validity of regional gravity surveys of the Portuguese pyrite
the input assumptions» (Milson 2006). belt on 100 and 200 m grids (Leca 1990).
Gravity surveys can be carried out either from
airborne or ground surveys, but the most sensi- Magnetic Methods
tive measurements are currently achieved from Magnetic methods, which are probably the oldest
the ground. They are used to evaluate the amount of geophysical exploration methods, thrived after
of high-density mineral present in an ore body, the World War II. Magnetic surveys (. Fig. 3.20)
and as a general rule, gravity prospecting is only measure variations of the Earth’s magnetic field
3.4 · Exploration Methods
149 3
Diamagnetic minerals show negative susceptibili-
ties and examples of these materials are quartzite
and salt although many of the elements and com-
pounds exhibit diamagnetism. Salt domes thus give
diamagnetic anomalies (weak negative anomalies).
Paramagnetic minerals are ones where the electron
shells are incomplete; as a result, they generate weak
magnetic fields. By definition, all materials that are
not diamagnetic are paramagnetic. Examples of
materials that are paramagnetic are the 20Ca to
28Ni element series. Finally, ferromagnetic miner-
als are minerals that are paramagnetic, but where
groups of atoms align to make domains. There are
only three ferromagnetic elements: iron, cobalt,
and nickel. Almost all natural magnetic minerals
are of this kind. Magnetite, which is the most abun-
dant, ilmenite, hematites, titanomagnetite, and the
oxides of iron or iron and titanium are common
ferromagnetic minerals. Magnetite (Fe3O4) is found
disseminated through most rocks in differing con-
.. Fig. 3.20 Magnetic survey (Image courtesy of Interna-
tional Geophysical Technology)
centrations. The magnetization can be either tem-
porary (induced) in the same direction as the field
of the Earth or permanent (remanent) and fixed
caused by the presence of magnetic minerals. in direction with respect to the rock, regardless
Magnetic outcomes result primarily from the mag- of folding or rotation. All geologically significant
netization induced in susceptible rocks by the mag- magnetic minerals lose their magnetic properties at
netic field of the Earth: everywhere in the Earth about 600 °C, a temperature reached near the base
there is a natural magnetic field. These methods of the continental crust. Consequently, local fea-
are widely used, both as an essential assistance in tures on magnetic maps are virtually all of crustal
regional mapping and for direct location of those origin (Milson 2006).
mineral deposits that show distinct magnetic sig- As a rule, the magnetite content and, therefore,
nature. Magnetic and gravity methods have much the susceptibility of rocks are very variable, being
in common. The magnetic map, however, is gener- present a considerable overlap between different
ally more complex, and the variations in field are mineralogies and lithologies (. Table 3.2). Basic
more erratic and localized than the gravity map. igneous rocks are commonly highly magnetic
Thus, the precise interpretation of magnetic field because this type of rock has a relatively high
data is usually much more difficult than for gravity. magnetite content. In this sense, the proportion of
Magnetic surveys are often utilized in metallic magnetite in igneous rocks usually decreases with
mineral exploration, particularly locating iron ores. increasing acidity; for this reason, acid igneous
However, ordinary hematite, the most abundant rocks are generally less magnetic than basic rocks.
ore of iron, rarely produces anomalies large enough Metamorphic rocks are also very different in their
to be detectable in conventional aeromagnetic sur- magnetic character, depending of the metamor-
veys. The combination effect of several geophysical phism grade. Regarding sedimentary rocks, they
techniques such as aeromagnetic interpretation are effectively nonmagnetic unless they contain
with study of regional gravity and radiometric data a significant amount of magnetite in the heavy
can produce further gains in the interpretation of mineral fraction. Thus, if magnetic anomalies are
the underlying rocks. detected in areas covered with sediments, these
Minerals can be diamagnetic, paramagnetic, or anomalies are mainly originated by an underlying
ferromagnetic. In diamagnetic minerals, all the elec- igneous or metamorphic basement or by intru-
tron shells are full; there are no unpaired electrons. sions into the sediments.
150 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
displayed in the form of a contour map of the utilizing a portable spectrometer. Radiometric
magnetic field, interpretation is often made on surveys for mineral exploration are made from
profiles. According to Kearey et al. (2002), mag- the air, on the ground, and within drillholes.
netic anomalies range in amplitude from a few Airborne radiometrics is particularly common
tens of nT over deep metamorphic basement in mineral exploration where the radiometric
to several 100 nT over basic intrusions and can data are acquired simultaneously with magnet-
3 reach an amplitude of several 1000 nT over mag- ics during airborne surveying, measurements
netite ores. usually calculated from a low-flying aircraft
Direct search for magnetic targets related simultaneously as air magnetic studies. As afore-
to mineralization is an important exploration mentioned, aerial and ground use are restricted
method, especially in those provinces with to areas with little soil cover, because most radia-
banded iron formations, IOCG mineralization tion on the surface comes from the uppermost
types, strongly oxidized porphyry copper intru- 10–50 cm.
sives, magnetite skarns, or pyrrhotite-bearing Although the Geiger-Muller radiation detec-
massive sulfides. In such cases, favorable anom- tor was used in the early era of radiometric
alies are commonly obtained from high-quality surveying, the instruments used nowadays are
low-level aeromagnetics, followed up then by scintillometers, the simplest form of instru-
ground magnetometer traverses and magnetic ment, and spectrometers, a more complex type,
modeling to define a drill target. «Magnetics that detect gamma rays by their interaction
have been also used to define subtle explora- with matter. Small handheld and larger portable
tion targets such as heavy mineral concentra- spectrometers for ground surveying have inter-
tions in palaeo-strand lines and potential iron nal memories to store the large quantity of data
ore and gold orebodies in palaeochannels» acquired, which is generally restricted to mea-
(Marjoribanks 2010). Examples of ore depos- surements in the K, U, and Th energy windows
its found largely as a result of their magnetic and the total count (Dentith and Mudge 2014).
response are the Olympic Dam mineral deposit The presentation of the obtained data in radio-
(Reeve et al. 1990) and the Broken Hill-type metric methods is similar to that of magnetic
deposit of Cannington in Australia. This deposit data. In this sense, the high geochemical mobility
was discovered as a consequence of drill test- of elements such as K and U in surficial environ-
ing and an air magnetic anomaly, generated by ments is the motive for the common use of ratios
associated pyrrhotite, in a zone of thick younger (U/Th, K/Th) in these maps due to the almost
cover (Walters et al. 2002). immobile Th. With respect to the presentation
of the obtained data in radiometric methods, it
Radiometric Methods is similar to that of magnetic data. As in grav-
Radiometric surveys carried out the estimation ity and magnetic methods, corrections must be
of the gamma rays emitted from the Earth by also made in radiometric surveys for the effects
natural decomposition of frequent radiogenic of scattered thorium radiation in the uranium
minerals, being a useful technique to map fault window and for the effect of both thorium and
zones or boundaries between geological units. uranium in the potassium window.
Natural radioactive decay produces alpha par- There are over 50 occurring naturally radioac-
ticles, beta particles, and gamma rays. These tive elements, but the elements of main concern
are very high-frequency electromagnetic waves. in radiometric studies are uranium (238U), tho-
Thus, radiometric survey is a passive geophysi- rium (232Th), and potassium (40K). The latter is
cal method because it measures a natural source common in potassium-rich rocks that cannot be
of energy, similar to gravity and magnetic meth- related to concentrations of U and Th. The most
ods. Most gamma rays are produced in the top abundant radioactive element in the crust is the
30 cm of soil and rocks that can be sensed by potassium isotope 40K, which is widely included
airborne investigations and on surface rocks into the crystal structure of the rock-forming
3.4 · Exploration Methods
153 3
.. Fig. 3.21 Instrumen-
tation for ground radio-
metric (Image courtesy of
International Geophysical
Technology)
minerals are scattered in their host rocks. The self- methods, operate much better in the upper few
potential method uses natural currents present 100 m of the surface with unweathered rocks rela-
in the ground and originated by electrochemical tively close to the surface.
processes with the aim of finding shallow bodies As a rule, the resistivity method is scarcely
that display anomalous conductivity. Although used in mineral resource exploration. Conversely,
the origin of the potentials is not well understood, IP is important in base metal exploration because
conductive mineralization can be associated with it depends on the surface area of the conduc-
a negative self-potential anomaly. tive mineral grains rather than their connectiv-
Electrical methods are used at regional and ity, being successfully employed to a maximum
prospect scale for direct detection of electri- depth of around 600 m. Induced polarization (IP)
cally anomalous targets and, in particular, to surveys cause an electric field in the ground and
detect metal sulfide and metal oxide mineraliza- calculate the chargeability and resistivity of the
tion. Establishing the depth of the source of the subsurface. Thus, this method is capable of iden-
response is problematic in electrical methods. tify changes in the electric currents produced by
Varying the position of the electrode array and the existence of different rocks and minerals. IP
the separation of the electrodes (. Fig. 3.22), lat-
surveys are conducted along grid lines with read-
eral and vertical variations in electrical properties ings taken at receiving electrodes planted in the
can be mapped and used to produce data pseu- ground and moved from station to station.
dosections, volumes, and maps. However, moving IP is especially sensitive to disseminated min-
cables, electrodes, and equipment from one point eralization that can produce no resistivity anomaly.
to the next makes these methods laborious and After magnetic methods, IP technique is probably
slow. Electrical methods, as with electromagnetic one of the oldest geophysical methods utilized in
3.4 · Exploration Methods
155 3
NW SE
30 Gravel or sand 30
Water
25 500 25
Elevation (m)
15 200
15
10 Fresh granite 10
1000 1500
1000
5 5
0m 20 m 40 m 60 m 80 m 100 m
Fresh granite
Weathered granite
50
55
61
67
74
81
90
99
109
120
132
146
160
177
195
215
237
261
287
317
349
385
424
467
515
568
629
689
760
837
923
1017
1121
1235
Resistivity
(Ohm.m)
Clay Gravel
Sand
.. Fig. 3.23 Graphic display of an IP survey (Illustration courtesy of International Geophysical Technology)
conductivity of layers down to 300 m below sur- metal producers in eastern Canada is immediately
face. Unlike conventional resistivity techniques, related to the development of airborne electro-
EM works without a physical contact to the magnetic surveys (Lulin 1990).
ground, without electrodes, which is in advantage EM surveys can be also applied in drillholes
for use above ice, water, swamps, frozen, or arid (DHEM) measuring the effects of currents flow-
ground. ing between the drillhole and the surface or
EM surveys are conducted from the air (AEM), between contiguous holes. This method can
on the ground surface, and in drillholes (down- reduce the amount of delineation drilling
hole electromagnetics – DHEM) (. Fig. 3.24).
required. In general, DHEM is one of the most
Ground-based EM methods are relatively expen- important geophysical tools in the exploration
sive, being used mainly to define targets for drill- for conductive massive sulfide mineralization,
ing in specific mineralization styles. For its part, especially deep nickel sulfide bodies. For many
airborne investigations incorporating this geo- reasons (e.g., many host rocks and mineralization
physical method have been commonly utilized for can give a similar geophysical signal), electromag-
direct ore location and sometimes in regional geo- netic methods are useful in locating ores in some
logical mapping. They were originally developed regions of the world where fresh and not oxidized
in the frequency domain to detect conductive rocks are present near the surface. An example of
massive sulfide bodies within the resistive rocks of this type of regions is the recently glaciated areas
the Precambrian shield of Canada. The subsequent of North America, northern Europe, and Russia.
need to explore other kinds of geological environ- Besides the described techniques, the mag-
ments, combined with developments in EM sys- netotelluric method (MT) is a passive elec-
tems, has led to higher-sensitivity time-domain tromagnetic technique used for exploring the
systems now being used almost exclusively for conductivity structure of the Earth from tens of
mineral exploration. Airborne electromagnetic meters to a depth of more than 10,000 m. It is a
surveys are used in mineral exploration to discover survey method that utilizes the Earth’s telluric
mineral deposits such as sulfides containing cop- current produced in the ground by variations of
per or lead, magnetite, pyrite, unconformity-style the Earth’s magnetic field. The main applications
uranium mineralizations, kimberlite pipes, certain of this technique are in hydrocarbon explora-
manganese minerals, and paleochannels as poten- tion. Finally, ground-penetrating radar (GPR)
tial hosts for placer deposits and sandstone- and is a geophysical method that uses radar pulses
calcrete-hosted uranium deposits (Dentith and to image the subsurface, being utilized in rock,
Mudge 2014). On the other hand, the discovery soil, ice, fresh water, structures, etc. It can detect
of massive sulfide deposits that form major base changes in material as well as voids and cracks.
3.4 · Exploration Methods
157 3
–8.0
–10.0
–12.0 Contact
–14.0 Intensely
or clayey level
–15.0
karstified zone
–18.0
85+640 85+660 85+680 85+700 85+720 85+740
Karstified zone
–8.0
–10.0
–12.0 Contact
–14.0 Intensely
or clayey level
–16.0 karstified zone
–18.0
85+640 85+660 85+680 85+700 85+720 85+740
.. Fig. 3.25 Results of a GPR survey (Illustration courtesy of International Geophysical Technology)
This method has a great similarity with seismic Most seismic work uses reflection methods
method and may be considered as a mini reflec- because they produce better resolution than other
tion seismic survey. . Figure 3.25 is an example
techniques, with the exception of measurements
of a GPR survey. made in close proximity (e.g., as with borehole
logs). Seismic methods dominate oil industry since
Seismic Methods reflection seismic is the most important geophysi-
Seismic methods are based on measurements of cal method to prospect for oil and gas at greater
the time interval between initiation of a seismic depths. As aforementioned, these techniques are
(elastic) wave and its arrival at detectors in order comparatively little used in mineral exploration,
to obtain an image of the subsurface. The seismic mainly due to their high cost and because most
wave can be generated by an explosion, a dropped mineralizations in igneous and metamorphic rocks
weight, a mechanical vibrator, a bubble of high- display incoherent layering. Applications of these
pressure air injected into water, and other sources. techniques include searching offshore placers or
The seismic wave is detected by a geophone on land subsea resources of bulk minerals such as sands
or by a hydrophone in water. Since seismic waves and gravels. Where ores occur in sedimentary rocks
(e.g., P-waves and S-waves), which propagate with that are just gently folded or faulted, seismic surveys
different velocities in different rock types, are can be useful. However, reflection work onshore is
reflected and refracted at bedding or fault contacts, slow and expensive because geophones have to be
reflection and refraction are the most commonly positioned individually by hand and sources can
used seismic techniques. Refraction methods use need to be buried. The use of reflection in onshore
simpler equipment (. Fig. 3.26) and need less pro- exploration for solid minerals other than coal is
cessing than reflection methods. Compared with consequently rare, although Witwatersrand gold
other geophysical methods, the seismic method, in reefs, flat-lying kimberlite sills, and some deep
any of its forms, is rarely used in mineral explora- nickel sulfide bodies have all been investigated in
tion. this way (Eaton et al. 2003).
158 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
.. Fig. 3.27 Electromag-
netic airborne survey (Image
courtesy of Geotech)
Likewise, the mining industry uses detector therefore, they can be carried out from aircraft.
and/or seismic sources located in the subsurface, Obviously, there is a loss of sensitivity because
with access provided by drillholes or underground detectors are far away from sources. The main
workings. Thus, seismic surveys can map miner- merit of airborne work is that it enables coverage
alization between drillhole intersections and are of large areas quickly and inexpensively per unit
used for exploration at a prospect scale and dur- area. Moreover, airborne surveys measure physi-
ing mining. Seismic survey also utilized seismic cal properties of rocks and ores through dense
waves that are deliberately guided through coal vegetation, swamps, lakes, and soils, among
seams to gather information of its characteristicsmany others. They are usually part of the recon-
prior to mining (Dentith and Mudge 2014). naissance phase of mineral resource exploration,
although some modern airborne systems offer
Airborne Geophysics higher resolution by surveying very close to
Magnetic, electromagnetic (. Fig. 3.27), gamma- the ground and can find application in the later
ray, and more recently gravity measurements stages of exploration. Airborne geophysical sur-
do not need physical contact with the ground; veys are typically undertaken using low-flying
3.4 · Exploration Methods
159 3
helicopters or light aircraft that fly in a grid pat-
tern, being the instruments mounted on the air-
craft or positioned underneath. According to the
survey type, the aircraft can fly ranging from 20
to 70 m above the ground and the flight lines can
be delimited from 20 to 200 m apart. Airborne
investigations can be flown either at a constant
altitude or at a nominally constant height above
the ground, which is more common in mineral
exploration.
Since airborne methods need a very good
navigational control, airborne surveys have been
completely transformed by the use of global
positioning satellites (GPS). With this instru-
ment, velocities can be estimated with great
accuracy, making airborne gravimetry, which
requires velocity corrections, usable for the first
time in mineral exploration. In the near future,
pilotless drones can fly some airborne surveys,
especially aeromagnetic surveys. In fact, drones
are already used in topographic applications
(. Fig. 3.13).
with magnetics. Finally, airborne gravimetry mea- Borehole Geophysical Logging). Borehole geo-
sures the changes in the gravity field with an air- physical surveys result in the higher resolution
borne gravimeter on a helicopter or an aircraft. It of data, especially in conjunction with geologi-
involves using ultra-sensitive equipment, called a cal, physical, and chemical core logging results
gravimeter, to look at the structure density of rock (Ellis and Singer 2007). Downhole geophysical
in the subsurface of the Earth. New generation surveys increase the radius and depth of inves-
gravimeters back out the movement of the aircraft tigation and provide greater resolution of buried
from the data, providing a more accurate mea- targets. For instance, in the uranium industry,
surement. Once corrections are made to the data, borehole logging is actually a basic tool in the
critical information can be derived for mapping exploration and delineation of uranium deposits
purposes. (Mwenifumbo and Mwenifumbo 2013).
160
Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
Box 3.5
.. Fig. 3.29
Borehole geophysical
logs Log10 (conductivity) Temperature gradient
(mK/m)
Low
High
12
0
60
60
70
70
80
80
Depth (m)
90
90
Depth (m)
100
100
110
110
120
120
130
3.4 · Exploration Methods
161 3
indicate the direction and even gamma, single-point resistance, emit relatively high gamma
the shape of targets. For instance, spontaneous potential, normal radiation because they include
downhole electromagnetic survey resistivity, induced polarization, weathering products of potassium
detects conductivity variations, fluid resistivity, temperature, flow- feldspar and mica and tend to
probably owing to mineralization, meter, television, and acoustic and concentrate uranium and thorium
in the volume surrounding the optical televiewer (. Fig. 3.30).
by ion absorption and exchange.
drillhole. Downhole geophysical For instance, the caliper probe The optical televiewer probe gets
surveys increase the radius and (. Fig. 3.28) measures the diame-
optical views of the wall and is
depth of investigation and provide ter of the borehole as a continuous useful in locating structures such
greater resolution of buried tar- record against depth and is used as faults and also bed boundaries
gets. For instance, exploration of an as a check of borehole condition where there is a significant change
iron ore body could be improved before casing operations or before in rock formation colors. Acoustic
by a density log. The located min- running more expensive log- televiewer tools have a transmitter
eralization can be split into layers ging probes. Gamma logs record that scans the borehole wall with
of magnetite and hematite using a the amount of natural gamma an acoustic beam, and the acoustic
magnetic susceptibility log. radiation emitted by the rocks sur- energy reflected at the borehole
Common geophysical logs rounding the borehole; clay- and fluid and rock interface is recorded
and/or probes include caliper, shale-bearing rocks commonly by a receiver.
.. Fig. 3.30
Acoustic and
optical televiewer
probes (Image
courtesy of
Enviroscan)
densities. Most exploration programs begin with during the 1930s (Garret et al. 2008). Modern
regional stream sediment sampling followed by surveys are conceptually similar to earlier sur-
soil and then rock sampling. Geochemical surveys veys but are considerably more complex in their
in mineral exploration are based on two features details. This complexity in modern geochemical
of an ore deposit: (1) association with abnormal surveys arises from several sources (Adcock et al.
concentrations of elements in the nearby rocks, 2013): (1) the number of samples collected in a
and/or (2) association with secondary scattered single survey can sometimes reach several thou-
patterns of elements in the surficial materials sand, and national- or continental-scale projects
of their weathering and erosion; it substantially can involve numerous surveys carried out over
increases the area in which evidence for the pres- several years. (2) different sample types (e.g.,
ence of a mineral target can be detected. glacial sediment, multiple soil horizons, water,
The most commonly measured chemical prop- vegetation) can be collected at each sampling
erty in a mineral or rock is the trace content of an site. (3) a sample can be processed in various
element or cluster of elements. The analyzed mate- ways (crushing, sieving, heavy and/or magnetic
rial can be rock, soil (. Fig. 3.31), gossan, glacial
mineral separation, washing, etc.) before being
debris, vegetation, stream sediment, or water. Thus, subjected to chemical analysis. (4) the sample
«the purpose of the measurements is the discovery can be analyzed by a variety of different meth-
of a geochemical anomaly or area where the chem- ods, by different laboratories, over a time period
ical pattern indicates the presence of ore in the of years or even decades. A clear example of this
vicinity» (Hawkes 1957). Obviously, the absence of complexity is the China Geochemical Baselines
such anomalies helps to eliminate areas for further project, which was carried out in 2008, being
consideration. However, it is essential to bear in sampling completed in 2012. The main goal was
mind that the basic geochemical question required to establish the abundance and spatial distribu-
60 years of discussion: what constitutes a geo- tion of chemical elements throughout the whole
chemical anomaly and how can this be enhanced China. Running the project, 6617 samples from
(sample processing and analytical methods) and 3382 sites were collected across the country
detected (a number of univariate and multivariate (Wang 2015).
mathematical techniques)? (Cohen et al. 2007). In general, a geochemical survey is divided
The modern techniques of geochemical pros- into the following phases: (1) planning, (2) sam-
pecting originated in the Soviet Union and Scan- pling, (3) chemical analysis, and (4) interpretation
dinavia where extensive research was conducted of data. As a general rule, samples are collected in
3.4 · Exploration Methods
163 3
689700 690000 690300 690600
ain
Sp
4162500
4162500
Murcia Region
Sp47 Sp48
Sp49
4162200
4162200
Sp45
S16 S18
Sp46 Legend
Sp42 Sp43
Sp44 Zn (Total sediments)
<P25
S10 S11 S12 P25 - Median
Sp36 Sp37 Sp38 Median - P85
>P85
4161900
4161900
Sp39
Sp40 S21 Sampling point
Sp31 Sp32
S3 Sp33 Sp41
S1 S2 S4 Sp34
Sp30 S5 N
S6 Sp35
Portman Bay
4161600
4161600
Mediterranean Sea
Tragsa
Research group:
689700 690000 690300 690600 Soil contamination E048-08
.. Fig. 3.32 Color contour map of a geochemical survey (Spain) (Illustration courtesy of Mari Luz García)
the field. They are brought to a laboratory facil- rocks at the time of ore formation. For instance,
ity where they are subjected to preparation prior some of the fluid permeates into wall rocks in
to analysis, including crushing, sieving, drying, hydrothermal deposits causing different altera-
and filtering. The prepared samples are then sent tions which include chemical changes. Halos of
to different laboratories for chemical analysis. this type are very useful in exploration since they
Where the data are returned, they are verified and can commonly be hundreds of times larger than
reported typically in a spreadsheet format, with a the mineralization they surround. Moreover, they
set of rows and columns. Finally, these data are extended both laterally and vertically, hence being
processed using different statistical methods (e.g., easier to locate. Primary dispersion halos have a
multivariate analysis) and displayed commonly as great variety of sizes and shapes due to the numer-
color contour map (. Fig. 3.32). The objective is
ous variables that influence fluid movement in
to establish a geochemical anomaly that separates rock. Thus, some halos can even be identified at
the mineral deposit from enhancements in back- distances of hundreds of meters from their related
ground and nonsignificant deposits. mineralization. The factors that control the devel-
opment of primary halos are manifold: fractures
rimary and Secondary Geochemical
P in the host rock, porosity and permeability of
Anomalies the host rock, inclination of mineralizing fluids
Geochemical anomalies are commonly divided to react chemically with the host rock, and so
into primary or secondary. The primary geo- on. Obviously, the composition and distribution
chemical anomalies are formed as by-product of of these primary halos depend on the type of
the processes that concentrate ore; they are larger deposit. For instance, porphyry copper deposits
than the ore target itself. As defined originally by usually display chemical halos that measure hun-
Safronov (1936), «the primary halo of a mineral dreds of meters horizontally and vertically.
deposit is an area including rock, surrounding Since trace elements of mineralization and
mineral deposit (ore bodies) and enriched ele- their linked primary halos are commonly dis-
ments that make up that deposit.» In general, charged by weathering processes to soils, overbur-
primary dispersion halos are produced in the host den, and vegetation, they generate a subsequent
164 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
generation of enrichment called secondary halos. by classical analytical procedures (. Table 3.3).
Thus, secondary geochemical anomalies or halos For instance, arsenic is commonly utilized as a
are formed by processes that acted on the deposit pathfinder in exploration for gold. The choice of
after its formation. These types of halos are gen- pathfinder elements/metals depends on many
erated by mechanical breakdown and chemical factors such as consistency of association with
dissolution of rocks and ores. Chemical weather- the ore deposits sought, characteristics of primary
3 ing involves breakdown of rocks and minerals by dispersion, and ease with which geochemical
chemical means with further discharge of their analysis can be performed (Levinson 1974).
contained trace elements to the environment. The variable mobility of elements is of great
It requires abundant water, oxygen, and carbon significance in the process that causes secondary
dioxide. In general, chemical weathering is more dispersion. Elements with high mobility under sur-
abundant in tropical regions although it can also ficial conditions enlarge the anomalous zone. For
be substantial in temperate areas. In turn, physi- instance, a project targeting polymetallic deposits of
cal weathering includes all processes of rock dis- Pb, Zn, and Cu would use mobile Zn for regional
integration not involving chemical changes, being sampling with a low density, whereas dense sam-
more frequent in very cold or hot arid regions. pling of Zn anomalies for Cu and Pb should reveal
Mechanical breakdown and further trans- the drilling targets (Pohl 2011). In this context, there
port in surface water runoff concentrate resistant are many important properties in the elements such
minerals such as cassiterite, rutile, monazite, as electronic configuration, ionic potential, pH and
diamonds, gold, etc. Therefore, anomalies are Eh, trend to originate complexes with organic mat-
detected by heavy mineral panning of stream sed- ter, and trend to coprecipitate or to be absorbed with
iments or soils. Other minerals can be dissolved iron or manganese hydroxides.
and the metals can be either redeposited locally or The mobility of elements in secondary disper-
carried away into solution by ground- and surface sion is strongly influenced by factors including
water. Groundwater frequently dissolves some of the nature of rocks, climate, vegetation, relief, and
the constituents of mineralized bodies that can be groundwater flow. Thus, in cold climate, large and
transported along considerable distances before well-defined anomalies do not develop because
eventually emerging in springs or streams. During chemical dissolution is inefficient and drain-
dispersal, the elements can be reconcentrated in ages are poorly developed; in dry, arid climate,
vegetation, on clay minerals, or in organic matter, chemical dissolution is ineffective and dispersal
all of which are attractive sampling media in geo- by occasional flash floods does not lead to the
chemical exploration. Regarding the vegetation, formation of well-defined anomalies. By contrast,
some metals in solution can be collected by plants in tropical climate decomposition and leaching
and trees and then concentrated in the living tis- of the ore-forming elements can be so complete
sue. In some cases, the element that originates the that no traces of the metals remain in weathered
most important primary halo is not necessarily rocks or soils. Therefore, the best environment for
the one of greatest economic significance in the geochemical exploration is located in a temperate
mineralization. climate in regions of gentle topography, in which
Mobility is an indicator of how far an element abundance of water and warm temperatures leads
can go dissolved in water, broadening the signal to effective dissolution of ore minerals and the
originated from the mineral deposit. For this rea- gentle topography fosters both chemical dissolu-
son, the usefulness of the mobility of an element is tion and the development of good secondary dis-
essential in geochemical prospection. This type of persion halos (Gocht et al. 1988).
element is commonly referred to as a pathfinder.
The pathfinders are very useful in geochemical Stream Sediment Sampling
exploration since their halo is generally greater Stream sediment geochemical surveys are the cor-
than that of the element with the most economic nerstone of all types of reconnaissance exploration,
interest or because it can be identified more easily mainly in regions undergoing active weathering.
3.4 · Exploration Methods
165 3
Stream sediment sampling can be applied only if a fractions commonly include pebbles, which are
well-developed drainage system is present. In this usually depleted in trace elements.
technique, stream sediments are taken from active Panning heavy minerals to obtain concen-
stream channels and studied to find anomalous trates is also a classical method of stream sedi-
element concentrations since the sediment sample ment studies, being a very useful geochemical
from an active riverbed is considered to represent prospecting technique (e.g., panning for gold).
3 an average of its upstream watershed. Thus, the Panning refers to the process in which a sample
objective is to obtain sample(s) representative of is agitated in water to separate minerals by their
the catchment area. The relatively easy use of the specific gravity. Thus, heavy mineral panning is
method leads to a quick evaluation of regions at widely employed for searching native elements
fairly low cost. such as gold grains, platinum, diamonds, and
Small streams give maximum resolution and heavy resistant mineral grains such as magnetite,
sharpest contract, as opposed to large streams in zirconium, ilmenite, rutile, monazite, and cassit-
which any anomaly from a mineralized zone will erite. If positive results are obtained, immediately
be diluted by large amounts of stream sediment follow-up campaign is carried out to look for the
from barren areas. Sampling densities are about source of the anomaly.
one sample per two square kilometers in regional
reconnaissance programs. In more detailed inves- Soil Sampling
tigations, higher density of sampling density is Soil sample geochemistry is a powerful tool in the
usually carried out depending on the local con- exploration of anomalies found by stream sedi-
ditions and the characteristics of the target. For ment investigations. The method works very well
instance, sampling densities can range from one since weathering and leaching of buried deposits
sample over 100 km2 in reconnaissance studies can discharge anomalous concentrations of ele-
to a few samples per km2 in more specific follow- ments to soil and groundwater. The released heavy
up. In general, the values of the background and metals spread outward and originate a dispersion
anomalous element concentrations are computed halo in the soil that is much larger than the min-
statistically, and metal distributions are illustrated eral deposit itself. As a rule, the dispersion halos
in geological maps. Previously, samples are sieved in soils are smaller than those in stream sediments
to 80 mesh (0.157 mm) and the fine fraction is but larger than those in primary halos in rocks.
analyzed since it reflects better metal anomalies. Similar to stream sediment sampling, samples col-
It is important to remember that the coarser lected (. Fig. 3.33) are commonly the fine silty or
interest, background concentrations are low, delineation of mineralized felsic plutons and
enhancing anomaly contrast» (Leybourne and exhalative horizons because these plutons with
Cameron 2007). Interpretation of groundwater mineralization of copper and tungsten are com-
geochemistry in mineral exploration is easier if monly enhanced in these elements, although
data related to the local and regional hydrology invariably display a high variability inside the
is available. pluton. For instance, tin mineralization associ-
3 ated with highly evolved and altered intrusive
Rock Sampling bodies is delineated examining the geochemistry
Rock geochemical surveys seek the primary dis- of minerals such as micas.
persion halo around mineral deposits. Because
this type of halos is restricted to a small area Biogeochemical Sampling
immediately surrounding any prospective min- Biogeochemistry is a viable first-pass exploration
eral deposit, rock surveys are mainly applied to method, and it can show multi-element halos at
evaluate specific targets outlined by regional small scale, being more refined if more detailed
surveys. Although this technique has been also exploration methods are carried out in the target.
applied with relatively good results in regional Biogeochemical sampling is a relatively cheap,
reconnaissance, it becomes most effective in efficient, and environmentally passive method in
detailed campaigns (Moon 2006), being rock sam- the initial stages of mineral exploration programs
pling included in the techniques devoted to for (Reid and Hill 2010). Biogeochemical tech-
follow-up mineral exploration. It provides direct niques utilized in mineral deposit prospecting
evidence about the geochemical characteristics of are based on soil and plant relationships. In this
the rocks that cause the anomaly, helping in the sense, plants incorporate elements from soil and
geological interpretation of stream sediment and groundwater into their branches and leaves, and
soil surveys (Govett 1983). this absorption of trace elements depends on the
Geochemical exploration with rock samples or plant species, plant organs, grow stage, and soil
selected minerals is based on specific geological- type. Biogeochemical exploration with sampling
petrological models. Examples include regional and chemical analysis of plant tissues has been
sampling of granites in order to locate fertile utilized extensively in Canada and Russia and
intrusions, discrimination of prospective and more recently in Australia (Närhi et al. 2014).
barren porphyries by analyzing copper in bio- Plant samples (. Fig. 3.35) have benefits com-
tite, and identification of rare metal pegmatites pared to other sample media in terms of provid-
by muscovite analysis (Pohl 2011). On a regional ing data that represent a broad area, due to their
basis, the most successful applications deal with deep spreading root systems. Biogeochemical
.. Fig. 3.35 Biogeochem-
ical sampling of plants
(Image courtesy of Andrea
Castaño)
3.4 · Exploration Methods
169 3
exploration «relies on the fact that plant roots Gases are potentially an attractive medium
penetrate soil horizons, have access to weathered/ to sample because they can diffuse through thick
fractured bedrock and associated groundwater, overburden. Thus, a number of gases have been
and accumulate elements in their organs» (Dunn used in mineral exploration: sulfur vapors indi-
2007). Accordingly, if some plant organs include cate the presence of sulfide deposits, radon gas
excessive amounts of particular metals, they can guides to uranium deposits, and gaseous hydro-
be used as indicators of ore zones in bedrock for carbons reflect the presence of petroleum and
geochemical exploration (Brooks et al. 1995). natural gas. However, mercury has been the
Plant growing on soil is dramatically affected most successful gas studied in mineral prospect-
by the host soil composition, which leads to the ing due to mercury is the only metallic element
selection of specific flora. Thus, plants answer to that constitutes a vapor at room temperature.
elemental composition of soil in three ways: exclu- Thus, it is widely present in sulfide deposits, par-
sion, indication, and accumulation (Rajabzadeh ticularly volcanic-associated base metal depos-
et al. 2015). Biogeochemists use soil indicator its. Enrichment of carbon dioxide and depletion
plants for prospecting ore deposits. For instance, of oxygen produced by weathering of sulfide
because serpentine plants have been studied and mineral deposits have been tested recently.
ultramafic rocks are profuse on the crust of the The results are commonly inconsistent due to
Earth, plants growing on serpentinized materials the large changes in gas concentration (partial
are satisfactorily utilized in biogeochemical explo- pressure) caused by variations in environmental
ration (Freitas et al. 2004). conditions, specifically changes in pressure and
rainfall.
Gas Sampling
At present, mineral deposits susceptible to be Indicator Minerals
prospected are commonly buried deep below Indicator minerals are mineral species trans-
the surface of the Earth. However, the alteration ported as grains in clastic sediments and indi-
and oxidation of a deposit release gaseous com- cating the presence in bedrock of a specific type
ponents that can be detected at the surface using of mineralization, hydrothermal alteration, or
gas samples from soil or down drillholes. This lithology (. Fig. 3.37). The preservation and
method can identify a few different gases if they identification of these minerals is provided
are present in sufficient amount (e.g., mercury, by their physical and chemical characteris-
oxygen, CO2, and radon) (. Fig. 3.36). The char-
tics, including relatively high density. They
acteristics of these gases and their concentration are quickly recuperated at the parts per billion
can provide hints on minerals occurring at depth level from stream, alluvial, glacial, or aeolian
and, consequently, where a mineral deposit can be sediments or soils producing large exploration
present. targets. Indicator mineral methods differ from
.. Fig. 3.36 Measure-
ment of soil radon using
a soil gas probe (Image
courtesy of DURRIDGE
Company Inc.)
170 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
.. Fig. 3.37 Zircons
used as indicator minerals
(Image courtesy of Javier
Fernández)
traditional geochemical methods for soil, stream only a few grains, equivalent of ppb-level indica-
sediment, or till sampling in that the indicator tor mineral abundances (Averill 2001). One of
grains reflect mechanical dispersion and the the most important and typical occurrences in
individual grains are visually examined and the application of indicator mineral techniques
counted. The greatest advantage of indicator was the bloom in diamond exploration activity in
mineral methods over traditional geochemical the glaciated terrain of Canada, which originates
analysis of the heavy mineral or some other frac- drastic changes in the concepts of sampling and
tion is that the mineral grains are visible and can processing methods because indicator minerals
be studied (McClenaghan 2005). The choice of improved the knowledge of kimberlite host rock.
sample media will depend on the climate, topog- Since most of Canada has been glaciated, the gla-
raphy, and size of area to be sampled. For exam- ciers advanced, eroded, homogenized, and redis-
ple, in glaciated terrain, till is most often used tributed the components of the bedrock that they
for indicator mineral surveys due to its simple pass over. For this reason, diamonds in glacial
transport history. Stream and alluvial sediments drift are the best indicators of a bedrock source
are sampled in glaciated, temperate, tropical, of diamond. However, they are very scarce even
and arid terrains. In turn, aeolian sediments can in the highest-grade diamond-bearing rocks. For
be sampled in arid terrain where other media are example, one carat – 0.2 g – of diamond per ton
not available. of mineralization is regarded a very high-grade
Nowadays indicator minerals are used to diamond deposit. As a result, indicator minerals
detect a great number of mineral deposits such as are an indirect but very useful tool to locate bed-
diamond, gold, Ni–Cu, PGE, porphyry Cu, mas- rock sources of diamond.
sive sulfide, and tungsten deposits. The resulting
benefits of using indicator minerals are numer- Analytical Methods
ous: (1) the ability to detect halos or plumes The analytical methods applied in geochemi-
much larger than the mineralized target includ- cal exploration depend on the requirements of
ing associated alteration; (2) physical evidence exploration stages. Techniques can be grouped
of the presence of mineralization or alteration; according to the attribute being measured. Some
(3) the ability to provide information about the techniques utilize X-rays in different forms for
source that traditional geochemical methods analytical objectives, while other techniques use
cannot, including nature of the ore, alteration, the optical effects of samples. Obviously, each
and proximity to source; (4) sensitivity to detect method has a minimum detection limit and
3.4 · Exploration Methods
171 3
below the concentration cannot be calculated. expected. In developed countries, most common
Therefore, geochemical analysis has a degree of analysis is actually performed by inductively
uncertainty, being uncertainty expressed in terms coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry
of precision. The theoretical lower detection limit (ICP-OES), often in combination with inductively
is an intrinsic function of the technique, although coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS)
the quality of the calibration and the cleanliness and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) (. Box 3.6: X-Ray
of the equipment used in sample and standard Fluorescence Analysis). The three methods require
preparation also limit detection. The goal of most numerous constraints such as highly sophisticated
analysis is the determination of the trace metal laboratories, very pure chemicals, continuous
concentrations in a sample, but currently it is still and nonfluctuating power supplies, and readily
impossible to analyze all elements simultaneously available service personnel, among others. In less
at the needed levels. sophisticated situations, relatively high quality
The differences between methods are the analysis can be carried out using atomic absorp-
costs involved, analysis detection limits, velocity tion spectrophotometry (AAS), which was the
of analysis, and the requirement to take material most commonly utilized technique in developed
into solution. The method selected will depend countries until 1980. Regarding individual miner-
upon the element being analyzed and the amount als, detailed identification is commonly provided
Box 3.6
utilizing a scanning electron microscope (SEM) or limits for certain elements can be as low as parts
an electron microprobe. per trillion level in aqueous solutions. AAS uses
The advent of sensitive, rapid throughput the absorption of light to estimate the concen-
instrumentation such as ICP-OES and ICP-MS tration of gas-phase atoms. Concentrations are
used to complement one another has revolu- commonly established using a working curve
tionized exploration geochemistry in the last after calibrating the instrument with standards
decades. ICP-OES and ICP-MS are widely used of known concentration.
because of their convenient, virtually simulta- In exploration geochemistry, it is very
neous multi-element capabilities. Plasma used important to note that absolute element con-
in these techniques permits the simultaneous tent in a sample is not always necessary or,
analysis of up to 40 elements, which means that in other words, accuracy cannot be essential.
ICP-MS and ICP-OES (. Fig. 3.39) are multi-
Deviations of ±30% from the absolute value,
element techniques. In some cases, detection for example, using international standards, are
.. Fig. 3.39 ICP-OES
instrument (Image cour-
tesy of AGQ Labs)
3.4 · Exploration Methods
173 3
endured, if the relative error remains within and further model building (Grunsky 2010). It
narrow limits. In contrast, excellent reproduc- involves the use of automatic and knowledge-
ibility of results (high precision) is needed. In based procedures for the recognition of patterns
fact, this is the most important characteristic of that can be attributed to known processes (e.g.,
any data evaluation, particularly if the contrast crystal fractionation, hydrothermal alteration, or
between background and anomalies is small. weathering).
In all geochemical programs, error control is According to Grunsky (2010), issues dealing
a fundamental aspect, and for this reason, it is with geochemical data are numerous: «(a) many
good practice to repeat at least 10% of sampling elements have a censored distribution, meaning
and/or control the data by another laboratory that values at less than the detection limit can
(Pohl 2011). The process of analysis is gener- only be reported as being less than that limit; (b)
ally done at some distance from the explora- the distribution of the data is not normal; (c) the
tion project, which means that analytical data data have missing values: not every specimen
is usually accepted and utilized without making has been analyzed for the same number of ele-
criticisms. However, while most laboratories ments; often, missing values are reported as zero,
generate good quality results, they are usually which is not the same as a specimen having a zero
looking for a business to make a profit. For this amount of an element and this can create compli-
reason, a good quality control minimizes biases, cations in statistical applications; (d) combining
confirms that laboratory assays are correct groups of data that show distinctive differences
within a defined degree of accuracy and preci- between elements where none is expected; this
sion, and detects the presence of contamination can be the result of different limits of detection,
between samples. instrumentation or poor quality control pro-
cedures; and (e) the constant sum problem for
Interpretation of Data compositional data.» These problems generate
Introduction difficulties to apply typical statistical procedures
Once the analytical data have been obtained to the data. For instance, in the case of varying
from the laboratory and the results are checked detection limits, the data need separation into
for precision and accuracy, the next question is the original groups so that appropriate adjust-
how to treat and interpret the data. A geochemi- ments can be applied to the groups of data. To
cal exploration data set consists mainly of sample avoid the problems of censored distributions, dif-
location and values of element concentration in ferent processes have been designed to estimate
many samples. Since the data are usually multi- replacement values for the objectives of statistical
element and the number of samples is large, the calculations. On the other hand, if missing values
use of statistical analysis using computer software are present, several methods can be provided to
is essential. This is because the development of impute replacement values that have complete
low-cost, rapid multi-element analytical tech- analyses.
niques has originated large geochemical databases The normal concentration of an element in
in many exploration programs, including usually non-mineralized Earth materials is referred to as
thousands of observations with as many as fifty or background, which fluctuates around a mean value.
more elements. Thus, the resulting data matrix is It is more realistically viewed as a range of values
enormous, and effective interpretation utilizing all rather than an absolute value because the distribu-
of the elements becomes cumbersome. tion of any element in any particular Earth mate-
To study these large matrices, the use of multi- rial is rarely uniform and varies considerably from
variate statistical techniques can extract geochemical one type of Earth material to another and from one
patterns related to the underlying geology, weath- location to another. The upper limit of the range of
ering, alteration, and mineralization. Modern background values is called the threshold, and uni-
methods of evaluating data, structures, and pat- element concentrations greater than the thresh-
terns are clustered under the term «data mining.» old are collectively called anomaly. Regarding
This term involves the use of multivariate data the concept of threshold, it is possible that in the
analysis and statistical methods in combination same exploration project, a lower threshold can be
with geographic information systems and signifi- applied in regional exploration, whereas a higher
cantly assists the objective of data interpretation threshold is selected to locate the best targets
174 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
Maximum
Positive (right) skewed
3rd quartile
Median
.. Fig. 3.42 Histogram
50
3
40
Frequency
30
20
10
4% 5% 6% 7% 8%
Grade
curve representative of a normal distribution looks evaluation, the use of geostatistical procedures
like «S.» A probability plot is a special adaption of provides quantification of the spatial variabil-
that curve when the Y axis is scaled in such a way ity of an element, for instance, by construct-
that a normal distribution plots as a straight line. In ing a semivariogram. Semivariograms measure
probability plots any deviations from normality can the average variance between sample points at
be quickly identified (. Fig. 3.43). These plots have
specific distances (lags). Usually, the variance
been applied in the splitting of univariate, polymodal increases as distance increases between any pair
geochemical populations into unimodal subpopula- of points. Thus, evaluation of the semivariogram
tions as they help in the identification of anomalies. allows assessing the spatial continuity of an ele-
Cumulative frequency diagrams and probability ment. The effectiveness of applying geostatistical
plots are better than histograms in displaying data. methods relies on adequate sampling density to
Equivalent to normal probability plots are represent the variation of the data.
quantile-quantile (Q-Q) plots. They also allow The effective use of geostatistical techniques
graphical comparison of a frequency distribution requires knowledge and experience in order
with respect to an expected frequency distribu- to model and extract information from spatial
tion (usually the normal distribution). In the data. They permit better estimates of geochemi-
Q-Q plots, the quantile values are calculated for cal trends though geostatistical techniques must
the normal frequency distribution, and then they be used with the awareness of the problems with
are plotted against the ordered observed data. The techniques of interpolation and the spatial behav-
plot will be a straight line where the frequency ior of the data (Grunsky 2010).
distribution is normally distributed, but it will be
curved or discontinuous for skewed frequency Contoured Plans and Profiles
distributions or for polymodal populations. Contour plots of both plans and sections can pro-
vide relevant information where variables are grada-
Geostatistical Techniques tional in nature, and this gradational character exists
Although geostatistics will be described in detail between control points. Contours indicate trends,
in the next chapter because this technique is directions of preferred elongation and indications if
mainly devoted to mineral resource/reserve more than one domain is needed. Since contouring
3.4 · Exploration Methods
177 3
.. Fig. 3.43 Normal prob-
ability plot
60
50
Grade (%)
40
30
1 5 10 25 50 75 90 95 99
Percent of data
some kind of interpolation criterion to construct a Normal distributions of the data are not assumed
regular grid of values that can be contoured easily. in X-Y plots, but log transformation can be used
Interpolation algorithms include inverse distance in scaling the data. The resulting plots supply bet-
weighting, nearest point, and triangulation or krig- ter visual estimate of the relationship between
ing, among others. This graphical expression of the two variables and can highlight clusters within
data is commonly used not only for geochemical the data. This can be improved by display in a
data but also in geophysical surveys. scatterplot matrix that allows to represent X-Y
plots for every variable against every other vari-
Bivariate Methods able simultaneously.
This section considers the analytical methods
used if it is necessary to take in account simulta- Correlation Coefficients
neously the variation of two variables where both Correlation is an exploratory technique used to
are measured on each element in a sample. In examine if the values of two variables are sig-
addition to providing extra information about the nificantly related. It means that the values of both
frequency distribution of a sample, these methods variables change or are not together in a consistent
generate information on the relationship between way. There is no expectation that values of one vari-
variables (Swan and Sandilands 1995). All the able can be predicted from the other or that there
techniques of bivariate statistics can be regarded is any causal relationship between them (McKillup
as ways of describing and analyzing the shape of and Dyar 2010). Quantitative correlation and cal-
the bivariate scatter. culation of simple linear correlation coefficients
178 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
5.5
3
Specific gravity
5.0
4.5
4.0
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Grade
are useful tools for estimating the degree of inter- Regression Analysis
dependence between two variables. This can be of The correlation coefficient measures the strength
great importance provided that it can indicate that of the relationship between two variables. In
the variables are linked, directly or indirectly, in the contrast, regression analysis leads to express the
underlying causative geochemical process. nature of the relationship in quantitative terms.
The most common correlation coefficient used Thus, regression analysis is used to describe the
is the Pearson correlation coefficient (abbreviated functional relationship between two variables
to r). This coefficient is defined as the covariance so that the value of one can be predicted from
of the two variables divided by the product of their the other. Regression analysis is often preferred
standard deviations. As explained in a next section, to measure the linear relationship between
the concept of R-mode factor analysis is based on two variables because the nature of the bivari-
the correlation coefficients among a large number ate relationship can be more precisely defined
of variables. Correlation coefficients are dimen- in the form of equation. Regression analysis
sionless. They range between +1.0 (perfect positive is essential in geochemistry and geology since
linear relationship) and −1.0, the latter value repre- the derived equation can be used to describe
senting a perfect negative relationship (. Fig. 3.45). and aid understanding of the geological process
Real data rarely lead to perfect, whether positive or and permits predictions to be made (Swan and
negative, correlation. Like other summary statis- Sandilands 1995).
tics, the correlation coefficient can display abnor- In the case of simple linear regression, a set
mal values in the nature of the distribution. These of bivariate data, expressed graphically as X-Y
must be always rectified before any important con- plots, is fitted with a straight line, which can or
clusions are drawn from the data or if the correla- cannot pass through the origin. This line repre-
tion coefficient is used as input to other statistical sents a close relationship between the dependent
methods like factor analysis. A classic example is a variable (normally plotted on the Y axis) and the
low value of the correlation coefficient in a group of independent variable (X axis). Total deviation of
essentially random bivariate data, which increases the predicted values from the observed values is
excessively where a single outlier is introduced in estimated. Moreover, the deviations are squared
the data set. It is important to remember that lin- to remove the plus or minus effects so that the
ear correlation will only detect linear relationship method is known as «least squares.» Sometimes,
between variables. Sometimes two variables are the values of dependent and independent vari-
clearly related, but their correlation coefficient is ables are fitted with a curve, rather than a straight
near zero, since this correlation is not linear. line, and it is called polynomial regression.
3.4 · Exploration Methods
179 3
analysis techniques. The multivariate methods
a most commonly employed in studying and quan-
tifying multi-element associations in exploration
geochemical data include principal components
analysis (PCA), factor analysis (FA), cluster analy-
sis (CA), and discriminant analysis (DA). PCA
and FA are useful in studying inter-element rela-
tionships hidden in multiple uni-element data sets,
CA is utilized for studying inter-sample relation-
ships, whereas RA and DA are useful for studying
inter-element as well as inter-sample associations
(Carranza 2009). It is important to note that multi-
variate analysis requires large samples: in the same
way that two observations on a pair of variables are
sure to give a correlation coefficient of 1; multivari-
r = –1
ate data with few observations on many variables
will give misleading results.
b
Triangular Diagrams
Triangular or ternary graphs are used routinely to
display relative compositions of samples in terms
of three variables. In cases where metal abundance
differs by several orders of magnitude, multiplica-
tion of one or two of the elements by an appro-
priate factor is common practice, this resulting
in spreading of the plotted points over much of
the triangular field. This procedure leads to strong
distortion of the ratio scales in the diagrams. In
the triangular diagram, each apex represents
100% of one of the elements and the coordinates
are numbered for one element on each side in a
r = +1 clockwise direction. It is only necessary to know
the percentages of two of the three variables to
plot the point.
.. Fig. 3.45 Correlation coefficient of: a maximum nega-
tive = −1; b maximum positive = +1 Multiple Linear Regression
Multiple linear regression is a straightforward
extension of simple linear regression. Where there
Multivariate Methods is no single variable sufficiently closely related to
Multivariate statistics relate several elements to the variable being estimated, several variables can
each other and facilitate the geochemical inter- be taken together and the estimate of the derived
pretation of multi-element data. Multivariate variable will be satisfactory. For example, the sedi-
methods are important because virtually all geo- ment yield of a river can be dependent on its drain-
chemical data are inherently multivariate. Leaving age area plus other factors such as topographic
aside some methods such as triangular diagrams, relief, precipitation, and flow rate (McKillup and
multiple linear regression, or multi-element Dyar 2010).
indices, multivariate data analysis techniques
simplify the variation and data relationships in a Multi-element Indices
reduced number of dimensions or groups, which Methods exist for dealing with multi-element
can commonly be tied to specific geochemical/ data that strictly do not involve multivariate sta-
geological processes. Many specific texts, (e.g., tistics. The calculation of multi-element indices
Davis 2002), include basics of multivariate data is an example of how element associations can be
180 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
0.4
of principal component MFd
samples and variable MFc Nd, Sm,
scores (Chen et al. 2015) MFb Ca, La,
0.3
RD
PR
0.2
Oxide minerals
Principal component 2
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
Dravitic tourmaline
-0.4
-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Principal component 1
applied to optimize features such as types of min- The linear combinations are derived from some
eralization or lithologies. Under certain circum- measure of association such as correlation or cova-
stances, some elements are deserving of greater riance matrix. Principal components are chosen
weighting in such an index because of their in such a way that the first principal component
greater importance as pathfinders for the deposit accounts for most of the variation in the data set
type sought. If detailed multivariate analysis can- and subsequent components for decreasing amount
not be achieved because of time limitation, the of variation. The interpretation of PCA results
calculation of multi-element indices provides points to geological/ geochemical interpretation
a way of combining the tendency of certain ele- on the element loadings comprising the compo-
ments to be enriched in mineralization. nents. Ideally, each principal component might be
interpreted as describing a geological process (e.g.,
Principal Components Analysis crystal fractionation, mineralization processes, or
Principal components analysis, one of the oldest weathering). . Figure 3.46 shows an example of a
% Var. expl. 36 18 15 11
relation coefficient so that distortion by outliers of the most widely used multivariate procedures
can be avoided. in Earth sciences. Discriminant analysis uses
182 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
.. Fig. 3.47 Graphical
representation of groups 6
using discriminant func- Sample group 1
tions 1 and 2 5 Sample group 2
Sample group 3
4
Sample group 4
3
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
all of the analyses in a data set, being the objec- of the mineralization and must determine its
tive to maximize the distinction between two shape and continuity by studying the samples col-
or more previously defined groups. It enables lected from every drill target of the drill program.
the further allocation of samples of unknown Mining requires drilling mainly for two differ-
origin based on analyses of the same elements. ent goals: (1) production drilling, making holes
The objective is to find discriminant functions: to place explosives for blasting (the holes drilled
these are vectors in the directions of optimal for this purpose are defined as blasthole and this
separation between the groups, and they trans- topic will be covered in the exploitation chap-
form the original set of measurements on a ter), and (2) exploration drilling, to estimate the
sample into a single discriminant score. The amount and grade of a mineralization using the
discriminant function provides not only the sample collections (. Fig. 3.48). Likewise, drilling
possibility of assigning samples of unknown is a continuous process throughout the entire life
association to one of these two groups but also of the mine to supplement reserve for the mined
of measuring the degree to which each of the ore. This will increase the mine life and continue
variables contributes to the classification. mining operation. Moreover, it also upgrades the
categories of the reserves by using underground
drilling. A strategically placed underground drill-
3.4.6 Drilling ing program can even probe for new ore bodies in
the neighborhood.
Introduction Drilling is the most frequently used technol-
Where an anomaly is found, by using geophysi- ogy in mineral exploration, and it is usually the
cal and/or geochemical prospection, the mining most expensive because its expenditure can reach
company will initiate a drilling program in order up to half of the costs of total exploration. In
to test the extent of the mineralization. The den- most cases, drilling locates and defines economic
sity of drilling will be set up by the wanted level of mineralization. The first objective of drilling is
geological confidence and project economics. The to safely obtain representative samples of the
drill program searches to confirm the presence target mineralization in a cost-effective manner.
3.4 · Exploration Methods
183 3
Rock Drillability
Rock drillability is defined as the penetration
rate of a drill bit into the rock. It is a feature that
cannot be exactly defined by a single mechanical
property of the rock. For this reason, drillability
is a function of numerous rock properties such
as mineral composition, grain size, texture, and
weathering degree. Quartz is one of the common-
est minerals in rocks. Since quartz is a very hard
material, high quartz content in rock can make it
very hard to drill and will certainly cause heavy
wear, particularly on drill bits. On the other hand,
a coarse-grained structure is easier to drill and
causes less wear of the drill string than a fine-
grained structure.
Drillability is not only decisive for the wear of
tools and equipment but is, along with the drill-
ing velocity, a standard factor for the progress of
drilling works. Hoseinie et al. (2008) suggest that
the most important rock mass parameters that
affect the drilling are the following: the origin of
the rock’s formation, the Mohs hardness, the tex-
ture of the rock (shape and size of grains), poros-
ity, density, abrasiveness, rigidity, P-wave velocity,
elasticity and plasticity, UCS (point load index
.. Fig. 3.48 Preparing samples after drilling (Image
and Schmidt hammer), tensile strength, struc-
courtesy of Anglo American plc.) tural parameters of the rock mass (joints, cracks,
and bedding), and RQD.
The factors that concern the drillability of
The rock types are defined using the study of the rocks are numerous and can be classified into
samples, and portions of them are commonly two main groups: controllable and uncontrollable
chemically analyzed with the aim of further parameters. Regarding the controllable param-
characterization of rock types and to search the eters, these are bit type and diameter, rotational
existence of valuable minerals. Thus, the differ- speed, thrust, blow frequency, and flushing. Rock
ent methods of drilling are for diverse objectives properties and geological conditions are uncon-
at various phases of an exploration program. trollable parameters (Yarali and Kahraman 2011).
Studying drill core also allows for geotechnical/ The drillability of rocks depends on not only their
rock mechanics data, being logs gathered during physical properties but also on the type of drill
surface drilling. being used and drilling parameters such as rota-
There are a large number of drilling tech- tion speed, feed rate, etc. The physical properties
niques. This heading is centered on the three of rocks which have some effect on drillability are:
main types used in mineral exploration: reverse 1. Crushing strength, defined as the pressure a
circulation (RC) drilling, rotary drilling using tri- rock sustains before breaking and related to
cone roller bits, and diamond core (DC) drilling. grain hardness and strength, grain bond
Each drilling method has its own characteristics, strength, porosity, and weakness planes.
which affect the quality of the collected samples. 2. Toughness, a measure of how difficult it is to
DC drilling generates a cylinder-shaped sample of pull a rock apart and related to grain shape
the ground at an accurate depth. On the opposite, and bond, fissibility, and tenacity.
RC drilling and rotary drilling using tricone roller 3. Chip separation, this is how readily the
bits yield a crushed sample that includes cuttings cuttings are cleared from the face, and it is
from a precise depth in the drillhole. related to pore pressure and permeability.
184 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
4. Abrasiveness, the ability to wear downhole will be the wear. Thus, in most cases the DRI and
tools and related to grain hardness and shape BWI are inversely proportional to one another.
(Hartley 1994). However, the presence of hard minerals can pro-
duce heavy wear on the bit despite relatively good
The Norwegian Technical University has defined drillability. This is particularly the case of quartz,
two methods to evaluate the rock drillability: the which has been shown to increase wear rates
3 drilling rate index (DRI) and the bit wear index greatly. Certain sulfides in ore bodies are compar-
(BWI). The DRI describes how fast a particular atively hard, impairing drillability (Samuelsson
drill steel can penetrate. It includes measurements 2007). Other means of commonly used rock clas-
of brittleness and drilling with a small, standard sification include the Q-system; rock mass rating
rotating bit into a sample of the rock. The higher (RMR) of Bieniawski, incorporating the earlier
the DRI, the higher the penetration rate, and this rock quality designation (RQD); and the geologi-
can vary greatly from one rock type to another cal strength index (GSI).
(. Fig. 3.49). It should be noted that modern drill
bits greatly improve the penetration rates in the Selection of Drilling Method
same rock types. The BWI gives an indication of Selecting the right technique or combination
how fast the bit wears down, as determined by of techniques depends on many factors: speed,
an abrasion test. The higher the BWI, the faster cost, actual conditions (surface or underground),
.. Fig. 3.49 Relationship
between drilling rate index
and various rock types
(Samuelsson 2007)
Anortosite Granitic gneiss
Amphibolite
Mica gneiss
Diabase Phyllite
Sandstone Pegmatite
Diorite
Argillaceous schist,
Gabbro
shale clay
Monzonite
Greywacke Norite
Gneiss
Taconite Granite
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
3.4 · Exploration Methods
185 3
.. Fig. 3.50 Rock chips
and core samples (Image
courtesy of Atlas Copco)
depths of the drillholes, type of rocks, required rate and can offer three times the productivity of
sample volume and quality, logistics, environ- core drilling. Thus, significant timesaving can be
mental considerations, and finally the prefer- obtained using RC. When the ore body is located,
ence of the geologist. Moreover, each of these driller can decide to continue with RC drilling or
factors depends in turn on many parameters. switch to diamond core drilling to extract cores.
For example, drilling velocity is dependent on In so doing, RC drilling and classical core drilling
a lot of geological parameters such as jointing are perfectly combinable. The logistics of the drill-
of rock mass, rock anisotropy (e.g., orientation ing program have clear influence on the number
of schistosity), degree of interlocking of micro- of meters drilled per shift and thereof it is a time
structures, porosity and quality of cementation factor.
in clastic rock, degree of hydrothermal decom-
position, and weathering of a rock mass, among Cost Factor
others (Thuro 1997). Costs are mainly related to the time factor, except
Modern core drilling rigs carry out fast and that investment in RC rigs and equipment is
efficient core sampling of different diameters to higher compared to core drilling. For shallow
very large length. There are many items to select exploration applications, time and costs are in
the appropriate method of drilling: target, host favor of RC drilling. For deeper exploration appli-
rock, water presence, sample required, access, cations, shallow subsoil water and rocky terrain,
and politics (Hartley 1994). From a sampling core drilling is still the only practical alternative.
viewpoint, there are two types of drilling meth- Technical developments in drilling tools and rig
ods in mineral exploration: drilling methods that technology have resulted in lower drilling costs.
originate rock chips and those that generate core
samples (. Fig. 3.50). A three-key-factor selection
Confidence Factor
process can be established: the time needed, the The third variable in the equation is the confidence
cost of getting the job done, and confidence in factor. In an evaluation with positive results, a pro-
the quality of the samples brought to the surface gram of core drilling is the common way to drill for
(Gustaffson 2010). the purpose of bringing the project to a resource/
reserve status because geologists need dry and rep-
Time Factor resentative samples to carry out optimum evalu-
For any exploration drilling, the sample is the ations. Therefore, core drilling remains the only
most important goal result. RC drilling gener- viable method in these situations. The core helps
ates continuous drilling with high penetration the geologist to calculate the cost of extracting the
186 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
.. Fig. 3.51 Reverse
circulation drilling machine
(Image courtesy of Atlas
Copco)
Rotary Drilling
Rotary drilling using tricone bits is a noncor-
ing method, being usually utilized for drilling
through soft to medium hard rocks such as lime-
stone, chalk, or mudstone. Rotary drilling uses
different type of rotary bits although the most
typical rotary bit is probably the tricone or roller
rock bit (. Fig. 3.53) that is made with tungsten
.. Fig. 3.55 Diamond
core drilling operation
(Image courtesy of Atlas
Copco)
However, if core recovery is good, it has the ben- rig. The diamond drill bit comprises a cutting
efit of carrying undamaged rock to the surface. head using diamonds as the cutting medium. A
Therefore, diamond drilling is usually accounted variety of core bit types is available according to
to offer the best quality of sample. Most advanced the diamond cutting elements used in their con-
exploration uses a combination of diamond and struction. In softer rocks (e.g., sedimentary for-
reverse circulation drilling. In general, diamond mations), other cutting elements such as tungsten
drills are the most essential tool in the final carbide and polycrystalline diamond compacts
exploration and evaluation of mineral projects can be used. Diamonds used are fine to micro-
because the study of the drill core yields a three- fine industrial grade diamonds that are set within
dimensional geologic picture of ore and host rock a matrix of varying hardness, from brass to high-
and the samples from drill core provide samples grade steel. Other options include tungsten car-
for chemical analysis, mineral recovery tests, and bide (TC) and polycrystalline diamond composite
rock stability tests. (PDC) bits. TC core bits are utilized for drilling
Nowadays, typical drilling operation includes in non-consolidated formations and in overbur-
a truck-mounted rig and a support truck to carry den and for cleaning drillholes. PDC bits are an
items such as the rods, casing, fuel, and water alternative to TC bits and surface set diamond bits
(. Fig. 3.55). The method requires significant site
when drilling in non-consolidated and medium
preparation and rehabilitation. Diamond drilling hard rock formations (Black 2010).
machines utilized in mineral exploration com- As the drill bit advances, a cylindrical core of
monly reach depth of up to 3000 m and extraor- rock progressively fills a tube core barrel immedi-
dinarily up to 6000 m. In these situations, casing ately above the drill bit. Core barrels are classified
is installed in the upper levels to protect the walls by the length of core they contain. They are usually
from collapse. The rate of advance will depend of from 1.5 to 3.0 m in length but can be as long as
many factors (type of drill rig, type of bit, hole 6 m. It is important to note that to recover the core
diameter, the depth of drillhole, and the rock type the barrel must be removed from the hole by pull-
being drilled, among others). Drilling advance ing the entire length of drill rods to the surface,
rates of up to 10 m an hour are common. The which is a time-consuming process. For this rea-
costs can range from USD 40 to USD 90 a meter son, the wireline system is now a standard prac-
in drillholes up to 300 m long and from USD 75 to tice (. Box 3.7: Wireline System). Water is used
USD 160 a meter for length up to 1000 m. in diamond core drilling as lubricant fluid and to
The quality and continuity of the core are cru- remove crushed and ground rock fragments from
cial in the assessment of a potential mine, making the bit surface. Water can be used in combination
the core bit a key component of a core drilling with various clays or chemicals (. Fig. 3.56).
3.4 · Exploration Methods
189 3
.. Fig. 3.56 Chemical products used with water in diamond core drilling (Image courtesy of AMC)
Box 3.7
Wireline System
The Boart Longyear company time and money saved by not assembly is forced down the inside
introduced the wireline core having to remove the drill pipe in of the drill pipe using drilling mud
retrieval technology to the order to obtain a core is substan- pressure. When the core barrel
mineral exploration industry in tial. Consequently, wireline system assembly reaches the lower end
1958. By the late 1960s, it was in is designed to recover rock core of the drill stem, a locking device
almost universal use. Wireline core without removing the drill stem holds the barrel in place. The core
drilling is a special type of core from the borehole after each core barrel assembly consists of a cut-
drilling, most commonly used run (. Fig. 3.57). Besides reduced
ter head, core catcher, core barrel,
in mineral exploration. Before tripping time and decreased cost, vent or inside pressure relief, lock-
wireline drilling, the whole string wireline core drilling system has ing device, and a retrieving head.
of rods had to be pulled from the the main following advantages: (1) During coring operations, the
ground in order to recover core with improved core recovery and circulating fluid passes between
from each advance of the drill. quality, the purpose of the drilling the core barrel assembly and the
Thus, in conventional rock coring, project can be better satisfied; (2) drill collar. After the core has been
the entire drill stem and core bar- logging instruments can be low- cut, the core barrel assembly with
rel must be removed after each ered by utilizing internal flush drill its core is retrieved by lowering
core run. This is a time-consuming rod; (3) inner tube structure can an overshot through the drill pipe
operation on deep core holes, be changed in accordance with (McPhee et al. 2015), or overshot,
in addition to creating an inher- the variation of rock layer; and (4) which is designed to engage
ent risk for collapse of the rock labor intensity of the operators the upper end of the core barrel.
into the unsupported borehole. can be reduced. As the overshot is lowered over
Moreover, as the average depth To obtain a core after the the upper end of the assembly,
of hole continues to increase, the core bit is in place, the core barrel the locking devices are released,
190 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
Wireline
Flushing circulating
Drill rod
Reaming
shell
Core sample
Bit
.. Fig. 3.58 Head
assembly inside the
overshot (Image courtesy
of TECSO)
permitting removal of the entire drill rods sill in position within the commonly used standard core
assembly. Thus, overshots are a borehole. While the core sections diameters for wireline drilling
key component of wireline coring are being removed from the inner are AQ = 27 mm; BQ = 36.5 mm;
systems. In this method, the inner tube and placed in special core NQ = 47.6 mm; HQ = 63.5 mm;
barrel containing the rock core boxes, a replacement inner tube and PQ = 85 mm. . Figure 3.58
is rapidly brought to the surface, is lowered into the hole so that shows the head assembly and the
leaving the outer core barrel and drilling can recommence. The overshot attached.
3.4 · Exploration Methods
191 3
Core recovery is essential in diamond drill- new ore reserves and for the safety of the mines in
ing. This is a quantifiable measurement defined establishing the position of possible gas or water
as the total linear amount of physical core sample intersections.
extracted over the total linear advance in a bore-
hole, expressed as a percentage. Low core recovery Other Drilling Methods
impedes quantitative interpretation of important Other drilling methods used in mineral explora-
properties, such as ore grade and ore boundaries. tion include auger drilling and sonic core drilling,
For example, Henley and Doyle (2005) reported the latter being the most recent improvement in
an important bias in ore grade at Las Cruces drilling technology (. Box 3.8: Sonic Drilling).
(Spain) as a result of core loss. The problem was Regarding auger drilling, rock is cut and broken
related to the presence of chalcocite in the min- with a simple blade bit that is mounted on the end
eralization as a friable and unconsolidated form. of a rotating string of rods (. Fig. 3.61). The drill
Very often, core recovery of more than 90% is stem is shaped like a helical screw and is driven
stipulated with drilling contractors. Other strict rotationally into the ground. Auger drilling is a
rules must be agreed, such as careful extraction useful method for quickly and cheaply collect-
of the core and its packing in properly labelled ing geochemical samples. On the other hand,
core boxes and marking individual core runs. this method is usually utilized to take samples in
In this sense, drilling should be supervised by the reconnaissance stage of mineral exploration.
experienced geologists. Proper storage of core is Regarding the rate of penetration, it depends on
needed for the duration of the project if the pros- the type of formation being drilled but commonly
pect is rejected and for the whole life of the result- can reach depths of around 20 m. Obviously,
ing mine, if the deposit is feasible (. Fig. 3.59).
augers are not capable of penetrating hard or
Although onerous, storage is much cheaper than consolidated rock. Auger drilling uses either a
repeat drilling (Pohl 2011). handheld power auger or one mounted on a small
It is important to note that diamond core drill- vehicle. Augers are available in various sizes. Thus,
ing is also carried out in underground mining small augers mounted on trucks are often used for
development (. Fig. 3.60). Thus, underground
reconnaissance exploration projects while large
core drilling is mainly accomplished to characterize augers are utilized for construction purposes.
.. Fig. 3.60 Diamond drill underground exploration station (Canada) (Image courtesy of North American Palladium
Ltd.)
Borehole Surveying
In a drillhole, the orientation is fairly established by
its azimuth (direction) and dip (inclination). It is
common that borehole deviates away from the orig-
inal direction because of many factors (. Fig. 3.64).
Sonic Drilling
Sonic drilling is a unique technology that generates The sonic drilling method can produce almost com-
vibrational frequencies, usually between 50 and pletely undisturbed core samples from both solid and
180 Hz (cycles per second), transferring the vibrations unconsolidated materials with high percentage of core
down the drill pipe to its tungsten carbide bit while recovery rates; it is commonly greater than 90%, which
rotating the pipe at the same time. This frequency gives rise to extremely accurate estimates of mineral dis-
range falls within the lower range of sound vibrations tribution in the ore body. Sometimes, core sampling can
that the human ear is capable of hearing. Thus, the be accomplished without any drill fluids (dry coring),
term «sonic drill» has been applied to this class of although the casing is usually installed by using water or
rotary-vibratory drilling machine. Sonic drilling tech- mud to flush cuttings. Sonic drilling can collect samples
nology was first applied over 40 years ago in Canada. up to 300 mm in diameter and can drill down to 250 m
In mineral exploration, sonic drilling (. Fig. 3.62) is
in a vertical or angled hole. The environmental impact
typically used to provide continuous core samples of from sonic drilling is typically less than other drilling
softer or even harder rock formation of mineral depos- methods. Thus, having a small footprint and lack of need
its. Instead of using a diamond bit rotating at the end to introduce fluid into the hole, this is an ideal drilling
of a drill rod, the sonic drill head sends high-frequency method where contamination is potentially a problem.
vibrations throughout the length of the entire drill In soft materials, sonic drilling is a penetration
pipe and onto the bit (. Fig. 3.63).
technique that strongly reduces friction on the drill
In sonic drilling, the head contains the mechanism string and drill bit due to liquefaction, inertia effects,
necessary for rotary motion, as well as an oscillator, and a temporary reduction of porosity of the material.
which causes a high-frequency force to be superim- The entire drill string is brought to a vibration fre-
posed on the drill string. The drill bit is physically vibrat- quency of up to 200 Hz, which causes a very thin layer
ing up and down in addition to being pushed down and of soil particles directly surrounding the drill string
rotated. These three combined forces allow drilling to and bit to loose structure. Instead of the stiff mass
proceed quickly through most geological formations that requires torque and weight to penetrate, the soil
including most types of rock. The operator is able to vary behaves like a fluid powder (in an unsaturated zone) or
the frequency and drill bit weight to match the material as a slurry or paste in a saturated zone.
he/she is going through, ensuring the best penetration The liquefaction and inertia effects enable to col-
rate and most accurate sampling are obtained. lect very long and continuous samples. In addition,
the drill string stays extremely straight due to the
vertical high-frequency movement, with a diversion
.. Fig. 3.62 Sonic drilling in iron ore mining (Image .. Fig. 3.63 Sonic drill bit (Image courtesy of Sonic
courtesy of Sonic Drilling Ltd.) Drilling Ltd.)
194 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
of commonly a few centimeters over the full length of vibration with rotation to allow the tungsten carbide
the borehole. It makes sonic drilling an optimal tech- buttoned ring bits to cut through the harder forma-
nology for installing instrumentation and monitoring tions. Because a sonic drill bit actually impacts the
equipment. In alluvial material, vertical vibrations are rock face, if a diamond drill bit was used with the sonic
generally enough to drive down a drill string for many drilling method, it would shatter, so tungsten carbide
meters without the injection of any water or air. On bits are used instead. In order to keep the temperature
3 the contrary, liquefaction cannot take place in hard of the drill bit down and lift the cuttings, foam injec-
formations. In such cases, it is necessary to combine tion is the best solution, but water or air is possible.
problem, it is desirable to use methods to objec- three main logging forms for recording observa-
tively classify how mineralized is a sample, for tions on drill core and cuttings: prose logging,
instance, using portable XRF technology (Gazley graphical scale logging, and analytical spread-
et al. 2014). Thus, a clear, accurate, and standard- sheet logging» (Marjoribanks 2010). An interval
ized logging procedure is essential to promote is selected in prose logging, being identified by its
uniformity of data through what is commonly a downhole depth limits, and described in words.
3 long data-gathering period. It is important to note It is recommended that this type of logging must
that as geological information and concepts evolve be only utilized in a special column (e.g., com-
with time, the context is likely to request the core ments). Graphical scale log forms can include
be relogged (Sinclair and Blackwell 2002). several mapping columns along with extra col-
Although a great number of different logging umns for recording digital data, sketches, ver-
methods are utilized in the industry, «there are bal comments, etc. (. Fig. 3.65). The important
DH-01
0 to 100 0 to 500 0 to 100 0 to 500 0 to 500 0 to 400 0 to 400 0 to 400
0.0
gra-
25.0 des
mo-
re
cla-
yey
50.0
75.0
te-
mp-
orar-
ily
lost
cir-
cul-
ati-
on
100.0
125.0
is thought to be the main heat source for hydro- Historically, excavator trenching in geochemi-
thermal cells that deposited mineralization along cally anomalous areas has been the most effective
a series of northwesterly trending, structural tool for identifying near surface but non-outcrop-
conduits. The porphyry dykes are up to 30 m ping, mineralized zones. Within the main areas
wide and commonly occupy the same structural of exploration, overburden generally consists of
zones as the mineralization. The dykes are coeval 5–20 cm of vegetation and soil organics covering
with or slightly older than the mineralization. a discontinuous layer of white volcanic ash and
Mineralization is dominated by gold-silver-rich 50–125 cm of loess and/or residual soil, which cap
structures associated with a zonation model decomposed bedrock. Trenching of 22,366 m was
ranging from weak porphyry copper-molybde- performed in 84 trenches between 2010 and 2015.
num centers, outward to transitional anastomos- Where possible, trenches were excavated in areas
ing sheeted veins, and lastly to more cohesive that had previously been stripped of soil and veg-
and continuous base and precious metal veins. etation. The trenches were aligned at about 30°,
The metals of primary interest at the property which is perpendicular to the anomalous trends
are gold and silver. These metals are intimately of the main soil geochemical anomalies. All rock
associated with lead, zinc, and copper in various samples (chip sampling) collected from the prop-
forms and concentrations throughout the miner- erty were taken from excavator trenches, because
alizing system. The age of the mineralizing events there are no naturally outcropping exposures of
is now considered to be Late Cretaceous. Depth these zones. Continuous chip samples were col-
of surface oxidation ranges from 5 to 100 m below lected along one wall of the trench as close to
198 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
T.N.
1°59.4
Mineralized trend 20°12.5.
Gridnorth
h
nort
netic
>100 <6582
Mag
3
Annual change
>50 <100 decreasing 20’
>10 <20
0 <20
6 892 000 mN
Pro
p ery
tb
ou
nd
ary
6 890 000 mN
384 000 mN
386 000 mN
UTM ZOZE 8.NAD 83
DATE: DEC 2015
.. Fig. 3.66 Gold soil geochemical values in Klaza property (Data courtesy of Rockhaven Resources Ltd.)
the floor of the trench as slumping would allow core samples within the altered structural zones
using a geological hammer. Sample sizes averaged compared to higher values from surrounding
approximately 2 kg per linear meter sampled for unaltered wall rocks. Several of the magnetic lows
intervals containing veins and about 1.5 kg per extend outside the main areas of exploration and
linear meter sampled for intervals comprised pri- have not yet been tested by drilling or trenching.
marily of altered wall rock. . Figure 3.67 shows the first vertical derivative of
1˚59.4' 20˚12.5'
Grid north
h
nort
netic
Mag
Annual change
decreasing 20'
6892 000 mN
Airborne magnetics
first vertical derivative
Klaza property Cross-fault
380 000 mE
382 000 mE
384 000 mE
.. Fig. 3.67 First vertical derivative of the magnetic data in Klaza project (Illustration courtesy of Rockhaven
Resources)
the grid and coincides with an area of weak to hole. Five diamond drillholes totaling 308.76 m
strong gold-in-soil geochemistry (25–100 ppb) were drilled vertically, peripheral to the min-
and strong copper geochemistry (>200 ppm) as eral resource areas as water monitoring wells. In
well as porphyry style mineralization that is part general, core recovery was good, averaging 95%,
of the Kelly zone. The mineralized vein and brec- excluding the near surface portions of the holes
cia zones tested by geophysical surveys show up where core recovery was poor. Final hole depths
as resistivity lows that coincide with chargeability within the Klaza zone averaged 251.49 m, which
highs. included a maximum hole depth of 550.77 m. To
determine the deflection of each drillhole, the
kDrilling orientation was measured at various intervals
Regarding drilling program, a total of 70,099.72 m down the hole. Measurements taken and recorded
of exploration and definition drilling was done were inclination, azimuth, temperature, roll angle
between 2010 and 2015 in 295 diamond drillholes (gravity and magnetic), as well as magnetic inten-
on the property. All diamond drillholes were col- sity, magnetic dip, and gravity intensity.
lared at dips of −50°, and most of the holes had azi- As an example of the results obtained in the
muths of 30–35° (north-northeast). Drilling was main mineralized zones, the host rock of the min-
completed on section lines spaced roughly 50 m eralization in the central Klaza zone is an exten-
apart. Some of the 2015 drilling was done in part sive complex of steeply dipping veins, breccias,
for geotechnical and environmental purposes. To and sheeted veinlets. The strongest veins are typi-
monitor seasonal water levels and frost variations, cally found along dyke margins. Pyrite, arseno-
vibrating wireline piezometers were installed in pyrite, galena, and sphalerite are the main sulfide
four holes and a thermistor was installed in one minerals in this subzone. Excellent results from
200 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
035°
9
13 08
Looking northwest -2 4 2-
14 1-02 11 -1
09
7 - KL
2- KL L-1 4-
2
-1 Trench-10-14 K -1
KL KL
3.84 g/t Au / 43.20 g/t Ag
1.50 m
90.53 m
7.79 g/t Au / 128 g/t Ag
1.10 m
102.72 m
zone
361.80 m
Xz
l BR
PIKA
tra
Cen
402.02 m
.. Fig. 3.68 Type section depicting the geometry of the mineralized veining relative to the dyke and the gold and
silver grades values obtained in the samples (Illustration courtesy of Rockhaven Resources Ltd.)
this part of the Klaza zone were reported from an thick quaternary glacial deposits. The 45–75 Ma
interval in KL-10-07, which graded 7.10 g/t gold kimberlites of the Lac de Gras kimberlite field
and 259 g/t silver over 15.25 m, and an interval intrude both the granitoids and metagreywackes.
in KL-12-133, which graded 11.85 g/t gold and The kimberlites are mostly small pipe-like bod-
5.24 g/t silver across 6.65 m. . Figure 3.68 shows ies controlled by tectonic fissures and typically
the results of central Klaza zone. Finally, a geo- extend to depths of several 100 m below the land
technical log was carried out previous to geologi- surface. The mineralization is mostly limited to
cal logging and included determinations of core, olivine-rich resedimented volcaniclastics and pri-
rock quality designations (RQD), hardness, and mary volcaniclastics. Diamond grades from the
weathering. In 2015, fracture frequency, joint sets, kimberlites range from less than 0.05 cpt to more
and joint set roughness, shape and infill were also than 4 cpt.
recorded. Diamond exploration in the area started
with heavy mineral sampling from fluvial and
zz Ekati Diamond Project Exploration: glaciofluvial sediments, which was followed by
Courtesy of Dominion Diamond mapping of geomorphological features and field
Corporation observations. Till sampling coupled with ground
The Ekati diamond mine is located in northwest geophysics pinpointed the Point Lake kimberlite
Canada, 200 km south of the Arctic Circle. Cold pipe, which was later investigated by core drill-
winter conditions are predominant in the region ing and confirmed as diamondiferous kimberlite.
for most of the year. The area is a wildlife habi- Approximately 15,000 till samples were taken
tat, where human activities are limited to hunting during the project exploration phase. They were
and fishing. The geology of the Ekati project area also used to search for airborne geophysical
consists mainly of Archean granitoids, intruded anomalies. The extent and chemistry of the indi-
by metagreywackes and transected by Proterozoic cator minerals dispersion trains were evaluated to
mafic dykes. Bedrock is overlain by less than 5 m pinpoint drill targets.
3.5 · Case Studies
201 3
kIndicator Mineral
Kimberlite indicator mineral (KIM) composi- a Fox kimberlite - total magnetic intensity
tions were outstanding in the exploration pro-
8000
gram leading to the development of the Ekati 7000
mine. Discovery of the first kimberlite at Point 6000
Northing (m)
Lake was followed by the identification of over 5000
150 kimberlite bodies within the Ekati areas. The 4000
use of KIM geochemistry was adopted to priori- 3000
tize likely high-grade phases for follow-up bulk Fox 380 MSL 2000
sampling and/or diamond drilling programs. 1000
4000
kGeophysical Surveys
3000
The Ekati area was explored using helicopter- 2000
borne total field magnetic (TFM), electromagnetic Fox 380 MSL
1000
(EM), and very low-frequency electromagnetic
(VLF) surveys. Final exploration sweeps were car- (ohm-m)
Easting (m)
ried out using an improved airborne EM system
with tighter line spacing, reduced sensor height, c Fox kimberlite - vertical gravity gradient
and airborne gravity gradiometer (. Fig. 3.69).
40
The ground geophysical surveys were used to 20
gather more precise kimberlite/non-kimberlite 0
Northing (m)
ity of the drill targets and all of the pipes with -60
-80
reported mineral resource estimates. A small core Fox 380 MSL -100
hole seismic survey was designed in the Koala -120
pipe, this searching for detailed spatial informa-
Gdd (Eo)
tion of the kimberlite body. The data proved that Easting (m)
the borehole seismic technique could augment
drillhole pierce points with seismically deter-
mined pipe wall contacts. .. Fig. 3.69 Fox kimberlite airborne geophysical response;
the Fox kimberlite has a weak and normal magnetization a,
a strong conductive response b, and a very strong gravity
kDrilling
response c (Illustration courtesy of Dominion Diamond
Drilling lasted from 1991 until 31 July 2016 and Corporation)
included 1389 core holes (254,490 m), 111 sonic
drillholes (2596 m), and 513 RC holes (106,547 m).
Core drilling using synthetic diamond-tipped also used for gathering geotechnical and hydro-
tools and/or carbide bits contributed to define the geological data. . Figure 3.70 shows the location
pipe contacts, wall-rock conditions, and internal of the drillholes. Forty kimberlite occurrences
geology. Prior to 1995, the diameter of drillholes were subsequently tested for diamond content
ranged from 27 to 71 cm; from 1995 to 2008, the using reverse circulation (RC) drilling and/or
holes’ diameter was standardized to between 31 surface bulk samples.
and 45 cm. In order to obtain larger samples, Sonic drilling was used to core both soil
drillholes’ diameters for the 2015 and 2016 pro- and bedrock in Ekati. The primary objective of
grams ranged from 45 to 61 cm. Core drilling was sonic drilling was to characterize the nature and
202 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
7210000
7210000
N
(with insets)
Sable Legend
kimberlites
Currently mined kimberlite
7200000
7200000
3 Pigeon
Depleted kimberlite
Resource kimberlite
DD holes
RC holes
7190000
7190000
Sonic holes
Lakes
Panda Jay
Mine lease boundaries
Buffer zone
Koala north
7180000
7180000
Core zone
Koala
7170000
7170000
Fox
7160000
7160000
Misery ne
Misery
Misery sw ext Date: 31-07-16 Datum: NAD 1983
Misery s
Drafted by: Projection: UTM 12N
Lynx
Mineral Services
7150000
AN MS GROUP BUSINESS
km
0 5 10 20
.. Fig. 3.70 Map showing location of all drillholes with or indicator dispersion targets were drilled, with a total
insets for pipes with reported mineral resources for the of 150 kimberlites discovered (Illustration courtesy of
Ekati project area; approximately 350 geophysical and/ Dominion Diamond Corporation)
variation of the soil layers to determine the depth and the tool for conductivity induction and natu-
to bedrock. In addition, recovered soil was logged ral gamma readings, were used on all RC holes.
and geotechnical laboratory testing was performed Oriented core was used for geotechnical
on selected samples. After reaching the final depth investigation of the wall rocks but not in kimber-
of investigation at each borehole location, in situ lite. The following geotechnical parameters were
hydraulic conductivity testing was carried out. determined for all core drillholes: (a) percent-
Since core recovery was largely a function age core recovery, (b) rock quality designation
of the hardness of the kimberlite, recoveries of (RQD), (c) fracture frequency, (d) point load
95–100% for both core and RC drillholes were strength index, and (e) joint condition and water.
common within wall rock. In kimberlite, the core Digital geological and geotechnical logging
recoveries were as low as 20% and as high as 95% was completed and the core photographed before
but were more typically in the 75–85% range. For being stored in appropriate building. Color pho-
RC drillholes, kimberlite recoveries ranged from tographs were taken of delineation drill core and
50% to over 100% in cases of in holes sloughing. used to verify significant contacts and litholo-
All core and RC drillhole collars were surveyed gies as well as provide a permanent record of the
with GPS instruments prior to and after drilling drill core. Geological logging used digital logging
in order to ensure that the drillhole collar loca- forms for both wall-rock lithology, kimberlite/
tion error is minimal. For core holes, downhole wall-rock contacts, and internal kimberlite lithol-
surveys were done with industry standard instru- ogy. Kimberlite cores were examined macro-
ments. Three tools, including the tool for gyro- scopically and using a binocular microscope to
scopic deviation surveying, the three arm caliper, determine concentration of macrocrystic olivine,
3.5 · Case Studies
203 3
matrix composition, abundance and type of coun- followed up with ground prospecting/sampling.
try rock xenoliths, approximate abundance of Second, areas with mineralization of interest were
indicator minerals, rock fabric, color, and altera- then flown again at the local scale with a tighter
tion. Samples were taken from core holes for line spacing to define areas with better potential
determination of dry bulk density and moisture for thick and continuous mineralized envelopes.
content of host rock and kimberlite. In the opinion These prioritized areas were then surveyed with
of the responsible QPs, the quantity and quality of ground-based TDEM technology to allow high-
the lithological, geotechnical, density, collar, and resolution delineation of the sub- outcropping
downhole survey data collected in the drill pro- parts of conductors. This information was used
grams were sufficient to support mineral resource to quickly plan trenching and drilling for efficient
and mineral reserve estimation. sampling of the mineralization.
With graphite being significantly more con-
zz Matawinie Graphite Project Exploration: ductive than host rocks, the first step in the explo-
Courtesy of Nouveau Monde Mining ration stage was to carry out an airborne time
Enterprises Inc. domain electromagnetic (TDEM) survey. Thus,
The Matawinie project is spread over an area of a regional heliborne magnetic and TDEM survey
approximately 70 km by 50 km, being the center was carried out over an area of 55 km × 72 km
of the most important block (Tony Block) posi- at a 1 km line spacing. Several anomalies were
tioned approximately 120 km north of the city of detected and ten local areas were selected for
Montréal (Canada). The Matawinie property lies detailed surveying using the same configuration,
in the southwestern portion of the Grenville geo- but at a 100 m line spacing. The surveys were
logical province. The belt hosts the only currently successful in outlining several large-size conduc-
producing crystalline flake graphite mine in tors (. Fig. 3.71). In order to assess the multiple
kGeophysical Surveys
Given the contrasted physical properties of the TDEM response (nT/s)
graphite mineralization sought after, geophysics 49 86 124 162 199 237 274 312 350 387 425 462
was the key component of the exploration program Residual total magnetic intensity (nT)
-706-268 -183 -127 -81 -46-10 25 54 82113 157 212 282 383 5911527
and in particular time domain electromagnetic
techniques (TDEM). The exploration strategy
was twofold. First, it implied large regional air- .. Fig. 3.71 Local areas flown with heliborne MAG-TDEM
borne surveys with a wide line spacing to detect (Illustration courtesy of Nouveau Monde Mining Enter-
pluri-kilometric conductors, which were then prises Inc.)
204 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
resulting targets in an efficient manner, a quick using EM methods. Some poorer, more subtle,
prospection campaign was deployed. It was sup- conductors were also outlined. Furthermore, the
ported by the use of a very small EM device with chargeability model highlighted some areas where
a penetration capability estimated at 1 m. This disseminated graphite and/or sulfides may occur
effort resulted in the collection of 35 grab samples in addition of the conductive occurrences. In addi-
grading between 5% and 17% graphitic carbon. tion, the 2-D section models of the IP data were
3 Based on these preliminary results and the poten- especially useful for drillhole planning.
tial size of the conductors estimated from the Magnetic data was also gathered in an effort
airborne surveys, several areas were selected for to try to discriminate weakly magnetic conduc-
further assessment. tors, likely relating to low sulfide graphite occur-
In order to get an accurate image of the sub- rences, from strongly magnetic conductors for
outcropping portion of the conductors, a ground which higher sulfide concentration may occur
TDEM system was used. The system has a lim- (. Fig. 3.72). In one instance where a drillhole
ited penetration depth estimated in the order of had intersected a graphite-rich horizon at a depth
10–15 m but offers high spatial resolution, being much greater than expected (85 m instead of
the unit equipped with an integrated GPS. The about 20 m), a borehole Mise-À-La-Masse survey
survey was carried out along existing roads and (MALM) was carried out with a 12.5 m spacing
trails, along the 100 m spaced network of lines to verify which of the sub-outcropping conduc-
cut for other geophysical techniques, and finally tors this deep intersection was connected to. The
along a local 20 m spaced set of lines specifically MALM survey proved that the deep graphite
designed for this instrument. The overall results occurrence was connected to shallow conductive
obtained with this system proved very useful to units further to the northwest rather than nearby,
map the sub-outcropping conductors. This type indicating some local discontinuities.
of high-spatial-resolution information enables a The 2014 and 2015 ground TDEM surveys
significant gain for understanding the geometry delineated wide conductive areas over each of
of ore bodies close to surface. It served as a guide the targeted mineralized zones. As a result, four
for strategically locating exploratory trenches and trenches were excavated in 2014 and five in 2015
drillholes, especially in this geological area that (. Fig. 3.73). Trenches were oriented roughly per-
underwent strong deformation. Everywhere a pendicular to the foliation of the paragneiss units
trench was dug or a hole drilled based on these and mineralized horizons with the exception of
results, graphite and/or sulfide mineralization was one trench, which was at about 45° to the foliation
found and could explain the anomalies. The over- because of terrain constraints. In 2014, the trench-
burden encountered in the drillholes of the area ing program aimed at sampling only mineralized
varied from 0.4 to 5.5 m, with an average of 3.5 m. material along the trenches in order to determine
Other classic geophysical techniques were used the potential of the mineralization, while in 2015
to better define the conductors. A horizontal loop channel sampling usually started 2 or 4 m (1–2 sam-
EM (HLEM) survey was performed every 25 m ple lengths) outside the visible mineralized area and
with a 100 m cable using three frequencies. With was collected in a continuous manner as to prevent
its estimated penetration depth of 50 m, the infor- any sample bias. Trenches were approximately 1.5 m
mation provided by this survey was especially use- in width and varied from 0 to 4 m in depth. In some
ful at locating conductors with significant vertical instances, large boulders, the accumulation of water
extensions and those with their top located deeper and prohibitive depth prevented the excavation and/
than the penetration depth of the previous system. or sampling of portions of the planned trenches.
It also enabled some estimation of the dip, conduc-
tance, and depth to top of conductors. A resistivity/ kDrilling
induced polarization (IP) survey was also carried Drilling on the Tony Block targeted wide conduc-
out at a 12.5 m station spacing (for increased reso- tors on each of the main conductive areas out-
lution) with ten receiving dipoles using the pole- lined by the 2015 ground TDEM survey. A total
dipole configuration (for increased penetration of 70 holes were drilled for a total of 10,479 m.
depth). The conductors identified with this elec- As an example, the drilling on the southeast zone
trical method conformed well with those detected of the south deposit consisted of nine holes for a
3.5 · Case Studies
205 3
.. Fig. 3.72 Ground
magnetic survey results
(Illustration courtesy of
Nouveau Monde Mining
Enterprises Inc.)
total of 1552 m drilled. Mineralization was inter- 3.18% to 3.61% Cg. The drilling on the southwest
cepted 13 times by drilling here resulting in the zone of the south deposit consisted of 22 holes
interpretation that the southeast zone is com- for a total of 2617 m drilled. Mineralization was
posed of two main mineralized horizons (S1 and intercepted 57 times by drilling here resulting
S2). From Section S2600 to Section S2900 (300 m in the interpretation that the southwest zone is
length), the mineralized horizon ranges from 116 composed of two main mineralized horizons (S1
to 159 m true width, with grade varying from and S2). The highlight of southwest zone is a first
206 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
graphitic horizon (S1) about 29 m thick. It is fol- a 0.5–0.7 kg sample was collected from the follow-
lowed by a mainly barren interval between 24 and ing 0.5 m below the topsoil. Samples were placed
62 m thick and finally a second graphitic horizon in a plastic bag and tagged. A brief description that
(S2) around 40–50 m thick, with both graphitic included color of the sample, percentage of gravel,
horizons varying from 2.79% to 5.29% Cg. sand, and silt was carried out. All field information
was controlled by the geologist in charge of the soil
3 zz Coringa Gold Project Exploration: Courtesy survey and digitized into the data base before send-
of Anfield Gold Corp. ing the sample to the laboratory for gold analysis.
The Coringa gold project is located in north cen- In trench sampling, a start point was located with
tral Brazil in the mining friendly state of Para, a handheld GPS, and azimuth and trench length
65 km south of Novo Progresso. The area occurs was estimated with a compass and tape. Trenches
in the southeastern part of the Tapajós mineral were hand dug to a depth of 1 m. In these trenches,
province where past production is estimated at 30 approximately 2–3 kg chip-channel samples were
million ounces of gold. The claims are underlain collected at 1–1.5 m intervals. Finally, a stream
by Proterozoic granites and rhyolitic volcanics, sediment sampling program was also carried out,
and the main structural trends are northwest and being collected a total of 756 samples.
north-northwest. The Coringa shear-vein system
(high-grade gold mineralization is hosted in a kDrilling
series of narrow quartz-sulfide veins that range in In drilling program, four drilling phases have been
thickness from 0.15 to 4 m) is coincident with the completed on targets identified at the project site
north-northwest trend (345°) and dips 70–90° to for a total of 24,093 m of HQ core in 160 explo-
the northeast. The main shear is 7 km long and five ration holes. In the first phase of drilling, 1774 m
zones of vein mineralization occur along it. Many in 22 holes was carried out for early stage explo-
other mineralized structures are also present. ration, being drilled under the main artisanal
workings («garimpos») (. Fig. 3.74). The second
Verifying the drill hole interval Marking the core for splitting
the aim was further defining of the resources in . Table 3.5 summarizes the drillholes completed
several blocks. Regarding the third phase, drilling within each phase of drilling.
was 1979 m in 15 holes; the main objective was to The sampling procedure in holes (. Fig. 3.75)
define the resource in one block and test two of includes the continuous sampling of the core at
the IP targets. Finally, the fourth phase of drilling intervals of approximately 0.5 m (mineralized
covered 15,308 m in 79 holes), being the goal to zones) to 1 m (non-mineralized zones). In this
test the continuity of the Mae de Leite structure at process, a cutting/splitting guide line is marked
depth and along strike as well as the continuity of on the core by the geologist to ensure that the
the Meio zone along strike to the north and south. mineralized structure is equally divided, each box
208 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
is photographed to provide a visual record of the geochemical anomalies from the short RC explo-
core, and then one-half of the core is returned to ration holes carried out by SQM while looking for
the core box, while the other half is placed in the industrial minerals, known reported or inferred
numbered and tagged sample bag. lineaments forming structural corridors and
other geological information.
zz Atacama Copper Project Exploration: The initial target selection was reviewed again
3 Courtesy of Arena Minerals Inc. once the company acquired regional airborne
Atacama copper property consists of approximately magnetic and radiometric data that had been
920 km2 (92,000 hectares) in Chile’s Antofagasta flown as part of a multi-client survey in 1999
Region, approximately 40 km northeast from the (. Fig. 3.76). The reinterpretation of this database
city of Antofagasta. The property has been almost led to the identification of an additional 23 targets
exclusively explored and exploited for industrial that had not been selected during the initial selec-
minerals, primarily iodine and/or nitrates. These tion process. The remaining 17 of the reinterpreted
industrial minerals are found within overburden magnetic/radiometric targets correspond with
covered areas and generally within 20 m from previously selected ASTER/geochemical targets.
surface. As a result, the exploration activities All alteration zones or mineralized outcrops
within the property focused on shallow explora- were systematically sampled, and a preliminary
tion methods, ranging from trenching to short geological map was made of all areas of interest.
RC drilling in more recent years, which targeted A total of 1450 rock chip samples were collected
sedimentary layers within the overburden. Most during this phase of exploration, and several areas
of the Cu porphyry deposits of the region belong with potential for both copper porphyry and epi-
to the Paleocene-Early Eocene world-class Cu-Mo thermal gold mineralization were identified for
porphyry belt which extends from southern Peru additional ground follow-up surveys. Based on
to northern Chile for a distance of over 1300 km. the results of the initial fieldwork, five areas were
Mineralization is associated with a complex of selected for ground magnetics coverage: Cerro
granodioritic to quartz-monzonite stocks with Barco, Cerrillos, Quebrada Honda, La Paloma, and
accompanying Paleocene dykes dated at 57 mil- Paciencia. A total of 3647 line km of surveying was
lion of years. completed by this survey. Following the ground
A basic outline of the exploration program in geophysics, additional mapping and in some cases
place is as follows: (1) data compilation; (2) desk- multispectral analysis were done on selected alter-
top analysis and target selection; (3) initial ground ation areas to get a better definition of the targets
work and prospecting; (4) prospect generation and define trenching and drilling targets.
and selection; (5) follow-up ground work, includ- The ground magnetic surveys were con-
ing additional geology, geochemistry, and ground ducted on north-south lines with a line spacing
geophysics; and (6) drill program design, RC of 100 m. Readings were carried out with an
drilling in two phases: 2 km grid drilling followed approximate station spacing of approximately
by 1 km grid infill based on results. Thus, the 0.5–1.5 m. A checkpoint was measured twice
exploration program during 2013–2014 started daily with all the magnetometers. Repeatability
with an initial phase of target selection using of the corrected magnetic readings was within
satellite imagery (ASTER) to identify exposed 1 nT, and the GPS UTM coordinate repeatability
alteration zones and main structural features and was within 2 m of the average value. In summary,
trends. This work was combined with regional several large anomalies that may be indicative
geological and geochemical data to provide a of large hydrothermal alteration systems were
selection of priority targets for field follow-up observed, being the magnetic data effectively
with prospecting and sampling. Twenty-nine tar- mapping lithology.
get areas were selected of which 11 have exposed Regarding the exploration results and inter-
alteration of various compositions read from the pretation, the comparison between the smoothed
ASTER images. The other targets that do not have analytical signal data and what is known of the
surface alteration detectable by ASTER imaging local geology from either the regional map sheets
lie under cover or have only small outcrop expres- or the arena mapping allowed for a definition of a
sions (less than the 25 m pixel limit). These areas set of characteristics for the different lithologies,
were selected based on their copper-molybdenum subject to variations caused by things like burial
3.5 · Case Studies
209 3
400000 425000 450000 475000
N
7500000
7500000
1999 airborne
magnetic survey
7475000
7475000
7450000
7450000
Concession boundary
7425000
7425000
Airborne magnetic
7400000
7400000
survey location
July 13, 2015
Concession
1:550,000
0 5 km
Basemap: airborne magnetics TMI
.. Fig. 3.76 Airborne magnetic survey location (Illustration courtesy of Arena Minerals Inc.)
depth and well-known magnetic characteristics of than granites. In several locations, the lithologies
igneous and sedimentary rocks. Typically, mafic were revised based on magnetic characteristics
intrusives are more magnetic than mafic and where the regional mapping indicated lithologies
intermediate volcanics that have been subject to (e.g., Cretaceous granites) that are not consistent
oxidation, and in turn, these are more magnetic with high magnetic gradients measured in the
210 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
.. Fig. 3.77 Crustiform
quartz from Paciencia
prospect (Image courtesy
of Arena Minerals Inc.)
new survey and where the geological map sheet zinc (up to 0.15%), and silver (up to 154 g/t). The
shows Holocene cover and an absence of outcrop. next stage of work on this target should comprise
Pampa Paciencia prospect results, as an exam- of trenching, sampling, and mapping of the two
ple of the exploration program, are the following. vein areas prior to exploration RC drilling.
The Pampa Paciencia prospect is located approxi-
mately 10 km north and northeast of the Sierra zz Preston Uranium Project Exploration:
Gorda and Spence mines, respectively. The detailed Courtesy of Skyharbour Resources Ltd.
magnetic survey has allowed the interpretation to The Preston uranium property is located in north-
refine the position of the faults and to recognize western Saskatchewan, Canada. The property
that most of the lithologies are fault-bounded in comprises 121,148 ha and is approximately 32 km
a broadly north-south elongation direction. Two long in a northerly direction. Outcrop exposure
distinct mineralized areas, approximately 2 km is limited, generally 5%. Vegetation, weather
apart, have been discovered within altered dioritic conditions, and seasons are typical of northern
and granodioritic intrusive rocks. The mineraliza- Saskatchewan. The Preston uranium project is
tion consists of quartz vein outcrops and subcrops located 30 km southwest of the southwest margin
of angular quartz fields that align with east-west to of the Athabasca Basin, which is interpreted to
west-northwest lineaments. The quartz vein mate- have been filled over a 200 Ma period in four major
rial exhibits well-developed crustiform-colloform depositional sequences coalescing into a single
textures (. Fig. 3.77) and is associated with gold,
basin. No significant zones of uranium mineraliza-
silver, and base metals anomalies. tion have been identified on the property to date
The epithermal quartz field consists of a 500- to but the Athabasca Basin arguably hosts the world’s
800-m-long area of quartz float concentrated along largest and richest known uranium deposits.
a west-northwest axis immediately south of a large
granodiorite outcrop. Several quartz chip samples kAirborne Geophysical Surveys
taken from this area originated anomalous values A 5162 line km combined versatile time domain
of gold up to 6.82 g/t of gold. Seventeen other sam- electromagnetic (VTEMplus) and aeromagnetic
ples from this zone also generated anomalous val- survey was completed over six blocks of the
ues ranging from 0.5 to 3.85 g/t of gold. The second Preston property. The survey areas were flown at
area of interest is located 2 km southwest of the epi- 200–300 m line spacings with tie lines at 1000 m.
thermal quartz field, consisting of veins with asso- Over 300 km of conductor segments, some
ciated quartz-amethyst. Anomalous gold values approaching 10 km in length, occur in the com-
from chip sampling range from 0.3 to 2.07 g/t and bined eastern blocks of the Preston VTEM cover-
are associated locally with anomalous base metal age. Basement aeromagnetic trends in the furthest
values in copper (up to 0.12%), lead (up to 0.41%), western block are oriented northwest-southeast,
3.5 · Case Studies
211 3
while those of the eastern blocks are E-NE which Geological traversing and mapping and sampling
is similar to the dominant basement strike ori- of the various rock types were aided by ground
entation at Fission’s Patterson Lake South high- radiometric surveying. Areas with high topogra-
grade uranium discovery area. Cross-cutting phy were chosen for geological mapping traverses
structural features and flexures affecting the con- based on coinciding airborne radiometric anoma-
ductor traces were identified to be of particular lies and strong EM conductors. Geological outcrop
interest as prospective follow-up targets. and structural mapping was completed at a scale
A Goldak high-resolution radiometric survey of 1:5000 in selected areas. The dominant lithology
was flown to locate uranium boulder trains, in situ was moderately to steeply dipping, northeast trend-
uranium mineralization and alteration associated ing, weakly to moderately foliated granite. Further
with uranium mineralization. The airborne radio- to the northeast, to the extent of the Preston ten-
metric, magnetic, and VLF-EM survey was flown ure boundary, diorite-to-gabbro and granite-to-
over one large block extending up to 60 km east- granodiorite outcrops are mapped along the same
west and up to 36 km north-south flown at 50 m intermediate airborne magnetic northeast trend.
above surface. A total of 8273 line-km on 200 m Radioactive pegmatites (>2000 cps) intrude gran-
line spacing was flown on lines at 155°/335°. ite to granodiorite to the northeast.
The airborne radiometric spectrometer coverage
mapped a significant number of enhanced radio- kWater, Sediment, and Soil Sampling
active locations that were classified into contri- Lake-bottom water and sediment sampling were
butions from uranium, thorium, and potassium regularly collected together at the same site.
sources. Interpretation of the radiometric data Samples of lake sediment were collected using a
identified areas with elevated uranium counts that tubular steel instrumentation, fitted with a butter-
can be correlated along and between multiple lines fly valve that opens an impact with the sediment
potentially indicating the presence of radioactive and closes as the sample is retrieved, and trapped
boulder trains or in situ uranium mineralization. the containing sediment. The sampler is designed
These radiometric features, particularly when so that once retrieved, it can be inverted and the
coincident with prospective EM conductors, were contained sediment poured into a sample bag.
given high priority for follow-up ground work. Sample control was by GPS with sub 5 m accuracy.
Geological outcrop mapping and identifica- Thematic plotting was completed for As, Au, Co,
tion of boulders and/or boulder terrains were Cu, Li, Mo, Pb, U, Th, Y, and Zn and assessed for
completed over geochemical survey grids (at spatial associations with known geological, radon,
200 m line spacing) and on prospecting traverses and geophysical features. Statistics for select ele-
while ground truthing geophysical anomalies. ments of interest are tabulated in . Table 3.6. For
the uranium lake-bottom sediment results, a total three different tree species have differing back-
of 7 out of 260 samples collected in 2013 are above ground values on an element by element basis,
the 99th percentile. This cluster of samples is also so it is critical that plots showing biogeochemical
strongly anomalous in Co, Cu, Nb, Y, and Zn. results be levelled to account for these differences.
Regional soil sampling grids were completed,
for the most part, between 200 and 400 m line kIn Situ Radon-in-Soil
3 spacing and 100–200 m sample spacing orthogo- In situ radon-in-soil measurements were taken
nal to EM conductors and/or radiometric anoma- adjacent to the site of soil sample (hole). A hand-
lies. Over 700 B-horizon samples were collected operated auger was used to drill a hole approxi-
with sampling generally avoiding muskeg. The soil mately 2.5 cm in diameter to a depth of approxi-
profile comprises 0–15 cm of moss or pine needles mately 65 cm. Net radon results are given in counts
covering a thin 0.1–1 cm organic humus layer, then per minute (cpm). Radon-in-soil analysis was com-
into a generally beige- to white-colored uncon- pleted at a total of 181 sample sites, most of which
solidated pebbly sand. The B-horizon selected for have corresponding soil sampling completed for
sampling was identified in the field as an abrupt ICP analysis. Values for radon ranged between 0
transition from the above beige or white sand to a and 26 counts per minute. In most areas, the spac-
brown or orange sand typically occurring between ing and sample density were too low to establish
15 and 85 cm depth. Thematic plotting was com- significant anomalies when viewing the radon-in-
pleted for Ag, As, Au, Ce, Co, Cu, Li, Mo, Pb, U, Th, soil data alone. Other samples such as lake-bottom
Y, and Zn and assessed for spatial associations with water samples were also collected and measured.
known geological, radon, and geophysical features.
Uranium anomalies in soils are generally limited kGround Gravity Surveys
to one or two adjacent station anomalies. Two of The targets for land-based gravity surveying were
the most significant multi-station soil anomalies selected based on favorable geology and structure,
in the north-west to north central fin area are spa- coincident geochemical survey (lake sediment,
tially associated with mapped granitoid outcrops radon-in-water, radon-in-soil, and/or biogeochem),
with significant topographic relief. The highest U and airborne geophysical survey results from the
value for 2013 came from the west central portion 2013 exploration program. Prioritization was given
of the Swoosh target, adjacent to the projected to discrete sub-kilometric ovoid gravity lows poten-
map extension of pelitic sediments. This sample tially associated with desilicification, clay alteration,
returned 7.90 ppm U with >95th percentile values and other alteration typically found in uranium
for Cu and Y and greater than 80th percentile As deposits. The 2014 ground-based gravity survey
and Pb and positive Pb isotope systematics. consisted of gravity stations collected on survey
lines spaced at 400 m with a station spacing of 50 m.
kBiogeochemical Sampling A horizontal loop electromagnetic survey (HLEM)
Regional biogeochemical sampling was completed was later carried out. The targets were selected for
on geochemical survey grids in conjunction with HLEM surveying to more accurately define air-
soil sampling. Black spruce was selected as the borne VTEM conductors of interest refined by the
preferred vegetation medium due to its proven geological, geochemical, and gravity results.
ability to concentrate many elements and wide-
spread availability in both well-drained and poorly kDrilling
drained areas. Previous studies also identified Jack Finally, two diamond drilling programs were
pine as a suitable biogeochemical medium. These carried out in 2014 and 2015. The drill core was
species was selected as a secondary target vegeta- descriptively logged by the geologist on site for
tion type, due to its widespread distribution in the lithology, alteration, mineralization structure,
property area. Thus, twigs with attached needles and other geological attributes with the pertinent
were collected from around the circumference of data entered into a database. Handheld spectrom-
an individual tree within 20 m of each soil sampling eters were used to measure the radioactivity of the
site. Numerous field parameters were collected drill core and aided in the selection of zones for
including tree height, twig length and diameter, sampling. The core was sampled based on radio-
soil moisture conditions, slope, aspect, and any activity, alteration, and structure of the core with
other factors that would affect sample quality. The sample intervals typically 0.5–1 m in length.
3.5 · Case Studies
213 3
zz Ilovica-Shtuka Gold-Copper Project soil geochemistry sampling was approximately
Exploration: Courtesy of Euromax 5000 m2. The soil sampling targeted the subsoil
Resources horizon, which is generally at a depth of 20–30 cm
The Ilovica property is located in the southeast of (the «B» horizon of the soil profile), as this unit
Macedonia, about 16 km to the border with Bulgaria. generally contains the accumulated minerals. The
Ilovica is a porphyry copper-gold deposit, situated in soil surveys were completed by initially removing
a northwest-southeast striking Cenozoic magmatic the humus topsoil layer with a spade, before taking
arc that covers large areas of central Romania, Serbia, a 2–3 kg sample of the subsoil. The remainder of
Macedonia, southern Bulgaria, northern Greece, and the soil was restored to the sampling location and
eastern Turkey. It is more or less 1.5 km in diameter, rehabilitation of disturbed areas was performed.
being associated with a badly exposed dacite-grano- Results of soil sampling over the property
diorite plug and emplaced along the northeastern indicate significant copper anomalies (>200 ppm
border of the northwest-southeast elongate Strumica copper) to the northwest, southwest, and south
graben. The exact location of the deposit is controlled of the mineralized intrusive (. Fig. 3.78). These
by major north-south crosscutting faults and minor anomalies are believed to represent down slope
northwest-southeast faulting, parallel to the faulted dispersion of the copper from the central area
border of the graben. Alteration related to tertiary of mineralization. In contrast, significant gold
magmatic activity at Ilovica is variably present over (>0.10 ppm) and to a lesser extent molybdenum
an area of approximately 8 km2. Pervasive alteration (>20 ppm) show less down slope dispersion and
is largely confined to a roughly 1.5 km2 area in and more accurately delineate the underlying miner-
adjacent to the main intrusive complex. Smaller alization.
areas of pervasive and structurally-controlled altera-
tion extend somewhat asymmetrically to the south kGeophysical Surveys
and east of the intrusive complex. A total magnetic intensity survey was carried out
Regarding the mineralization, the main sul- and 24 east-west lines spaced 100 m apart were
fide mineral at Ilovica is chalcopyrite followed by surveyed with readings taken every 10 m. The aim
pyrite and secondary copper sulfides such as chal- of the survey was to outline the lateral and ver-
cocite, covellite, and bornite. Molybdenite, galena, tical extension of stockwork zones with second-
and sphalerite are present in minor amounts, ary magnetite enrichment intersected in several
and occasional traces of sulfosalt minerals such drillholes. Magnetic susceptibility measurements
as tetrahedrite-tennantite and tellurides of gold were taken at an average interval of about 10 cm
and silver are observed. High-temperature oxide on core from these holes using an electromagnetic
mineralization, such as magnetite, dominates at inductance bridge. A high amplitude magnetic
depth associated with pyrrhotite and chalcopyr- anomaly was outlined; the magnetic susceptibility
rhotite in what is interpreted as the core of the measurements demonstrated that the only mag-
system. A variety of iron hydroxide group miner- netic rocks in the area are the secondary mag-
als are largely developed within the oxidation and netite enrichment stockwork zones that are the
cementation zones. Very occasionally gold nug- source of the magnetic anomaly. The magnetic
gets are observed at the base of the oxidation zone. models indicated that the magnetic stockwork
zone trends north-northeast along an 800 m strike
kField Mapping, Rock Chip Sampling, and length and is approximately 300 m wide, though
Soil Geochemistry Survey inherent ambiguities in the interpretation process
Detailed geological mapping was completed on may have underestimated the width of the body.
1:2000 and 1:5000 scales and comprised observa- A high-resolution pole-dipole array survey was
tions with respect to petrology, style of alteration, carried out using dipole lengths of 300 and 150 m
and mineralization. Rock chip samples were col- and n spacings of 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5,
lected from the outcrops which were identified as and 5.5 for the array with dipole length of 300 m and
having potential to host mineralization. n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 for the 150 m dipole length.
In total, three phases of soil sampling have The IP or resistivity survey identified a number of
been undertaken on the property, resulting in intense IP anomalies, interpreted to be related to
a total of 540 sampling points arranged on a sulfide and magnetite mineralization previously
100 m × 100 m grid. The total area covered by the intersected in drillholes (. Fig. 3.79). The resistivity
214 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
4596000
Legend
Drillhole
ILOVITZA 06
ILOVITZA 11
Au_soil
3 Au
Au in soil >0.216ppm
Au in soil 0.108–0.216ppm
Au in soil 0.054–0.108ppm
Au in soil 0.027–0.054ppm
Cu_soil
Cu
Cu in soil >384ppm
4595000
Cu in soil 192–384ppm
Cu in soil 96–192ppm
Cu in soil 48–96ppm
Mo_soil
Mo
Mo in soil >40ppm
Mo in soil 20–40ppm
Mo in soil 10–20ppm
Mo in soil 5–10ppm
.. Fig. 3.78 Excerpt of the soil geochemistry anomalies map (Illustration courtesy of Euromax Resources)
4594600 4594600 40
20
4594400 4594400
10
4594200 4594200 8
6
4594000 4594000
4
4593800 4593800 2
0
4593600 4593600
7652700 7653000 7653300 7653600 7653900 7654200 7654500 7654800 7655100
.. Fig. 3.79 2D IP Inversion model on level 350 m from surface (Illustration courtesy of Euromax Resources)
3.5 · Case Studies
215 3
models revealed the presence of linear, almost ver- area of low resistivity correlates with low-grade
tical low resistivity features, interpreted as fault copper and gold in the Ilovica block model, and
zones. The most prominent IP anomaly coincided in fact, grade appears to increase as the higher
spatially with the magnetic stockwork zone defined resistivity zone is intersected.
previously by the magnetic survey and tested by
several drillholes. The high IP intervals correlated kDrilling
with high total sulfide values of up to 3–5%, though A total of 130 holes have been drilled over 10
while the copper mineralization in drillholes coin- campaigns (42,032 m): 20 were drilled for geo-
cides with high sulfide concentrations, it was not technical investigation, 15 were carried out for
possible to distinguish between anomalies related hydrogeological investigation, and 95 were drilled
to a barren pyrite halo and IP anomalies associated for mineral resource determination. The drill-
with porphyry copper mineralization. holes are generally vertical or steeply dipping,
Several IP anomalies form a discontinuous with 95 of the drillholes being vertical and the
annular zone around the interpreted core of the remainder being between 55° and 75°. The drill
system, probably related to the pyrite halo. The locations are illustrated in . Fig. 3.80. All of the
resistivity model indicates the presence of near to holes were drilled using rotary diamond coring
horizontal low resistivity layers to the west of the techniques. Drillholes were collared with PQ
core of the system interpreted to reflect the pres- diameter (85 mm core) and then advanced with
ence of intensive stockwork zones with copper HQ (61.1 mm core) and then occasionally NQ
mineralization. A further observation is that the (45.1 mm core) diameters. A wireline system was
70
0 0
55
IC1577GT02
BHIL114GT
4595500
4595500
EOIC1243
EOIC1121 EOIC1232 EOIC 1235 EOIC1247
BHIL 113G3
IC1574GT01IC1591 IC1583 IC1579
EOIC1015
EOIC1019 EOIC1016 EOIC1238 EOIC1250
IC15103HG11A IC15100GT06 EOIC1240
IC15115HG4
IC1594 IC1586 IC1582 PDIC0607IC1573
45 500
0 PDIC0606
IC15110HG1EOIC1360IC1520MIC1590 IC1542M EOIC1237 EOIC1358
IC15101HG2 EOIC1120 EOIC1242 IC1584
IC1578 IC15107GT08
EOIC1124 IC1572
IC1587 EOIC1364IC1588 EOIC1370 EOIC1366
85
IC1593
0
IC1581GT03EOIC1126 EOIC1122
IC15116HG6 IC1576
IC1596 IC1597 IC1562M EOIC1367
EOIC1365 EOIC1362
EOIC0811
0
60 EOIC0813 IC1595PDIC0608
EOIC1014 EOIC1368
IC1585 IC15112HG5 IC1580
IC1589GR04
4595000
4595000
PDIC0504
0
EOIC1229
150
N
W E
S
Meters Legend
0 50 100 200 300 400 500 Drill hole location
0
70
0
80
900 Z
800 Z
Cu depleted
3 oxide zone
Supergene
600 Z enriched Cu
zone
400 Z
Primary Cu
mineralization
Cu (%)
0
200 Z 0 – 0.1
0.1 – 0.2
0.2 – 0.3
0.3 – 0.4
0.4 – 0.5
> 0.5
0Z
7653600 E
7653700 E
7653800 E
7653900 E
7654300 E
7654400 E
7654500 E
7654000 E
7654100 E
7654200 E
z
x
.. Fig. 3.81 Typical section with copper assays (%) (Illustration courtesy of Euromax Resources)
used to hoist the core tube to surface to allow the deeper holes show up to five degrees variance
drill core to be extracted. from design for both dip and azimuth. The cross
Logging included observations relating to section presented in . Fig. 3.81 illustrates the
project lies within the Indian Peak volcanic field, True thickness of the mineralized zones reaches
which is a broad tertiary volcanic field that strad- up to 150 m wide with the strike length of the
dles the Utah-Nevada border and contains several vein systems extending up to several kilometers.
nested, collapsed calderas and resurgent dome
features that formed as part of a major Oligocene- kSampling
Miocene «ignimbrite flare-up cycle.» The oldest The work program collected 2409 rock chip sam-
rocks in the region consist of Proterozoic through ples, 2964 soil samples, and 323 stream sediment
lower Mesozoic sedimentary sequence that samples. The majority of the samples were col-
became folded and thrust-faulted eastward during lected on a reconnaissance basis from both outcrop
the Cretaceous Sevier orogeny and were subse- and float material. Sampling was also conducted
quently overlain by tertiary sedimentary deposits. within the target areas where outcropping min-
Gold mineralization at Gold Springs is hosted eralization was sampled perpendicular to struc-
by complex sheeted veins, breccias, and stock- tural trends where possible. Grab samples were
work vein systems (. Fig. 3.82) that are laterally
collected to help define background geochemical
extensive and locally form resistant ledges and levels within the various rock units and to evaluate
ribs that protrude up to 10 m above the surround- metallic ion distribution and chemical zonation in
ing ground surface and surrounding areas of areas of new exploration. Select s amples were also
mineralized wall rock. The veins contain quartz, collected from mine dumps and vein exposures to
adularia, and bladed calcite with minor sulfides determine if there were any specific geochemical
(<2%) and represent a low sulfidation, epith- signatures and to characterize the ability of the
ermal gold-silver vein system. Gold and silver system to contain high-grade gold values.
mineralization are hosted in quartz and quartz- Rock chip results ranged from <5 ppb gold to a
calcite veins, breccias, and stockwork/sheeted high of 145.68 g/t gold. Silver shows some correla-
vein zones surrounding the main vein systems. tion with gold and values ranged from <0.1 ppm to a
218 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration
high of 252.9 ppm. Gold geochemistry from the soil models for the ZTEM and magnetic inversions
samples ranged from <0.5 ppb to a high of 1.3 g/t provided a 3-D conductivity model of the earth
while silver ranges from <0.1 to 11.6 ppm. Results that honors the ZTEM and magnetic data to a
from the stream sediment sampling show a varia- specified level of fit. The modeling correctly con-
tion in gold values from a low of <5 ppb to a high of sidered 3-D topographic effects which can signifi-
1.28 g/t. Preliminary analysis of some of the down- cantly influence the data. The inversion modeling
3 hole geochemical data suggests that there are at least was unconstrained by geologic and physical prop-
two different signatures for the various target areas. erty information. The primary outcome of these
Moderately anomalous arsenic and local molybde- studies was the development of a clear correlation
num values are associated with gold mineralization with the location of surface gold mineralization
with a surrounding zone that shows a relative deple- and gold intersected in drillholes particularly with
tion in calcium, potassium, and sodium. the margins of the high resistivity features. This
Then, a detailed follow-up sampling and map- correlation can be seen in the «depth-slice» pre-
ping were conducted on several of the target areas. sentation of the data (. Fig. 3.83). Where the high
This work included detailed structural analysis and resistivity is shallow, a strong correlation between
channel sampling as well as detailed vein sampling the margins of the high resistivity and gold inter-
in the main trenches. In addition, a series of chan- sected in drillholes exists. Where the high resis-
nel sample lines were completed over the exposed tivity is deeper, gold mineralization is found both
vein zones. These channel sample lines generally at the margins and over the top of the resistivity
consist of a series of 2 m long, continuous chip- features. This correlation is interpreted as relating
channel samples across outcropping exposures of to the heat source for the «hot spring» style min-
the various vein-stockwork zones. eralization seen at Gold Springs.
kGeophysics kDrilling
A 470 line-km ZTEM and aeromagnetic heli- The last exploration work in 2014 focused on com-
copter survey was completed. Previous ground pleting a 38-hole RC and 4-hole core drill program.
surveys revealed a positive correlation between The four core holes were completed to collect mate-
the known epithermal gold systems and buried rial for metallurgical testing and to start to collect
subvertically dipping high resistivity features. geotechnical data for rock quality designation
The ZTEM results correlated very well with (RQD), fracture analysis, and lithologic and altera-
known geology, in particular the presence of all tion data. On the other hand, downhole surveys are
the known epithermal centers. The helicopter- conducted using a gyro deviation survey instru-
borne geophysical survey in Gold Springs project ment at or near the termination of the hole. These
included a Z-axis Tipper electromagnetic (ZTEM) surveys provide detailed downhole data on the azi-
system and a cesium magnetometer. Ancillary muth and dip of the hole over the length of the hole.
equipment included a GPS navigation system and The 2012–2014 drilling programs were con-
a radar altimeter. The survey was flown in an east ducted by wet reverse circulation drilling method.
to west (N 90° E azimuth) direction, with a flight Emphasis was placed on quality control and the
line spacing of 200 m. Tie lines were flown in a proper handling and numbering of all samples.
north to south (N 0° E azimuth) direction, with a The reverse circulation drill cuttings are collected
flight line spacing of 1900 m. as they come out of the drillhole from an industry
TD (total divergence) imaging converts the standard rotary wet splitter provided by the drill-
ZTEM tipper crossover data into peak responses ing company, which delivers the material to three
which assists their interpretation in plan. TD low collection points. Samples are collected on 1.52 m
(conductive) areas signify areas with sulfides or intervals. Every 20 samples, standards and blanks
possibly conductive clays, and the TD high (resis- are inserted into the numbering sequence of the
tive) areas represent resistive rocks which show drill cuttings. The material from the second sample
an excellent correlation with known gold occur- point is retained as a duplicate sample for future
rences as would be expected in the low sulfidation testing if needed. The material from the third sam-
environment. Subsequent to the 2-D inversion, a ple point is geologically logged on site and put into
3-D inversion of both the ZTEM conductivity data chip trays that are labeled with sample numbers and
and the magnetics was carried out. The resulting footage intervals from which the sample was taken.
3.6 · Questions
219 3
Gray eagle
M+|+| 220,000 AuEq Oz Iris
Horseshoe Ext.
Fluorite
Miracle Pope
Ridge North
jumbo
Red light North
jennie
Tin can
Declaration Jumbo
Charlie ross
Surface outcropping gold mineralization Jumbo
M+|+| 634,000 AuEq Oz
Silica hill Ext.
Potential buried gold targets
Silica hill Gem
Thor vein
N
Pinyon North
and Pinyon South
Sharks belly
not shown on map
0 500 1000
Meters
Midnight
.. Fig. 3.83 ZTEM high resistivity and correlation with outcropping gold-bearing rocks in the Gold Springs project
area (Illustration courtesy of TriMetals Mining Inc.).
Robinson LJ (2007) The spatial and temporal distribution of Application of computers and operations research to
the metal mineralisation in Eastern Australia and the the minerals industry, Oct. 31–Nov. 3, Montreal, vol 2,
relationship of the observed patterns to giant ore depos- pp 438–444
its. Thesis, University of Queensland, Australia, 258 p Singer DA (1995) World class base-and precious-metal
Rossi ME, Deutsch DV (2014) Mineral resource estimation. deposits-a quantitative analysis. Econ. Geol. 90:88–104
Springer Science + Business Media, Dordrecht, 332 p Singer DA, Menzie WD, Sutphin D, Mosier DL, Bliss JD
Rutter H, Esdale DJ (1985) The geophysics of the Olympic (2001) Mineral deposit density—an update. In: Schulz
3 dam discovery. Bull Aust Soc Explor Geophys 16: KJ (ed) Contributions to global mineral resource
273–276 assessment research. US Geological Survey
Sabbins FF, Oliver S (2004) Remote sensing for mineral Professional Paper 1640–A, A1–A13
exploration. Ore Geol Rev 14:157–183 Sirotinskaya SV (2004) Cause-effect analysis in assessment
Safronov NI (1936) Dispersion haloes of ore deposits and of mineral resources. Nat Resour Res 13(1):17–28
their use in exploration. Probl Sov Geol 4:41–53 Stevens R (2010) Mineral exploration and mining essen-
Samuelsson B (2007) Geology for underground mining. In: tials. Pakawau Geomanagement Inc., Port Coquitlam,
Smith M (ed) Mining methods in underground mining. 322 p
Atlas Copco Craelius AB, Märsta, pp 7–12 Swan ARH, Sandilands M (1995) Introduction to geological
Schulz KJ (2012) Regional environment in volcanogenic data analysis. Blackwell Science, London, 446 p
massive sulfide occurrence model. U.S. Geological Sur- Thuro K (1997) Drillability prediction—geological influ-
vey Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5070 –C, ences in hard rock drill and blast tunneling. Geol
chap. 4, 24 p. Rundsch 86:426–438
Schulz KJ, Woodruff LG, Nicholson SW, Seal RR, II, Piatak Walters S, Skrzeczynski B, Whiting T, Bunting F, Arnold G
NM, Chandler VW, Mars JL (2014) Occurrence model (2002) Discovery and geology of the Cannington Ag–
for magmatic sulfide-rich nickel-copper-(platinum- Pb–Zn deposit, Mount Isa Eastern Succession,
group element) deposits related to mafic and ultra- Australia: development and application of an explora-
mafic dike-sill complexes: U.S. Geological Survey tion model for Broken Hill-type deposits. In: Goldfarb
Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5070–I, 80 p RJ, Neilsen RL (eds) Integrated methods for discovery:
Seal RR, Foley NK, Wanty RB (2002) Introduction to geoenvi- global exploration in the twenty first century, vol 9.
ronmental models of mineral deposits. In: Seal RR, Economic Geology Special Publications, London, pp
Fowley NK (eds) Progress on geoenvironmental models 95–118
for selected mineral deposit types, U. S. Geological Wang X (2015) China geochemical baselines: Sampling
Survey Open-File Report 02-195:1–7 methodology. J Geochem Explor 148:25–39
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den Au and Cu-Ni ores from depleted mines in Review 2015. Mining Engineering 68:30–51
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223 4
Mineral Resource
Evaluation
4.1 Introduction – 224
4.2 Sampling – 224
4.2.1 Significance of the Sampling Process – 225
4.2.2 Definition of Sample – 228
4.2.3 Steps in Sampling – 231
4.2.4 Sampling Methods – 231
4.2.5 Sampling Pattern and Spacing – 239
4.2.6 Sample Weight – 240
4.2.7 Sample Reduction and Errors – 241
4.3 Determination of Grades – 245
4.3.1 Weighting Techniques – 245
4.3.2 Statistical Estimation of Grades – 248
4.3.3 Outliers – 251
4.3.4 Coproduct and By-Product – 253
4.4 Cutoff Grade and Grade-Tonnage Curves – 254
4.4.1 Cutoff Grade – 254
4.4.2 Grade-Tonnage Curves – 257
4.5 Estimation Methods – 258
4.5.1 Drillhole Information and Geological Data – 259
4.5.2 General Procedure – 259
4.5.3 Bulk Density – 260
4.5.4 Estimation Procedures – 262
4.5.5 Classical Methods – 262
4.5.6 Geostatistical Methods – 272
4.6 Mining Project Evaluation – 288
4.6.1 Types of Studies – 289
4.6.2 Economic Analysis – 295
4.7 Questions – 307
References – 307
.. Fig. 4.1 Fully automated sample plant-taking samples; the process is completely hands off and uses robotics to
perform the analysis (Image courtesy of Anglo American plc.)
or other geologic entity to the estimates that would an open-pit mine) since it determines the bound-
be obtained by repeated sampling of the ore body. aries of mineralization and waste (see 7 Chap. 5).
226 Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
It is important to remember that to take a sam- sample for assay since the comparatively large
ple means that the information obtained from the amount of a sample is reduced to a small sub-
analytical data of the sample will be finally utilized sample of some grams that are needed for the final
to someone who will use the information contained chemical analysis. This discrepancy is termed the
in the analytical result to make a decision. These sample error. Attention to the matters cited above
decisions can involve immense capital engagements reduces the errors and improves the quality,
to open or close a mine or marginal process costs which is essential for interpretation of geological
that include the decision if a batch of mineralized data and modeling and consequently the quality
rock must be sent to the beneficiation plant or to of resources/reserve estimation. The so-called
the tailings dump (Minnitt 2007). For this reasons, sampling due diligence, which carries out an
the process of sampling is among the most essential authentic geological resource evaluation, requires
activities in mining operations because the possibil- a validation process of many components, includ-
ity always exists for large occult costs to accumulate ing, among others, (a) adequacy of samples, (b)
in mineral development due to sampling errors. sample representation, (c) accuracy of laboratory
These hidden costs arise due to misunderstanding assays, (d) insertion of blank and standards, and
of the principal factors that affect the size of sam- (e) quality assurance and quality control pro-
pling errors (e.g., amount of the sample, the conse- tocols; these are the currently famous QA/QC
quences of dividing a sample to reduce the amount, (. Box 4.1: QA/QC in Coringa Gold Project).
or the notorious impact of the particle size in the QA/QC includes duplicate analysis and stan-
mineralization). Items such as sample procedure, dard analysis. The precision of sampling and
sample reduction, assaying methods, and obviously analytical data are estimated by analyzing twice
geological data collecting and modeling are critical the same sample utilizing the same methodology
for a high-quality estimation of the resources and/ (duplicates), being the variance between the two
or reserves. This is because many times data collec- data an estimation of their precision. Precision is
tion techniques are not of adequate quality to cor- affected, as aforementioned, by mineralogical fac-
rectly define a mineral deposit. tors such as grain size and distribution but also
All the processes involved in sampling must be by errors in the sample preparation and analysis
checked continuous and appropriately. Obviously, processes. Regarding standard samples (or refer-
there will constantly be a difference among the ence materials), they are samples with a known
content of the lot, the sample obtained, and the grade and variability. These are commonly used
4.2 · Sampling
227 4
to assess analytical accuracy and bias by compar- accuracy and precision of commercial analytical
ing the assay results against the expected grade laboratories. Moreover, they can ensure there can
of the standard. In these sense, managers and be a realistic confidence in the data by correctly
consultants always insist that standard and dupli- utilizing these measurements of data quality to
cate samples are invaluable items to measure the quantify the future risk of the mining project.
Box 4.1
.. Fig. 4.3 Laboratory a
duplicate comparison a and Laboratory duplicates
60,000
laboratory repeat compari-
son b (Illustration courtesy 50,000
of Anfield Gold Corp.) R2 = 0.9796
Originals, Au ppb
40,000
30,000
4 20,000
10,000
0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000
Duplicates, Au ppb
b
Laboratory repeats
30,000
25,000
R2 = 0.9992
Original, Au ppb
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000
Repeat, Au ppb
4.2.2 Definition of Sample the same in both the whole and the part removed
(sample)» (Taggart 1945).
From a practical viewpoint, it is impossible to Both definitions are very similar being essen-
gather all the components of a population for study tial that the sample be representative (. Fig. 4.4).
unless the population itself is very small. For this It is the key to a successful process of sampling. If
reason, it is essential to resort what is commonly the samples are not representative of the deposit,
known as «sample.» There are many definitions of the rest of the evaluation is useless. There is no
sampling, but the concept is quite elementary. For point in geological interpretation and model-
example, a sample is «a representative part or a ing is carried out correctly if the initial data are
single item from a larger whole, being drawn for wrong. Thus, the accuracy of a mineral resource
the purpose of inspection or shown as evidence or reserve calculation depends on the quality of
of quality,» and it is «part of a statistical popula- the data gathering and handling processes used
tion whose properties (e.g. physical and chemical) (Erickson and Padgett 2011). Large amount of
are studied to gain information about the whole» sampling is carried out in the mineral industry,
(Barnes 1980). Another definition of sampling is but little attention is given to ensure representative
«the operation of removing a part convenient in sampling. The responsibility for sampling is often
size for testing, from a whole which is of much tasked to people who do not take into account
greater bulk, in such a way that the proportion the significance of sampling, with cost being the
and distribution of the quality to be tested (e.g. main factor rather than the representative of the
specific gravity, metal content, recoverability) are sample. The quality of the subsequent analysis is
4.2 · Sampling
229 4
proportion of contained metals also varies from resenting each sample a similar volume of mass
place to place. Therefore, a single sample taken in in the valuable mineralization. Furthermore, the
any particular place would not contain the same most important norm for an accurate sampling
proportion of metals as does the orebody as a is that all components of the mineralization or
whole except by a highly improbable coincidence. other raw material must have the same probabil-
The probable error, which would be very large if ity of being sampled and constituting part of the
only one sample were taken, decreases with the final sample for the assay. The logic of sampling
number of samples, but it never disappears com- is to collect a minimal mass (grams, kilograms,
pletely unless the samples are so numerous and or tons) that equals a certain parameter (e.g.,
so large that their aggregate is equal to the ore- gold content) of a much larger mass (hundreds
body itself, in which case the orebody would be or thousands of tons) (Pohl 2011). It is necessary
completely used up in the process of sampling» to take into account that finally only a tiny por-
(McKinstry 1948). tion of the mineral deposit is collected and that
Random and systematic errors involved in the often less than one-millionth of the total mass of
collection, preparation, analysis, and evaluation a deposit is being drilled; it is quite easy to obtain
of samples must be recognized and accounted for. this datum estimating the volume of drillholes,
In fact, this is not a problem but rather an incen- the volume of an entire deposit, and dividing
tive. In this sense, Sarma (2009) affirmed that a both data.
good sample design must: The type and number of samples collected
1. result in a really representative unit; depend on a range of factors which include (1)
2. lead to exclusively a small error; the type of mineral deposit and the distribution
230 Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
and grain size of the valuable phase; (2) the stage grade distribution, and the coefficient of variation
of the evaluation procedure; (3) whether direct (. Table 4.2; Carras 1987).
To acquire accurate analytical data for resource Sampling methods are as different as the mines
estimation, it is indispensable to carry out a cor- in which they can be utilized. The most suitable
rect process of collecting samples (methodology, type of sampling and the combination of meth-
sampling pattern, and sample size), including a ods used depend to some extent on the type of
study of the ore with particular attention to the deposit being evaluated. For instance, to conduct
particle size distribution and the composition of an unbiased sampling in vein gold deposits pres-
the particles in each size class. Samples of sev- ents particular challenges because the features of
eral kilograms or even some tons are later cut the mineralization and host rocks are extremely
to several grams, the so-called assay portion, complex. Variance however can be diminished by
which are further assayed for valuable elements; carrying out a well-planned procedures of sam-
theoretically, this final aliquot must still repli- pling as well as careful collection of samples as
cate targeted properties of the original large possible. The mine geologist or engineer devoted
mass. The reduction in weight is around 1,000 to sampling process must select a method of sam-
times with a kilogram sample and 1,000,000 pling, test in a specific area, and later critically
with a sample mass of one ton. This process evaluate the results obtained. If these outcomes
obviously involves errors, and Gy (1992) estab- are sufficiently accurate within the economic lim-
lished a relationship between sample particle its determined by the mining company, then the
size, mass, and sampling error. Analytical errors methodology can be embraced as a general rule in
are ascribed to laboratories and commonly the project and/or mine.
take place from the selection of the portion for In general, there are three hand sampling
analysis. As aforementioned, these errors must methods: channel, chip, and grab sampling. Other
be considered with and external control by sub- sampling techniques include pitting and trench-
mitting to the laboratory duplicate samples and ing or drill-based sampling (diamond drilling and
reference materials of similar composition of in some cases rotary percussive drilling are the
the unknown samples. main sampling techniques available to the geolo-
To reduce errors in sampling, one solution gist in the exploration of a mineral deposit). In
is to divide the mineral deposit and the miner- fact, the most satisfactory method should ensure
alization into distinct parts (a previous step in that the sample properly represents the deposit at
the sampling process). Thus, to take samples of the smallest cost. It is very important to bear in
the previously defined different types as sepa- mind that whether the samples are collected on
rate units instead of as only one large sample surface or underground is not in itself a significant
can minimize natural variation and maintain factor, that is, the same process must be assigned
the sample weight in a minimum. This method to sampling a core drill in surface drilling and in
is the so-called stratified sampling, and it is very underground drilling.
important if the separate types of mineralization
need different mineral beneficiation techniques. Channel Sampling
Regarding the different steps in the sampling Channel samples (. Fig. 4.6) are suited particu-
process, sampling, sample preparation, analysis, larly to outcrops, trenches, and underground
and interpretation in the final stages of explora- workings. The method consists of cutting a rela-
tion and mining are planned and carried out by tively precise narrow channel of constant depth
a staff of geologists, chemists, statisticians, and and width across the exposed width of the min-
engineers, who contribute their expertise to the eralization, typically a vein ore. The cut can be
interpretation of the sampling data. The impor- either horizontal, vertical, or perpendicular to the
tance of thorough, joint planning and interpreta- dip of the ore. In the case of strongly preferred
tion is obvious because they form the basis for an orientations (e.g., bedding), channels must be
economic and technical evaluation of the mineral guided across the layering. The samples are col-
prospect and because of the large financial com- lected across the full width of the vein, or at some
mitment that the development of a potential ore uniform fixed length in wide; in complex veins,
deposit requires (Gocht et al. 1988). any identifiable subdivisions should be sampled
232 Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
.. Fig. 4.6 Channel sampling (Image courtesy of Martin .. Fig. 4.7 Channel sample obtained with a hammer
Pittuck) and chisel (Image courtesy of Martin Pittuck)
separately. In theory, if the channels were con- mechanical diamond- impregnated disk cutter is
tinuous, and uniform, the channel sample would used, so that a reasonable approximation is gener-
be similar to a drill core. ally accepted to be satisfactory. The working area to
As far as possible, the channel is kept at a uni- be sampled must be cleaned thoroughly employing
form width (e.g., 3–10 cm) and depth (e.g., 5 cm), a wire brush or water, among others. This is done to
although the spacing and length depend on the reduce the potential for contamination of the sam-
inhomogeneity in the distribution of the ore or ple by loose fragments on the face being sampled.
the amount of material needed for analysis. The The main problem of channel sampling is
channel is best cut at a right angle to the ore zone, related to the presence of soft minerals since they
but if this is too difficult, the channel can be taken can commonly be broken preferentially. Thus,
horizontally or vertically. As an example of the soft mineralization can be overrepresented in a
procedure, in the Cornish tin mines, a standard sample, which imposes a high bias on the grade
practice was to collect channel samples at 8–10 m results. On the opposite, soft gangue minerals
intervals at the face on every other bench up the can be overrepresented and produce an under-
dip of the stope. Approximately 2 kg of material valuation of grades. This problem may be par-
was collected to represent a length of channel not tially resolved by taking large samples or taking
exceeding 50 cm (Annels 1991). separate samples from soft and hard zones, if pos-
Samples are usually collected by hand and can sible. Channel has commonly a maximum length
be cut with a hammer and chisel (. Fig. 4.7) or an
of 1.5 m and the samples must be divided into
air hammer. The chips are set out on a plastic sheet smaller parts in longer samples. This subdivision
laid out the floor of the working area, from which it is carried out based on the structures in the min-
is collected and bagged. Accessibility and rock hard- eralization, changes in rock types, or differences
ness determine the applicable sampling tools. If the in rock hardness. Although channel sampling
quantity is large, it can be quartered before being possibly originates the best method of delimiting
placed in the sample bag. In hard rock, it is quite and extracting a sample, the process is expensive,
difficult to achieve the ideal channel unless a special laborious, and time-consuming.
4.2 · Sampling
233 4
.. Fig. 4.8 Chip sampling
(Image courtesy of Gold
One Group Limited)
Chip Sampling 3.5 and 5.0 kg of material which is sent for assay
Chip sampling (. Fig. 4.8) is a modification of
(Annels 1991).
channel sampling utilized where the rock is too A general requirement is to collect small chips
hard to channel sample economically or where of equal size or in some cases coarser lumps at
little variation in the mineral content shows that uniform intervals over the sampling band or area.
this type of sampling method will provide results The distance between any two points, horizontally
comparable to those originated by channel sam- or vertically, must be the same on any one face
pling. Chip sampling sometimes is applied as an and can vary with the character of the ore. The
inexpensive method with the objective to control recommended number of points depends on the
if the ore is really valuable and allows the imple- variation of the ore: 12–15 for uniform to highly
mentation of the more expensive channel sam- uniform deposits, 20–25 for nonuniform deposits,
pling technique. It is the most common method and 50–100 if mineralization is extremely uneven
used for underground grade control sampling. (Peters 1978). The possibilities for unintentional
Since the advantage of chip sampling is its high or intentional bias due to variable chip sizes and
productivity, the method is rapid and easy way the oversampling of higher-grade patches or
to get information about the mineralization, but zones are high. Effort should be made to keep
samples are less representative than in channel relatively constant sample volume proportional to
sampling. For this reason, this method should not the widths of the ore, and care must be taken to
be used for quantitative ore reserve calculations. collect approximately the same size chips across
Chip samples are taken by chipping over the the zone being sample; chip points should also be
whole area or a portion of the face, for example as regularly spaced as possible. Often, a compos-
using a grid laid out on the face of an exposed ite sample is commonly obtained to establish the
outcrop. Where a line is sampled, rock chips average grade of the ore present.
are taken over a continuous band across the
exposure approximately 15 cm wide using a Grab Sampling
sharp-pointed hammer or an air pick. This band Grab sampling is usually performed as the
is usually horizontal and samples are collected inexpensive and easy option, but it is the least
over set lengths into a cloth bag, usually 15 cm preferred sampling method and consisting of
by 35 cm, and equipped with a tie to seal it. At already broken material (. Fig. 4.9). The method
Sigma Mine, Val d’Or (Canada), rock chips are involves collecting large samples from the stock-
taken at intervals of 0.25–0.5 m along horizontal pile at a face or at a drawpoint or from the trucks
lines marked on the face. Each line is spaced at or conveyor belts transferring the mineralization
0.75 m from its neighbor and provides between from these points. The accuracy of this sampling
234 Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
method is frequently in doubt and sampling bias unsuitable for any accounting purposes. The main
is known to be large. Care must be taken that problem «is that the material in stockpiles or the
the sampler is not selective and does not tend to material loaded into trucks is rarely sufficiently
select only large or rich-looking fragments; some mixed to be representative of the block of ground
correlation usually exists whereby the larger from which it was drawn; also, material collected
fragments are enriched or depleted in the critical will be from the surface of the pile and rarely from
component of value. Impartiality is rather dif- its interior» (Annels 1991). Grab sampling «works
ficult to achieve unless rigorous precautions are better in more homogeneous low-nugget effect
taken, and this is one of the disadvantages of the mineralization types such as some disseminated
method (Storrar 1987). base metal deposits, while in heterogeneous high-
However, if the grab sample is composed of nugget effect types (e.g., gold, especially if coarse
enough fragments and if taken over a large enough gold is present), strong bias is expected» (Dominy
area, it can sometimes represent the grade of the 2010). In brief, nugget effect means error.
mineralization in that area. Thus, in dissemi- One of the greatest problems with grab sam-
nated or massive deposits where the ore limits are pling is related to the size of the sample that is
outside the available site, a composite of several needed, being the amount of individual samples
pieces from a freshly blasted face can be the most ranging between 1 and 5 kg. These few kilograms
successful sample. In general, grab sampling is not of sample that are obtained over a pile are there-
considered reliable since many independent vari- fore commonly inadequate which leads to a large
ables can affect this type of sampling process. For error. In most cases, it is likely that tons of mate-
example, if the ores occur in the softer fraction rials are required for each sample. One approach
and a proportional amount of the resulting fines to stockpile sampling is that employed at the gold
are not sampled, the results are clearly erroneous. mines in Val d’Or, Quebec, where the «string
Because of the lack of significant dimension and and knot» method is used. According to Annels
the commonly biased collecting procedure, grab (1991), «the broken ground from each blast at the
sampling can neither be used to volumes estima- face is transported to surface and spread over a
tion nor utilized in mineral deposit evaluation. concrete pad; three of four strings, with knots at
It is commonly accepted that the value of a 0.5 m intervals, are then placed over the pile at
grab sample is only applicable to the aliquot that 3 m intervals and, at each knot, a sample is taken
was assayed. Thus, a grab sample from a stockpile and its weight recorded, along with the position
gives information just on the sample itself and is of the knot; each sample is assayed and the result
4.2 · Sampling
235 4
.. Fig. 4.10 Bulk sample plant where kimberlite samples are being treated (Image courtesy of De Beers)
weighted by the relevant weight to obtain the pling program is the verification of the geological
overall grade.» interpretation used for a resource estimate, for
example, where the grades of diamond drill core
Bulk Sampling or reverse circulation drilling chips are suspect
Bulk sampling is a usually utilized term to outline due to poor drilling conditions. A typical bulk
the method of the removal of large quantities of sampling and sample preparation protocol
ore for the purpose of testing mineral contents. relies on several stages of comminution, each
Before taking a decision to develop a mine, an followed by mass reduction through splitting
explorer can extract a bulk sample of the material (. Fig. 4.10). While expensive, bulk sampling
to be mined for further metallurgical or chemi- provides relatively cheap insurance against a
cal testing and refinement of the proposed min- failed mine investment as part of a pre-feasibility
ing procedures. Thus, bulk sampling is carried or feasibility study. Many minerals and metals,
out only in a much evolved exploration if making especially industrial minerals, also require test-
the decision to mine is required. Bulk samples ing for the quality of the concentrate or mineral
are also used for developing beneficiation flow produced. In these cases, large-scale samples of
sheet and maximizing the recovery efficiency in the concentrates or products may be needed by
mineral processing. Moreover, in parallel with the the customer.
bulk sampling and geological appraisal work, the Bulk sampling is also typically used in explo-
geomechanical and mining features of the mineral ration of diamond-bearing kimberlites. The bulk
deposit commonly can be studied in more detail. samples are the first stage to establish the eco-
Extraction of a bulk sample (e.g., 100 tons) nomic parameters of the kimberlites with the
commonly involves excavation of a small pit or objective of obtaining information that leads to
underground operation. Samples are dispatched the decision of a more detailed program of drill-
for analysis in strong bags or in steel drums. ing to determine kimberlite size, morphology,
The primary purpose is to collect a representa- geology, and grade distribution. In these deposits,
tive sample and to reliably determine the grade the economic evaluation is usually carried out in
for comparison with the resource estimate; this four stages, and at the third stage, a limited bulk
aspect is essential for advanced mineral projects sampling program (order of 200 tons) must be
with a nugget problem (e.g., gold mineraliza- carried out to provide the grade of the diamond
tion). Therefore, an integral part of a bulk sam- expressed as carats per ton (1 carat = 0.2 g). A
236 Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
bulk sampling procedure in diamond kimberlites bulldozer, excavator, or even by hand, being exca-
(bulk samples typically 50–200 tons) costs usually vators commonly much quicker, inexpensive, and
several USD 100,000 if not several USD millions environmentally less harmful than bulldozers.
(Rombouts 2003). If macro-diamonds are pres- In general, pitting and trenching can often
ent, only a mini-bulk sample is necessary, being be regarded as special cases of bulk sampling.
obtained either from drill core or localized pit The advantages of pits and trenches are that they
sampling. Typical sample sizes of these mini-bulk permit the accurate sampling of mineralized hori-
samples range from 500 kg to several tons. zons and they facilitate the collection of very large
4 samples, which is particularly important in the
Pitting and Trenching evaluation of some types of mineral deposits such
If the soil is thin in a mineralized area, the defi- as diamondiferous or gold deposits. If the terrain
nition of bedrock mineralization is commonly is unfavorable for trenching or if greater depth of
carried out by the examination and sampling of penetration is required, drilling techniques must
outcrops. However, in locations of thick cover, be employed. In some cases, the pit can be sunk
it is imperative a sampling program using pit- not including wall support, but correct safety
ting or trenching (or drilling). In these methods, procedures are crucial if there is any possibility of
heavy equipment is utilized to clear surface soil the sides caving or of rocks being moved from the
and expose the bedrock. Hereafter, trenches or sides (MacDonald 2007).
pits are excavated into the rock to expose ore Pitting is usually employed to test shal-
zones for sampling (. Fig. 4.11). Despite their
low, extensive, flat-lying bodies of mineraliza-
relatively shallow depth, pitting and trenching tion, being buried heavy mineral placers an
have several benefits in comparison with drill- ideal example. In tropical regions, thick lateritic
ing such as the comprehensive geological logging soil constitutes optimal conditions for pitting,
that can be delineated and large and undisturbed and if the soil is dry, pits to 30 m in depth can
samples obtained. Pits and trenches can be dug by be safely extracted. The sinking of 1 m diam-
eter pits through the overburden into weathered
bedrock has been a standard practice in Central
Africa, where exposure is poor due to the depth
of weathering. Circular pits, 5–10 m apart, are
sunk to depth of 10–15 m along lines crossing
the strike of geochemical anomalies to allow the
geologist to cut sampling channels in the pit wall
and to identify the bedrock type, structure, and
mineralization, if present (Annels 1991). Pitting is
a slow, labor-intensive exercise, and the depth of
penetration can be limited by a high water table,
the presence of gas (CO2, H2S), or collapse due to
loose friable rubble zones in the soil profile and
hard bedrock.
With regard to trenches, they are commonly
utilized to expose steep-dipping bedrock buried
below shallow overburden, being useful for fur-
ther channel sampling where bulk sample treat-
ment facilities are not available (. Fig. 4.12).
Trench end
K4 337329 = 1.26 % Cg g
K44337 28 = 2.1 6 % Cg
K 37
337 1 = 1.9 %
K4 337226 = 1.4 %8 % CCg
K4 337 25 = 1.1 1 % Cg
K4 337 24 == 2.7 7 % g
32 1.4 6 % Cg
K4 337 3 4.1
K44337222 = 3.1 % % C g
= 0 5 % Cg
K 337 21 = 2.73 % C g
K4 337 9 = 4.15 % C g
Sam eak
K4 3371 8 = 1.85 % C g
.01
K4 337117 = 3.99 4 % CCg
= .9
K4 337 16 = 2.1 7 % Cg
W
% CCg
K4 337 15 = 2.4 % g
pli min
K4 337 4 = 1.81 % C g
2
K4 337113 = 4.71 % C g
ng
g
K4 337 12 = 2.57 % C g
K4 37 1 = 3.79 % C g
K4 337109 = 1.42 % C g
no raliza
K4 337 08 = 1.04 % C g
C
K4 337 07 = 1.24 % C g
3
K4 337 6 = .98 % C
+ +
tp
K4 3370 5 = 12.34 % Cg
e
g
K4 337003 = 0.53 % CgCg
C g
erf tion
K4 337 02 = 1.4 4 % Cg
K4 337 1 = 0.5 % g
K4 337000 = 1.135 % C
orm
K44337 99 = 1.2
K 336 8 =
K4 3369
K4
ed
Trench end
To-15-TR-9
Trench start
K4
336
K4
336
97
K4 336993 = 1.43 % C g
K4 336 92 = 1.554 % CCg
336 4 = 2.1 % g
K4 336 91 = 1.4 6 % Cg
96
=1
K4 336 9 = 1.7 %
K4 3368 88 = 2.85 % CgCg
=1
95 5.1 1 % Cg
K4 336 87 = 2.3 % Cg
.32
K4 336 86 = 5.91 % Cg
K4 36 5 = 3.38 % g
= 1 2 % Cg
.79
%C
K4 336884 = 4.16 1 % CCg
K4 336 83 = 4.6 4 % Cg
.6 % C
3
K44336 82 = 4.3 6 % Cg
%C
g
K 36 0 = 4.7 % g
K4 3368 79 = 4.353 % CCg
K4 336 78 = 5.1 7 % Cg
Cg g
g
K4 4336 77 = 5.0 1 % Cg
3
K 336 6 = 5.4 % g
K4 336775 = 2.99 9 % C g
K4 336 74 = 4.7 % CCg
K4 336 73 = 2.942 % Cg
K4 336 2 = 4.1 % g
K4 336771 = 6.03 2 % C Cg
K4 336 69 = 4.0 6 %
+
K4 336 68 = 4.5 Cg Cg
K4 36 7 = 4 % %
K4 336666 = 4.08
K4 336 65 =
3
K4 336
K4
TO-15-TR-8
Trench start
.. Fig. 4.12 Results of channel sampling in a trench (Illustration courtesy of Nouveau Monde Mining Enterprises Inc.)
preferentially, yielding a systematically biased half or quarter (. Fig. 4.14) as a sample for
result. Once the core has been brought up from assay is based on the requirement for a sample
underground, it should be washed and then size adequate to overcome any nugget effects.
examined to ensure that all the sections of core In general, half-core split lengthwise is the most
fit together and that none have been misplaced common amount taken for assay. Core splitting
or accidentally inverted in the box. After the can be done with a mechanical splitter or with
core is in the correct order, the core recovery is a diamond saw (. Fig. 4.15), being sawing the
measured throughout the mineralized interval, standard and preferred way to sample solid core.
and where losses have occurred, an attempt is Thus, the core is sawn lengthways into two halves
made to assign these to specific depth ranges in using a diamond-impregnated saw. The diamond
the core boxes. Core is commonly split along the saw also gives a flat surface on which the miner-
main axis, one-half being maintained for geo- alization can be examined with a hand lens and
logic information and the rest generating mate- on which intersection angles of bedding or vein
rial for analysis. The decision to utilize mainly contacts can be measured with ease.
4.2 · Sampling
239 4
.. Fig. 4.15 Core cutting
with a diamond saw (Image
courtesy of Euromax
Resources)
Half-core must be stored safely because it is a of samples required for representing the grade
crucial background material with which to create and dimensions of an ore body. It is essential to
new ideas of both geologic and grade continuity as take enough ore samples to obtain an estimate
understanding of a deposit evolves (Vallée 1992). sufficiently precise to guide evaluation of mining
For this reason, to take photographs of the split but also to avoid the expense of taking unneces-
core in the core boxes is one of the most used pro- sary samples.
cedures to preserve evidence of the character of A relatively widely spaced sampling pattern
the core and is especially needed if all of the core can be useful for the delineation of the mineral
is consumed for assaying or testing milling pro- deposit and to calculate the resource estimates
cedures. The next stage is the subdivision of the or where a geologic model can be provided with
split core into sample intervals. There are many precision. More closely separated control data
criteria that could be taken into account, and a are needed for local estimation, especially where
decision has to be made as to what information the block size for estimation procedures is clearly
is most important and what may be lost without smaller than the drillhole spacing at a first step
too great an impact. To some extent, the method of prospection (Sinclair and Blackwell 2002)
that will be used to compute the ore reserves will (. Table 4.3). A systematic grid of samples taken
also play a role in the final decision (e.g., classi- normal to the ore zone is commonly the preferred
cal methods or geostatistics – see 7 Sect. 4.4.6)
pattern because it originated a good statistical
(Annels 1991).
100 × 27.2
MSW = = 13.6 kg
the larger the initial weight of the sample 0.2
must be. In the Page method, the size of the sample is such
4. The mean grade of the ore: the lower the that the largest particle is diluted by the bulk of
average content of useful mineral, the larger the sample to the same extent. Therefore:
the initial weight of the sample must be.
Vs = Vlp × Vd
From an empirical point of view, many tables to
calculate the minimum sample weight are pres- Where Vs is the volume of sample, Vlp is the vol-
ent in the literature. For instance, . Table 4.4
ume of largest particle, and Vd is the volumetric
illustrates the data from EN 932-2 (1999) used to dilution. Dilution is the inverse of concentration,
select the minimum permissible sample weight in so the reciprocal of the grade measures the dilu-
aggregates for a given particle size. On the other tion of the mineral by the country rock. Mineral-
hand, there are several formulas to estimate the volumetric grade is a suitable way of expressing
initial weight of the sample such as, for instance, grade proportion. An example is 2.5 cm3/m3 native
the Richards-Czeczott formula (Kuzvart and gold meaning that 2.5 cm3 of native gold are likely
Bohmer 1978), the Royle formula (Royle 1992), to be found in 1 m3 of country rock. Again con-
or the Page formula (Page 2005). tinuing the example, for the mineral-volumetric
Thus, the necessary weight of sample (Q) can grade 2.5 cm3/m3 = 2.5 cm3 per 106 cm3 the cor-
be often determined using the Richards-Czeczott responding dilution is 10−6/2.5 = 400,000. Thus,
formula: considering spherical particles of 2 mm in size
and a density of 16.5 g/cm3 in a country rock of
Q = k ×d2 density 2.75 g/cm3 where the mineral volumetric
dilution is 400,000, then the sample mass will be
where d is the size of the largest grain of useful 4,608 g.
mineral and k is a constant expressing the qualita-
tive variation of the deposit. This constant ranges
from 0.02 for deposits with uniform distribution
of the economically valuable component (e.g., 4.2.7 Sample Reduction and Errors
large stratabound sedimentary deposits) to 1.0 for
deposits with extremely irregular distribution of Most field and mine samples need to be reduced
the useful mineral (e.g., diamond or gold deposits). in size for laboratory assay. In general, some
Another way to establish the initial weight of grams of homogeneous very fine material at
the sample is to apply the Royle formula (Royle 100–150 μm size are needed by the laboratory
1992). A simple expression to give a minimum for chemical analysis. This process of reduction is
242 Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
achieved by progressive comminution to ensure group). The fundamental error is the only error
that the reduced volume of the largest valuable that cannot be eliminated using proper sampling
particle, if included in or excluded from the procedures because it will be present even if the
reduced sample size, does not cause an unaccept- sampling operation is perfect.
able difference in the assay result; the process is The preparation of samples depends on their
also called subsampling (e.g., Pohl 2011). It desig- size, physical properties, and on the analytical
nates procedures that reduce the total mass sam- method to be used. Samples are reduced by crush-
pled to the few grams of powder in a small bottle ing and grinding, and the resultant finer-grained
4 that is all a modern laboratory requires for analy- material is separated by halving or quartering into
sis. Thus, the reduction value is around 1,000 discrete mass components for further reduction.
times in a kilogram sample and 1,000,000 with a For this reduction, a relationship between the
ton sample, if 1 g of sample is required to analysis. sample particle size, mass, and sampling errors
However, the final weight of a sample is chosen was established (Gy 1979, 1992). It has been
at 0.5–1 kg because a certain number of samples widely accepted and sometimes criticized. The
are deposited as duplicates in the chemical labo- Gy relationship gives an expression for the rela-
ratory and in the mining company. Regarding tive variance (error) at each stage in the sampling
the size of the particles, in practice grinding reduction process (fundamental error). Therefore,
would be continued to pass sieve 200 μm for fire it is possible to either calculate the variance for a
assay and even finer where chemical dissolution given sample size split from the original or calcu-
is involved. The normal result of an inadequate late what subsample size should be used to obtain
sample reduction system is a large random error a specified variance at a 95% confidence level.
in assays, including sampling plus analytical In any reduction system, the most sensitive
error. Obviously, these large errors contribute to pieces of equipment are the crushers and grind-
a high nugget effect. ers. Each one works efficiently within a limited
There are two main forms to generate errors range of weight performance and size reduction.
in sampling process: (a) related to the inherent Depending of the primary size of fragments, the
properties of the material being sampled and sample must be crushed in jaw crushers and then
(b) from inappropriate sampling procedures and ground and pulverized to the final analytical
preparation. Errors can be introduced at many size in rotary mills or disk mills. The reduction
stages during sampling of an ore deposit and of sample weight is carried out by riffle division
also during crushing and splitting of the sample method or by coning and quartering method. In
in preparation for analysis. In the first case, the the riffle division method, the sample shall be
sample taken can be too small to be truly repre- mixed well and placed with a uniform thickness
sentative of the large block of ground to which its into the riffle tray and divided into almost two
value will be assigned, or, in the case of diamond equal parts (. Fig. 4.17). Either of the two divided
drill sampling, the two halves of the core can con- samples shall be selected at random each time the
tain different concentrations of mineralization. sample is reduced.
In general, sampling errors can be classified into The sample splitters are commonly called riffle
four main groups: (a) fundamental error, which or chute splitters and consist of a series of chutes
is due to the irregular distribution of ore values that run in alternating directions and producing
in the particles of crushed ore to be sampled; (b) a randomly divided two equal-sized fractions.
segregation and grouping error, which results One of the fractions can then be split again, and
from a lack of thorough mixing and the taking of the process can be reiterated until a sample of the
samples; (c) integration error, which results from desired size is generated. If a material is recur-
the sampling of flowing ore; and (d) operating rently split into smaller fractions using a riffle,
error, which is due to faulty design or operation the errors from each procedure of splitting will be
of the sampling equipment, or to the negligence added together, resulting in increasing variance
or incompetence of personnel (Assibey-Bonsu between samples. The rotary, or spinning, riffle is
1996). Sampling protocols must be designed, the best method to use for dividing material into
so they will minimize the errors introduced representative samples. In these riffles, the mate-
through improper procedures (second to fourth rial to be sampled is fed to a feeder, which drops
4.2 · Sampling
243 4
.. Fig. 4.17 Riffle division
method (Image courtesy of
Alicia Bermejo)
the material at a uniform rate into a series of bins by pressing the top of the cone with the smooth
on a rotating table (. Fig. 4.18).
surface of the scoop. Then it is cut into quarters
Where a mechanical splitter is not available by two lines, which intersect at right angles at
for separating finely crushed material or where the center of the cone. The bulk of the sample is
the fragments in a bulk sample are too large to reduced by rejecting any two diagonally opposite
be handled, the sample can be reduced by the quarters.
method of coning and quartering (. Fig. 4.19).
A simple rule in sample reduction is that all
In this method, the crushed ore shall be well fragments must be crushed to such a size that the
mixed up and then scooped into a cone-shaped loss of any single particle would not affect the anal-
pile. After the cone is formed, it shall be flattened ysis. This rule without numbers depends on the
244 Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
4 Repeat if
necessary
Discard
Replicate
3
Correlation coefficient = 0.99
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Original assay
L5 L12
L9
L2 L6 L13
4 L3 L10
L14
L7
L4
L11 L15
L8
b d e
b c d
a
c
Panel
where SGi is specific gravity of each sample. Finally, where a face which has been sampled
Precise application of the principle of weighting by vertical channels at irregular intervals and
for specific gravity would require specific grav- by samples of variable length must be evaluated
ity determination for each sample, a practice (. Fig. 4.21; Annels 1991), weighting by zone of
which is not common and, ordinarily, is hardly influence is applied. In this situation, the weighted
warranted. In some ores, the specific gravity grade assigned to the panel is thus calculated by
is closely related to the assay value so that it is multiplying the grade of each sample by its area
feasible to construct a curve based on a limited of influence, which is based on the sum of half
number of determinations and then read off the the distances to the adjacent channels (the ZOI)
specific gravity corresponding to any given metal times its sample length. According to . Fig. 4.21,
matched so that the value of the longer intervals to an increase in support. It should be consid-
can be evaluated. Thus, compositing is a numerical ered that compositing can also be performed for
process that includes the estimation of weighted values of variables other than grade. Downhole
average grades over larger volumes than the composites are computed using constant length
original samples (Sinclair and Blackwell 2002; intervals that generally start from the collar of
Hustrulid et al. 2013). Data are composited to stan- the drillhole or the top of the first assayed inter-
dard lengths to due to many reasons such as: val. These composites are used where the holes
1. Reduce the number of samples. are drilled at oblique angles (45° or less) to the
2. Provide representative data for analysis where mining benches and bench composites would be
irregular length assay samples are present. excessively long (Noble 2011). Bench compositing
3. Bring data to a common support; for has the advantage of providing constant eleva-
example, to combine drill core samples of tion data that are simple to plot and interpret on
different lengths to a general length of 1 m. plan maps. For large and regular mineral deposits
4. Reduce the effect of isolated high-grade data. where the transition from ore to waste is gradual,
5. Produce bench composites, that is, compos- the compositing interval is often the bench height
ites extending from the top of a bench to and fixed elevations are selected. This bench com-
the base in an open-pit; such composites are positing is nowadays the procedure most generally
especially helpful if two dimensional evalua- utilized for resource modeling in open-pit mining
tion procedures are utilized in benches. (Hustrulid et al. 2013).
6. Incorporate dilution (e.g., in mining contin- In the process of compositing, the starting and
uous height benches in an open-pit exploita- ending points of each composite is recognized,
tion). and the value of composite grade is estimated
7. Provide equal-sized data for geostatistical as a weighted average by matching the samples
analysis. included within these limits (. Fig. 4.22). In the
.. Fig. 4.22 Compositing
4 m – 4%
6 m – 4%
4 Compositing
4 m – 3.5%
8 m – 3%
4 m – 3%
4 m – 4.5%
2 m – 6%
4.3.2 Statistical Estimation the coefficient of variation should be less than 0.5,
of Grades and larger values indicate either lognormality or
an erratically distributed data set (Koch and Link
Statistical estimators of the grade of a deposit 1970). Other values cited are less than 1.0 (Carras
require that the distribution of grades be Gaussian 1984) and less than 1.2 (Knudsen 1988). Where
or normal. This probability density function is there is any doubt of the normal distribution of
the common bell-shaped curve, which is sym- the grades, a chi-square test can also be carried
metric about the mean value of the distribution. out since this test is used to determine math-
Normal curves can be adjusted to an unbiased ematically how closely the natural distribution
histogram to prove the probability that the vari- can be compared to a normal distribution. Thus,
able is normally distributed (. Fig. 3.42). The first
the «closeness» of the approximation is tested
stage in the process is therefore the production of (. Fig. 4.23). Chi-square test compared observed
histograms or frequency curves so that an overall data (e.g., grade values) with data awaited to
impression of the nature of the assay distribu- obtain using a specific hypothesis (normal distri-
tion can be obtained. The approach to normality bution) and «decided» if the observed data can be
of this population can also be assessed by pro- adjusted to a normal distribution according to a
ducing a cumulative frequency diagram and a predefined level of confidence.
probability plot. Once the arithmetic mean and
associated variance or standard deviation are cal- Normal Population
culated, then the shape of the assay distribution If the data conform to a normal population (the
can also be described in terms of skewness. This simple assumption of a normal distribution occurs
value measures the departure from symmetry for only rarely for geological data), the sample mean
a population. A positive value indicates a positive (X), arithmetic mean or average value, or the 50
skew (e.g., excess of high values compared to a percentile (median) value is conceptualized on
normal population), while a symmetrical distri- the central tendency of distribution parameters
bution should approach zero. around it is distributed. This value is calculated by
The coefficient of variation C, expressed as the sum of the values of all observations within
standard deviation divided by mean, is also used the population divided by the number of samples,
to describe the variability of assays in a deposit. and it is used as average grade estimator of the
For a data population to be considered as normal, group of samples, bench, or an entire deposit.
4.3 · Determination of Grades
249 4
.. Fig. 4.23 Chi-square
test Slices are
similar?
(fo – fe )2
Chi-square c2 = S
fe
.. Fig. 4.24 Lognormal
population (right skewed)
50
40
Frequency
30
20
10
2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 7%
Grade
mation of the data and then replot the histogram distribution, which is ɣ = eα, being α the average
to see if the population is normalized by this of the logarithms and β their standard deviation.
process. If it is, then it is possible to describe the This characterization is most used in ore reserve
population as being a two-parameter lognormal calculations (Sichel 1952; Krige 1951), and the
population (the parameters being log mean and better way to estimate the mean of a lognormal
log variance). Again, a chi-square test or by plot- population is to use the following relationship:
ting a log-probability diagram can be used to test
β2
the approach to normality of the log-transformed β2 α +
4 data. Logarithmic values are therefore used for X =e α
⋅e 2 =e 2
Box 4.2
Sichel’s t Estimator
Sichel (1966) developed a factor, Sichel’s t estimator can be the average of these logarithm
Sichel’s t estimator, to solve the calculated from data (α) is 2.06 and their standard
problem of obtaining the best deviation (β) is 0.45 (V = β2 = 0.20).
estimation of the arithmetic mean t = m × f (V ; n ) Calculation of m = ɣ = eα gives a
for skewed sample sets that have result of 7.85. Therefore, the formula
an approximately lognormal where m = ɣ = eα and f is a value to estimate the arithmetic mean
distribution. Thus, where an assay obtained from tables which is a using t estimator is
population is small (n < 30), for function of V and n, being V = β2
example, at the early feasibility and n the number of samples t = 7.85 × f ( 0.2 ) 5
stage of deposit evaluation, and (α is the average of the natural
where the raw data population logarithms of the data and β In . Table 4.7a the value for n = 5
has a high coefficient of varia- their standard deviation). Tables and V = 0.2 is 1.103. Thus:
tion and is lognormal, Sichel’s t for rapid determination of the t
estimator can be used to estimate estimator are provided in the lit- t = 7.85 × 1.103 = 8.66 g / t
its mean. The t estimator is a erature. Moreover, 95% confidence
useful conservative estimator of limits can also be determined If the upper and lower confidence
the arithmetic mean for small using tables provided by Sichel up limits must be calculated, then ɸ95
data sets where a lognormal to samples of size 1,000 and vari- (V; n) = 2.087 (. Table 4.7b) and
distribution can be assumed with ance up to 6.0. These tables give ɸ5 (V; n) = 0.713 (. Table 4.7c).
confidence. However, it should the values ɸ95 (V; n) and ɸ5 (V; n) Therefore:
be realized that if the log-trans- which, when multiplied by t, give
formed assay population deviates the upper and lower confidence Upper
limit = 8.66 × 2.087 = 18.07 g / t
from normality, then Sichel’s t esti- limits, respectively. Lower limit = 8.66 × 0.713 = 6.17 g / t
mator would also be biased. Thus, For instance, the results of five
the best estimator of a deposit gold grade analyses (g/t) are the Thus, the estimate of the arith-
is the one that gives the lowest following: 3.6, 7.4, 9.5, 8.1, and 14.3. metic mean grade of this data is
variance where the variance of Consequently, the natural loga- 8.66 g/t with a 95% probability
the data about the estimator is rithms are as follows: 1.28, 2.00, 2.25, that this estimate lies between
calculated. 2.09, and 2.66, respectively. Thus, 6.17 g/t and 18.07 g/t.
4.3 · Determination of Grades
251 4
a V n
V n 5
2 3 4 5 0.10 1.652
0.12 1.740
0.00 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
0.14 1.827
0.02 1.010 1.010 1.010 1.010
0.16 1.914
0.04 1.020 1.020 1.020 1.020
0.18 1.999
0.06 1.030 1.030 1.030 1.030
0.20 2.087
0.08 1.040 1.040 1.040 1.040
b 0.06 0.8302
V n 0.08 0.8070
5 0.10 0.7870
0.12 0.7693
0.00 1.000
0.14 0.7535
0.02 1.241
0.16 0.7389
0.04 1.362
0.18 0.7255
0.06 1.466
0.20 0.7129
0.08 1.561
.. Fig. 4.25 Outliers
50
40
4
Frequency 30
20
Outliers?
10
4% 5% 6% 7% 8%
Grade
These abnormal assays can appear in a 95th percentile of data) based on a cumulative
sequence of assays that, if not due to contamina- frequency or log-probability plot of mine assays.
tion, reflect much localized random phenomena Alternatively, the mean plus two or three stan-
such as gash veins, concretions/accretions, or dard deviation value of the mine assay population
coarsely crystalline aggregates of the valuable could be calculated and applied as the level of cut.
mineral (Annels 1991). In other words, some- . Table 4.8 shows an example of the result of a
times the outliers depict different geologic popu- capping process for different rock types in a gold
lation in the data that can correspond with an mineralization.
identifiable physical domain and this domain can Nowak (2015) recommended the following
be accounted separately of the main domain. It is steps in a procedure for treating outliers during
necessary to decide whether to accept them, even resource estimation:
though they are much localized and will probably 1. determine data validity considering errors in
heavily weight or bias the results, or whether to sampling and handling;
reduce them in some way. In any case, all outlier 2. review geology logs for samples with high
values must receive special handling, which can grade assays; capping may not be necessary
involve a number of options: (a) reanalyzing if for assays where the logs clearly explain the
possible, (b) cutting (also capping) to some pre- presence of high grade;
determined upper limit based on experience, or 3. capping should not be considered for delete-
(c) using an empirical cutting method»(Parrish rious substances that have negative impacts
1997). The most common method to resolve the on project economics;
problem of outliers is to cut the grade to the aver- 4. decide if capping should be considered
age of the adjacent samples, or to the mine aver- before or after compositing;
age grade, or to an arbitrary percentile value (e.g., 5. keep capping to a necessary minimum;
4.3 · Determination of Grades
253 4
.. Table 4.8 Grade capping for different rock types in a gold mineralization
Rock type Capping grade Percentile No. of samples Metal loss (%)
(g/t Au) capped
MD 30 98.04 26 13.05
6. restrict influence of very high grade assays; (metal) product of a mine is the metal with the
commercial software is well designed for this highest value of output, in refined form, from
approach; a particular mine, in a specified period; a co-
7. visually and/or numerically assess the effect product is a metal with a value at least half ... that
of high grade assays to be sure they don’t of the principal product; and a by-product is a
affect estimated block grades; and metal with a value of less than half ... that of the
8. check the effect of capping on final resource principal product. By-products are subdivided
estimates and document the differences. into significant by-products, which are metals
with a value of between 25% and 50% ... that of the
principal product and normal by-products, which
4.3.4 Coproduct and By-Product are metals with a value of less than 25%… that of
the principal product». Evaluation of coproducts
By-product components are both economically and by-products usually is carried out by meth-
and technologically valuable minor elements that ods similar to that of the main component (e.g.,
are obtained from the ores of the main metals. inverse distance weighting or kriging; see the next
These components are generally present in ppm headings). In these cases, each estimate of the
ranges, whereas the main metals occur within products is calculated regardless of the other, with
percent ranges in the mineralization. For instance, the tacit assumption that no important correlation
germanium occurs in zinc ores, gallium in baux- is present among the different products, being
ites, indium in zinc, copper or tin ores, tellurium the estimation procedure time-consuming and
in copper ores, hafnium in zirconium ores, and costly. In other cases, these estimation processes
tantalum in tin ores. Moreover, many high- can be carried out indirectly if a strong correla-
technology commodities currently are mostly pro- tion among the coproducts and by-products to the
vided by-product commodities. principal component is present. Consequently,
Three types of commodities can be defined many multi-mineral deposits are generally valued,
and classified according to the relative value of planned, and operated on the basis of equivalent
each commodity (Jen 1992). Thus, «the principal grades (. Box 4.3: Equivalent Grades).
254
Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
Box 4.3
Equivalent Grades (Cetin and Dowd 2013). With this Considering the cutoff grades,
Multi-mineral deposits are gener- method, the amounts of each operating cutoff grades for the
ally valued, planned, and operated mineral extracted in the mining equivalent grades do not neces-
on the basis of equivalent grades. stage and sent to the processing sarily correspond to achievable,
The use of equivalent grades for plant and subsequent stages are or even meaningful, cutoff grades
these types of deposits has been estimated on the basis of equiva- for the grade-tonnage distribu-
a standard practice in the mining lents and not on the basis of the tions of the individual minerals.
4 industry for many years, especially component minerals.
Since equivalent grade values
While there is direct relationship
between the individual grades
for base metal deposits. Equivalent
grades are used commonly to sim- are values in which the grade of and the equivalent grade, there
plify the problem of mineral inven- one metal is expressed in terms of is no unique inverse relationship
tory calculation by estimating a another, after allowance has been from the equivalent grade back to
single variable, rather than the made for the difference in metal the individual grades. The actual
two or more variables from which prices, an example of determina- amount of each individual min-
the single variable (equivalent tion of Au equivalent grade (Au eq) eral above the equivalent cutoff
grade) is derived. In general, the in an Au deposit containing some grade therefore will differ from
use of equivalent grades should be Ag should be as follows: the values calculated from the
equivalents. This difference will
discouraged (Sinclair and Blackwell Aueq ( g / t ) = Au ( g / t ) + k·Ag ( g / t )
2002). In this approach, each min- increase as the correlation among
eral is converted to its equivalent where k is a parameter that gen- the components decreases. Thus,
economic value in terms of one of erally is taken as the ratio of Ag using equivalent grades can
the minerals, which is taken as a price to Au price (e.g., k = 1/66 if undervalue or overvalue mining
standard. For example, in a silver- Au and Ag values are USD 990/ projects.
lead-zinc deposit, a weighted oz and USD 15/oz, respectively). It In other cases, for the purpose
sum of the three metal grades can can be seen that equivalent grades of assigning a dollar value to min-
be used to provide a single zinc- depend on both prices and grade, eral blocks, so that a cutoff can be
equivalent grade. This is generally and thus they are time-dependent applied to show reasonable pros-
done to avoid the complexities of based on how prices behave and pects of economic extraction, a
a three-dimensional, or in general how grades vary during opera- dollar equivalent can be calculated
n-dimensional, grade analysis tion. Metal recoveries can also be in a similar way.
included in the calculation.
.. Fig. 4.26 Discriminating between ore and waste in underground mining (Image courtesy of North American Pal-
ladium Ltd.)
The concept of cutoff grade works well in profits to employees and local communities
case of deposits with disseminated grade gradu- (2013). It is generally accepted that «the COG
ally changing from outer limits to the core of the policy that generates higher NPVs is a policy that
mineralization; on the contrary, in heterogeneous use declining cut-off grades throughout the life of
vein-type deposits with rich mineral at the con- the project» (Ganguli et al. 2011).
tacts, the COG indicator has no use in establish- Estimation of cutoff grade, although a com-
ing the ore boundaries (Haldar 2013). It is possible plex economic problem, is tied to the concept of
also to differentiate between COG and minimum operating costs per ton and can be viewed simplis-
4 mining grade (MMG), since there is a confusion tically for open-pit mines (John 1985). Although
in the utilization of both terms. Thus, one defini- long-range production planning of an open-pit
tion of COG is «the lowest grade material that can mining operation is dependent upon several fac-
be included in a potentially economic intersection tors, cutoff grade is probably the most significant
without dropping the overall grade below a speci- aspect, as it provides a basis for the determination
fied level, referred to as the minimum mining of the quantity of ore and waste in a given period
grade» (Annels 1991). (Asad and Topal 2011). Thus, operating cost per
Technical literature includes many publica- ton milled, OC, is given by (John 1985)
tions on estimation and optimization of cutoff
grades, being the most comprehensive reference OC = FC + ( SR + 1) × MC
the book entitled The Economic Definition of
Ore: Cut-Off Grades in Theory and Practice (Lane where FC are the fixed costs per ton milled, SR is
1988). This book is considered the standard for the strip ratio, and MC are the mining costs per
mathematical formulation of solutions to COG ton mined. Cutoff grade, useful at the operational
estimation where the objective is to maximize level in distinguishing ore from waste, is expressed
net present value (see 7 Sect. 4.5.1.4) because the
in terms of metal grade; for a single metal, cutoff
cutoff grades define the profitability of a min- grade can be determined from operating cost as
ing operation as well as the mine life. There are follows:
many approaches for the determination of cutoff
grades, but most of the research done in the last OC
gc =
four decades shows that determination of cutoff p
grades with the objective of maximizing NPV is
the most acceptable method. A high cutoff grade where gc is the operational cutoff grade (e.g., per-
can be utilized to increment short-term profitabil- cent metal) and p is the realized metal price per
ity and the net present value of a mineral proj- unit of grade (e.g., the realized value from the
ect, but increasing the cutoff grade is also likely smelter of 10 kg of metal in dollars where metal
to decrease the life of a mine. This shorter mine grade is in percent).
life can also produce higher socioeconomic effect Another equation to derive the cutoff grade
with decreased long-term jobs and decreased (e.g., in gold) is the following:
Cutoff grade ( gold ) = mining cost + process cost + general and administrative ( G & A ) costs
NPV, the environmental issues and social impacts tonnage curves are used extensively and updated
must be included in the mine design (Mansouri regularly to calculate the impact that different
et al. 2014). Thus, optimum cutoff grades deter- cutoff grade strategies have on the economics of
mination is counted as one of the main challenges a mining operation. The type of information, for
in sustainable development principles of mining, example, sample data or block estimates, used in
including environmental, cultural, and social the construction of a grade-tonnage curve should
parameters. Therefore, an optimum cutoff grade be documented clearly.
model must rely not only on economic and tech- The approximation of the grade-tonnage curve
nical considerations but also reclamation, envi- to reality is highly dependent on some natural
ronmental, and social parameters (Rahimi and parameters as the geology and grade distribution
Ghasemzadeh 2015). of the deposit. In general, the more variable the
grades, the more complex is the geometry and the
less reliable becomes the curve. All grade-tonnage
4.4.2 Grade-Tonnage Curves curves contain several errors, including those
based on an abundance of closely information.
At the early stages of the planning of a mine, an However, obviously the better is the quality of
important decision tool is the grade-tonnage data, the better are the calculations and the grade-
curve. For a given cutoff, a certain tonnage of ore is tonnage curves obtained. One error that needs to
expected and consequently a certain profit. If the be mentioned in grade-tonnage curves is analyti-
tonnage later proves to be less than expected, the cal and sampling error since the election process
consequences are obvious (David 1972). Thus, it is not based on true grades but on estimated
is common practice to calculate the resource ton- grades from samples. With relatively little data at
nage at a series of cutoff grades since the resource the prospection stage, large sampling and analyti-
potential of a mineral deposit will be determined cal error can generate an important effect on the
by the cutoff grades (. Fig. 4.27). The action of
grade-tonnage patterns, usually originating an
changing these values usually produces a clear overvaluation of high-grade tonnage (Sinclair and
impact on resource/reserve data. The informa- Blackwell 2002).
.. Fig. 4.27 Grade-
tonnage curves (Illustration
Average grade above cut-off (g/t)
courtesy of AngloGold 90 32
Tons above cut-off (millions)
Ashanti) 80 30
70 28
60 26
50 24
40 22
30 20
20 18
10 16
0 14
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Cut-off grade (g/t)
Tons above cut-off Ave grade above cut-off
258 Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
4.5 Estimation Methods the method used, all estimates start with a com-
prehensive geological database, primarily derived
The prediction of grade and tonnage in a min- from drilling; without detailed, high-quality geo-
eral deposit is an essential problem in mineral logical and geochemical data, a resource estimate
resource estimation. The classical approximation cannot be considered valid.
to this issue is to calculate the mineral grade for The estimation procedure is not only a mere
quantities significant to the mine planning and calculation but also a process that includes
base the recoverable resource estimation on those assumption of geological, operational, and inves-
calculations (Rossi and Deutsch 2014). The pro- tigational information. All estimates should have
cess of calculating a mineral resource can only the best possible geological input combined with
be carried out after the estimator is convinc- well thought out statistical or geostatistical treat-
ing of the robustness of the factors that justify ment; no purely mathematical estimate should be
the evaluation process, from choice of method accepted. The calculations therefore form only
of sampling to sales contract specifications. In part, and not necessarily the most important part,
this sense, ore estimation is the bridge between of the overall procedure. It is common practice in
exploration, where successful, and mine planning exploration to begin with economic evaluations
(King et al. 1982). Thus, the geological data must as early as possible and to update these evalu-
be sufficiently complete to establish a geological ations in parallel with the physical exploration
model and this itself «must have internal consis- work. In an early stage, the geologist has only a
tency, should explain the observed arrangement tentative idea about expected grades and tonnages
of lithological and mineralogical domains, and based on the initial geological concept and early
should represent the estimator’s best knowledge concrete indications through observations from
of the genesis of the mineral deposit» (Glacken trenches or a limited number of drillholes. This
and Snowden 2001). In summary, regardless of early idea about grades and tonnages can be called
4.5 · Estimation Methods
259 4
grade potential and tonnage potential (Wellmer tonnage is derived from the volume by multiply-
et al. 2008). In this sense, the four Cs (character of ing by the specific gravity of the ore. The volume
mineralization, continuity, calculation, and classi- is commonly determined by calculating an area
fication) are the basis for the correct estimation of in two of the dimensions and then multiplying
ore resources or reserves (Owens and Armstrong by the third dimension to determine the final
1994). volume. To determine total area, it is usually
possible to divide the area under consideration
into a number of regular geometric figures such
4.5.1 Drillhole Information as squares, triangles, etc. (Reedman 1979). Thus,
and Geological Data the resource or reserve calculation in a mineral
deposit includes one formula, or a variation of it,
The essential data needed for resource estimation which is always used:
are derived from drillhole information. It includes
detailed logs of the rock types and mineralization T = A × Th × BD
and geochemical and assay data for all samples
that were collected. It also includes survey data where T is the tonnage of ore, in tons; A is the
for each drillhole. It is critical that the locations area of influence on a plan or section, in m2 or
in 3-D space of the mineralized zones are known. km2; Th is the thickness of the deposit within the
Moreover, the shape, form, orientation, and dis- area of influence, in meters; and BD is the bulk
tribution of mineralization in a deposit must be density. Then, tons of valuable component (e.g.,
known with sufficient confidence to estimate the copper) are obtained multiplying tonnage of ore
grade and tonnage of mineralization between by the grade of the ore. In summary, the general
drillholes. procedure is a three-step process: limit and vol-
Regarding the geological model, it obviously ume determination, grade estimation, and mass
should support the distribution of mineralization determination using the specific gravity of the
achieved by sampling. A geological model involves rocks and ores.
examining cross sections, long sections, plan The method used to calculate the ore reserve
maps, and 3-D computer models of the deposit. estimation will change according to the type of
The resource estimation process includes defini- commodity, type of mineral deposit, geometry,
tion of ore constraints or geological domains, distribution and homogeneity of the ore, mode of
analysis of the sample data, and application of a data collection, among others, but conceptually
suitable interpolation technique. In general, less the steps to be taken will be always the same as
than one-millionth of the volume of a deposit is expressed in the previous formula. It should also
sampled, and grades and other attributes must be borne in mind that ore reserve statement is an
be estimated in the unsampled region, which is a estimate, not a precise calculation. All formulas
high-risk process. In summary, knowledge of the for computing volumes, tonnage, and average fac-
geology of the mineral deposit is a prerequisite to tors are approximate because of the irregular size
any reliable computation: an incorrect model for and shape of the ore body, errors in substituting
the deposit will lead to incorrect resource estimate natural bodies by more simple geometric ones,
(Stevens 2010). This understanding involves space geologic interpretation, assumptions, and incon-
location, size, shape, environment, country rock, sistency in the variables. Accuracy of the results
overburden, and hydrology; mineral, chemical, usually depends more on geologic interpretation
and physical characteristics of the raw material; as and assumptions rather than on the method used
well as average grade and distribution of valuable (. Fig. 4.28). Resources or reserves of the same cat-
and gangue minerals (Popoff 1966). egory computed by different methods and based
on the same data usually differ slightly. In fact, if
sampling spacing could be sufficiently close, esti-
4.5.2 General Procedure mation would be a matter of simple arithmetic;
this is almost the situation, for example, in grade
It is important to note that in ore reserve calcu- control process (see 7 Chap. 5) where samples are
lation, it is necessary express the data including separated 3 or 5 m each other. In other words, the
a volume, a tonnage, and an average grade. The closer the sample spacing, the less important the
260 Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
Ignored
4
Continuity?
Ignored
Ignored
procedure of ore estimation; the sparser the data, ore grade and densities, and many others. If the
the more critical the procedure, not only quantita- volume is expressed in cubic feet, it is divided by
tively, but also qualitatively, because of the greater the tonnage-volume factor, which is the number
dependence on subjective assumptions (King of cubic feet in a ton of ore. This is the origin of
et al. 1982). the term «tonnage factor».
The bulk density of a mineralization is
obtained by laboratory measurement of field
4.5.3 Bulk Density samples (. Fig. 4.29) or from the mineralogical
.. Fig. 4.30 Relationship
between density and com- 6
bined grades
5
4
Density (g/cm3)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Zn+Pb+Cu+Fe (%)
262 Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
Too often, attempts to apply kriging are based on do not consider any correlation of mineralization
the use of mathematical parameters that have not between sample points nor quantify any error of
been adequately tested or proven, perhaps due to estimation. All of them are empirical and their
time or information constraints. Geostatistical use depends mainly of the experience of the user.
methods will only work satisfactorily if sufficient Selection of a method depends on the geology
sampling is available to allow the production of of the mineral deposit, the kind of operation, the
a mathematical model adequate to describe the appraisal of geologic and exploration data, and
4.5 · Estimation Methods
263 4
a c e
A2
G8 D M
G1
b (0.50%) (0.40%) d
G2 A1
(0.50%)
G5 G4 d2 (200)
(1.00%) (0.90%) d4 (100) 30
25 25
8 15
8 d6 20
G6
20
(200) (0.50%)
15
d9 (150) 20
d7 (250)
10
G7
G9 25
20 15 10
15 f
(0.70%)
(1.00%) 10
G3
(0.60%)
.. Fig. 4.31 Classical methods for resource/reserve calculations: a block matrices, b inverse distance weighting, c poly-
gons, d contour, e triangles, and f sections
the accuracy required. Time and cost of computa- Various methods can be also applied for different
tions are often important considerations. The pur- parts of a body depending on the geology, mine
pose of reserve computations is one of the most design, type and intensity of exploration work-
important considerations in selecting a method. ings, and category of reserve computations. A sec-
For preliminary exploration, the method should ond method can often be used for control of the
best illustrate the deposit, the operations, and computations made by the principal method, so
permit sequential computations and appraisal. that no crude errors can occur. A common exam-
On the other hand, time-consuming procedures ple of combined methods is where one method
must be avoided if reserves are being computed is applied to outline and divide the mineral body
for prospective planning. The system of mining into blocks and another to determine the param-
or the problem of selecting one can influence the eters of each block.
preference. A certain method of computation can
facilitate more than others the design of develop- Cross-Sectional Methods
ment and extraction operations owing to techni- If a deposit has been systematically drilled on sec-
cal and economic factors such as mining by levels, tions according to a regular grid, reserve calcula-
average grade, or different cutoff grades. tion will be based on cross sections along these
A careful analysis of geology and exploration lines. The cross-sectional methods are based on
should be made to select the best method of esti- a careful consideration of the geology of the min-
mation. In general, the method (or combination eral deposit and the developing of a correct geo-
of methods) selected should suit the purpose logical model that is essential for good resource
of computations and the required accuracy; it estimates (Stevens 2010). It is possible to distin-
should also best reflect the character of the min- guish two variables of the standard method: verti-
eral deposit and the performed exploration. In cal sections or fence used mainly in exploration
a complex or irregular deposit, it is advisable to and horizontal sections or level used in mining.
use two or more methods for better accuracy and Although there are many geometric possibilities,
self-confidence. Average of these methods can in the traditional cross-sectional method, the area
be accepted as a final result, or the values of one or ore in a given cross section is calculated (e.g.,
method can be considered as a control of others. with a planimeter, counting squares, or through
Thus, the use of two or more methods to compute Simpson’s rule), and the volume of the ore body
reserves for the same deposit is common practice. is commonly computed using, as a solid figure,
264 Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
a A2 b
D M
D
A1 3
4
2
.. Fig. 4.32 Cross-sectional methods: a solid figure formed by two consecutive cross sections; b solid figure obtained
corresponding to half the distance to the two adjoining sections
two consecutive cross sections and the distance The volume of each block multiplied by the
between them (. Fig. 4.32a):
bulk density of the mineralization, calculated,
for example, in the laboratory with samples
A1 × A2 including valuable mineral, waste, pores, etc.,
V= ×L
2 gives the tonnage of ore in tons. The reserves in
tons of the valuable component in each block
where V is the volume, in m3; A1 is the area of sec- (e.g., copper in sulfide mineralization) are sub-
tion A1, in m2; A2 is the area of section A2, in m2; sequently estimated multiplying the ore tonnage
and L is the distance between A1 and A2, in meters. by the average grade. As explained before, a
The interval between sections can be constant, for range of methods is available to determine aver-
example, 50 m, or can vary to suit the geology and age grade: statistical, metal accumulation, area
mining requirements. Another possibility is to of influence, etc. The sum of the tonnages of ore
compute the volume corresponding to half the dis- or valuable component in each block generates
tance to the two adjoining sections (. Fig. 4.32b).
the total tonnage ore resources/reserves for the
Thus, the limits of the blocks defined lie exactly entire mineral deposit.
halfway between the drillholes. Obviously, an The cross-sectional methods are simple and
end correction is necessary for the volumes at the rapid, but they are not accurate because normally
extremities of the ore body. For these two cases, intercross-sectional distance varies between 50 m
the volume can be calculated using half the dis- and 100 m. These methods however are the most
tance between drillholes, seldom more than 50 m. convenient ways for computing reserves of uni-
To increase the accuracy of computations, the form mineral deposits. Thus, well-defined and
number of blocks should be as large as possible. large bodies that are uniform in thickness and
Care should be exercised to avoid arbitrary loca- grade or show gradually changing values can gen-
tions and construction of sections. In exploration, erally be computed accurately by cross-sectional
distance between sections is usually governed by methods. The method should be used with cau-
the character of the mineral body and the distri- tion where the bodies are irregular or where val-
bution of mineral values. Selection of sections ues tend to concentrate in some ore zones. Where
unjustified by exploration data can influence the computations of several valuable components are
size of the areas and, in turn, computation. Most of required and the mineral body shows grade varia-
the disadvantages in the use of this method can be tions for each component, it is difficult and often
avoided by properly planned exploration. impossible to apply cross-sectional methods.
4.5 · Estimation Methods
265 4
In underground mining, horizontal cross method shows the intuitive idea that the amount
sections constructed along the proposed mining of data generated by each sample is proportional
levels are often preferred in mine design. Two sets to its area or volume of influence. The most com-
of vertical sections at right angles to each other mon drawing of polygons around the drillholes
would better illustrate ore bodies than any other is using a series of perpendicular bisectors of
method. The method is applied most successfully lines joining sample locations (. Fig. 4.33a). The
in the case of a deposit that has sharp, relatively perpendicular bisector of a line segment is a line
smooth contacts, as with many tabular (vein for which points are at the same distance from
and bedded) deposits. Assay information, for either side of the line segment. This procedure
instance, from drillholes, commonly is concen- is equivalent to a process known as Voronoi tes-
trated along equispaced cross sections to produce sellation. Therefore, in this method each poly-
a systematic data array; in some underground gon incorporates a unique sample location and
situations, more irregular data arrays can result, all the points included in the polygon are nearer
for example, from fans of drillholes. The great to the contained datum than to any external
strengths of the procedure based on sections are datum. The Russian scientist B.T. Boldyrev gave
the hard geologic control that can be imposed the first description of the method applied to
(Sinclair and Blackwell 2002). Moreover, cross- geology as early as 1909. Another possibility to
sectional methods are easily adaptable for use define the polygons is to use the angular bisectors
simultaneously with other classical methods. In (. Fig. 4.33b). Here, each polygon is established
fact, these methods have an advantage over the by linking drillholes with tie lines and then con-
polygonal methods (see next section) in that it is structing angular bisectors between these lines to
easy to observe variations in the shape and grade define a central polygon (Annels 1991).
of mineralization. There are arbitrary decisions that must be
made as to how marginal prisms are bounded at
Method of Polygons their outer edge. There are different possibilities to
Where drillholes are randomly distributed (e.g., resolve this problem, including the utilization of
in an irregular grid), the grade and thickness of geologic information at the boundary, if possible,
each hole can be assigned to an irregular poly- or more usually to fix a maximum distance from
gon, and it is assumed that both variables remain the sample. A combination of indicated, probable,
constant throughout the area of the polygon. The and possible resources constructing outer fringes
polygonal estimate is based on assigning areas of and assigning resources categories to each fringe
influence around drillhole intercepts. Thus, this from distances to drillholes can be also used to
a b
.. Fig. 4.34 Polygons
based on resources cat-
egories
Mengo 13
4 Mengo 15 Mengo 7
Mengo 11 Mengo 9
Mengo 12
Mengo 28 Mengo 6
Mengo 8B Mengo 5B
Mengo 10
7,1501
Resources
Inferred
Indicated
Measured
smoothing is entirely empirical; (2) the weight- cases is the arithmetic mean, while the grade is
ing (equal weighting of three samples) is arbitrary thickness weighted, plus bulk density if required,
and thus is not optimal other than coincidentally; among the four holes (Annels 1991).
(3) anisotropies are not considered; and (4) the
units estimated do not form a regular block array. Contour Methods
For many decades, the triangular method was Contour methods are very simple to use and pro-
considered standard, although errors in results duce good results, especially for mineral bodies
due to the manner of dividing the area into tri- where there are certain natural regularities of the
4 angles were recognized. The procedure for reserve variations in thickness and grade. The methods
computations by the method is relatively simple, are based on the assumption that unit values,
although modifications of the method, such as from one point to another, undergo continues
included angle weighting or distances of each and uninterrupted changes according to the rule
hole from the center of gravity to calculate grade, of gradual changes. To construct isolines, inter-
required more elaborate computations. The rela- mediate values are determined by interpolation
tive error depends on the manner in which the between points of known values. As a result, cer-
area is divided into triangles, their form, and the tain properties of mineral bodies can be presented
total number of triangles. Thus, errors in comput- graphically on a plan or section by a system of iso-
ing reserves can be substantial, particularly where lines. Common cases are computation of average
fluctuation of variables is large and the number of thickness (. Fig. 4.37), average grade, and average
triangles is small. In comparison with other meth- value of a mineral deposit from appropriate iso-
ods, the triangle method requires construction of line maps. The methods require sufficient number,
a greater number of blocks ultimately resulting in appropriate density, and distribution of observa-
labor and time-consuming computations. Where tions for accurate plotting of isolines. A major
an ore body contains several valuable components, advantage of the methods is their descriptiveness;
computations can also be cumbersome. Moreover, the isopach map gives an idealized likeness of the
the method is not exact where variables decrease mineral body, whereas the isograde map shows
from the center to the outside boundaries, such as the distribution of rich and poor ore. Thus, the
the thickness of lens-like bodies. In these cases, the boundaries of cutoff ore are easily constructed
volume reserves computed will be underestimated. and changed; likewise, volume can be computed
In general, the uniform and gradual changes of by measuring areas of respective isolines without
variables, which are positive to use the triangular additional drawing. Moreover, if the requirements
method, are characteristic features of only a few for minimum grade, thickness, or value of ore are
mineral deposits, predominantly sedimentary. changed, the isomaps remain the same. The meth-
ods of isolines are applicable to deposits of gradual
Block Matrices physical and chemical changes such as sedimen-
Where the data are on lines or on rectangular or tary deposits, for instance, large placer gold depos-
regular offset grids, regular blocks of square or its explored with hundreds of drillholes.
rectangular shape can be fitted to the drillholes Contouring is normally invoked to avoid
(. Fig. 4.36). The method is basically similar to
the irregular and commonly artificial ore/waste
the use in the polygon method and is particu- boundary that arises in estimating blocks. In cases
larly suited to the exploration phase of drilling in which data are abundant, they commonly are
of a prospect where rapid updating of the reserve contoured directly without the intermediate stage
can be undertaken as each new hole is drilled and of grid interpolation. As an estimation procedure,
where precision of the estimates is not as crucial contouring of grades is typically applied to grade
as at a later feasibility or mining stage. According control in open-pit mines where the controlling
to the method used to construct the blocks, some data are blasthole assays.
methods allow extrapolation of mineralization Up to four methods of contouring can be dis-
beyond drilling but only use one hole to evalu- tinguished (Annels 1991), being the main three
ate each block; other methods give conservative described below: (1) the grid superimposition
reserves using four holes to evaluate both grade method, (2) the moving window method, and (3)
and thickness and they are thus somewhat reli- the graticule method. In the grid superimposition
able. Generally, the thickness apply in the latter method, drillhole intersection points are plotted
4.5 · Estimation Methods
269 4
.. Fig. 4.36 a–e Block
matrices (Annels 1991) a b
c d
Regular rectangular
grid - Corner holes
Offset regular
grid
- Corner holes
on plan along with the relevant component of this section of ore. To calculate the reserves of the
thickness and grade. Contour plans are then pro- deposit, the area of each block, obviously the same
duced and a matrix of ore blocks is superimposed, for all blocks, is multiplied by the interpolated
whose dimensions allow them to fit exactly within thickness, and the volume obtained is multiplied
mining blocks. For all blocks within the ore limits, by the bulk density, in a similar way than proceed-
values are assigned to the midpoint of each block ing methods, to obtain the tonnage of mineraliza-
by interpolation between contours, first for thick- tion. The tonnage will be later multiplied by the
ness and second for grade. Where blocks overlap interpolated grade to compute the valuable com-
the boundary, an estimate of the proportion of ponent reserves of the block. The sum of reserves
ore in the block is made together with an estimate of each block will give the reserves for the entire
of grade and thickness as the center of gravity of deposit.
270 Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
.. Fig. 4.37 Contour of magnesite average thickness in a magnesite deposit (Illustration courtesy of Pedro Rodriguez)
.. Fig. 4.38 Graticule
method (Annels 1991) 1.5%
2.0%
2.5%
A
3.0%
6.5 m
7.0 m
7.5 m
The moving window method is a smooth- achieve this number if required. As the dimen-
ing technique, particularly suited to the calcu- sions of the search windows increase, greater
lation of reserves of an open-pit bench that has degree of smoothing of the data will be achieved.
been intersected by a series of irregularly spaced The window is positioned so that its center falls
drillholes, or blast holes, which have revealed over the first block to be evaluated and the arith-
a highly erratic fluctuation in bench composite metic mean of all the raw data values falling in
grades. For this reason, contouring of the data is the window, or their log-transformed equivalents,
not possible, and as a result, grid superimposition is calculated and the result assigned to this block.
and the grade interpolation method could not be The window is then moved laterally to the next
applied. The moving window method involves fit- block and the above calculation is repeated. The
ting of a grid of ore blocks to the outline of the rest of the procedure is equal to that shown in the
deposit in the bench under evaluation. A search grid superimposition method.
window is then drawn whose dimensions are Where no correlation exists between thick-
twice as those of each ore block. Ideally, at least ness and grade, the graticule method can be used
15 drillholes should fall in the search area, so the (Annels 1991) (. Fig. 4.38). Contour maps of the
search window dimensions can be modified to variables are superimposed and the area of each
4.5 · Estimation Methods
271 4
graticulate is determined using the methods
∑ ( Zi / din )
n
described above. The thickness and grade assigned Z B = i =n1
to each graticulate within the ore body limits are
the mean of the bounding contours. The global
∑ i =1 (1 / din )
procedure is similar to that shown in previous where ZB is the estimate of block grade or thick-
methods: determination of volumes, tonnage of ness based on the values of each of these (Zi) at
mineralization, and tonnage of the valuable com- each sample location in the search area; (1/d) is
ponent. the weighting function, being d the distance of
each sample from the block center; and «n» is
Inverse Distance Weighting Methods
the power to which the distance is raised. It is
Inverse distance methods are a family of weighted necessary to define the data utilized in the pro-
average methods, being one of the most charac- cess, being this selection based on distance factor
teristic features the clear smoother process gen- for the search area, the power factor used, and
erated in the estimations. Thus, these methods how many points should be utilized to estimate
provide for a gradual change in values between the center point for each block. Inverse distance
multiple sample points rather than an abrupt methods must be done so that weights sum to
and unnatural change at the boundary between one; otherwise, the method is biased and there-
adjacent polygonal blocks. The technique applies fore unacceptable.
a weighting factor to each sample surrounding The most common exponents used are
the central point of an ore block. This weighting n = 2 (inverse distance squared, IDS) and n = 3
factor is the inverse of the distance between each (inverse distance cubed, IDC). . Figure 4.39
sample, and the block center is raised to the power shows an example of the application of inverse
«n,» where «n» usually varies between 1 and 3. distance method and the influence of the power
Only samples falling within a specified search «n» in the estimation final result (Annels 1991).
area (2-D) or volume (3-D) are weighted in this Three-drillholes fall in the search area (circular)
way. Because the method is laborious and repeti- and their grades (%) are given in the diagram,
tive, it is necessary to use a geological modeling together with distance values. As can be seen in
software package.
The inverse distance is taken into consider-
ation by assuming that the influence of a borehole
over a point varies inversely as the distance. The
method begins to take the spatial distribution
of data points into account in the calculations,
a characteristic that will be repeated with geo-
statistical methods. Although subjective, inverse 1.6
distance weighting estimation procedures remain
d2
popular. They have been found commonly often
to generate results that are somewhat similar to d3
geostatistical estimates produced using ordinary
d1 2.8
kriging methods. However, the application of ID
methods has been steadily decreasing through the
years in favor of geostatistical methods. 3.1
The procedure comprises the division of the
deposit into a group of regular blocks within the
geologically defined boundary. The available data
are then used to calculate the variable value, thick-
ness or grade of the mineralization, for the center Sample coords 1.6 = (10,40)
of each block. According the name of the method, 2.8 = (90,0)
obviously near points are given greater weighting 3.1 = (–40,–35)
than points far away. The weighted average value
for each block is calculated using the following .. Fig. 4.39 Inverse distance weighting with circular
general formula: search area (Annels 1991)
272 Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
sample (1.6%) increases with «n», while that given 4.5.6 Geostatistical Methods
to the others decreases.
Larger exponents (IDC) are applied where Introduction
large weights are decided for the closest samples. The classical methods described so far are based
The extreme case is to increase the value of the on the assumption that the individual samples,
exponent so that only the closest sample receives such as sample values from drillholes, are statis-
any weight at all, but this selection is a nonsense tically independent of each other. In the context
because then the procedure is equivalent to polyg- of an ore body, this implies that the position
onal method. The opposite extreme occurs where from which any sample was taken is not relevant.
the exponent is zero, which amounts to an equally Theoretically, using classical statistics, taking
weighted moving average as described in the pre- samples in opposite sides of an ore body would be
vious methods (moving window method). as good as taking them a short distance apart. This
Techniques such as search using a quadrant or kind of independence is rarely found in mineral
an octant can also optimize the spatial distribu- deposit data, but there is frequently certain spa-
tion of data utilized to produce a block or point tial interdependence among the samples, which is
estimate. Where the deposit is considered to be studied by geostatistics. Geostatistics is therefore
isotropic, in that grade or thickness variations statistics by which the spatial association is taken
are constant in all directions or the drilling grid into consideration and where the variables are
is square, a circle (2-D) or a sphere (3-D) is used known as regionalized variables. Matheron pub-
as search area. But if the deposit is anisotropic, an lished in 1963 that «Geostatistics, in their most
ellipse (2-D) or an ellipsoid (3-D) is preferred as general acceptation, are concerned with the study
search area. Another possibility is to divide the of the distribution in space of useful values for
search area around the block center to be evalu- mining engineers and geologists, such as grade or
ated into four or more commonly eight sectors thickness, including a most important practical
and then proceed to search for the nearest speci- application to the problems arising in ore-deposit
fied number of samples in each sector in turn; evaluation… Any ore deposit evaluation as well
usually, an eight-point sector search is used, but as proper decision of starting mining operations
this can be varied by the user. This means that a should be preceded by a geostatistical inves-
maximum of 64 samples would be utilized in an tigation which may avoid economic failures.»
eight-point sector search, although some sectors Moreover, classical methods do not include any
can reach the set distance limit before eight points estimation of the errors involved in the evaluation
are located and thus a smaller data set would and this general, being this concept fundamental
be used. This method reduces the bias incurred in any estimation method of mineral resources
where denser sampling exits to one side of the and reserves. In this sense, geostatistics estimates
block under evaluation. Problems still exist how- the error involved in estimation. In . Fig. 4.40,
ever for blocks at the ore body fringes where some two blocks are going to be estimated, one of which
sectors will be totally empty. by relatively few data (left) and the other by more
4.5 · Estimation Methods
273 4
important where an operation is working close to
its economic breakeven point, or the assignment
of confidence limits and precision to estimates of
tonnage and grade.
In general, the geological contest defines the
grade and thickness in a deposit. Thus, changing
geological and structural conditions produce vari-
ations in grade or quality and thickness between
deposits, even within one deposit. However, it can
.. Fig. 4.40 Geostatistics estimates the error of the be logically considered that samples taken close
estimation
together tend to reflect probably the same geo-
logical conditions. And, as the sample distance
abundant data (right). In addition to generat- increases, the similarity decreases until at some
ing block estimates, in the same way as classi- distance there will be no correlation. In this way,
cal methods, geostatistics computes the error of geostatistical methods quantify this concept of
estimation. spatial variability within a deposit and display it
Numerous books are available on the sub- in the form of a semivariogram. Once that cor-
ject, including those by Matheron (1971), relation between samples is established, it can
David (1977), Journel and Huijbregts (1978), be utilized to estimate values between existing
Clark (1979), Isaaks and Srivastava (1989), and data points. The estimation of the correlation
Goovaerts (1997). Geostatistics is also applied is referred to variogram modeling. Thus, geo-
to other topics in mineral resource exploration/ statistical methods use the spatial relationship
evaluation such as classification of ore reserves between samples as quantified by the semivario-
based on geoestatistical and economic parameters gram to generate weights for the estimation of the
(Wober and Morgan 1993). unknown point or block.
There are two areas where geostatistical calcu- Matheron developed the basis for geosta-
lations can be important, even in the early phases tistics in the mineral industry during the 1950s
of evaluating a mineral deposit: (a) the calcula- and 1960s. As aforementioned, geostatistics is
tion of errors or uncertainties in reserve estimates defined as applications of the theory of region-
(«knowledge of ore grades and ore reserves as well alized variables. They are associated with both a
as error estimation of these values is fundamen- volume and shape, called a «support» in geosta-
tal for mining engineers and mining geologists») tistics (. Fig. 4.41), and a position in space. The
(Matheron 1963) and (2) the determination of term regionalized variable also emphasizes the
grades, for instance, in single mining blocks. two aspects of the variables: a random aspect
As a consequence, a geostatistical reserve study which accounts for local variations and a struc-
with careful attention to geologic controls on tured aspect which reflects large-scale tendencies
mineralization will provide not only a good total
reserve estimate but also a more reliable block-
by-block reserve inventory with an indication of
relative confidence in the block grades estimated.
Obviously, geostatistical methods, like any others,
cannot increase the quantity of basic sample infor-
mation available nor they can improve the qual-
ity or accuracy of the basic assays. Geostatistical
techniques should be regarded as a comprehen-
sive suite of ore reserve estimation tools, which, if
they are correctly understood and utilized, should
commonly lead to few astonishments where
the mine come into production (Readdy et al.
1998). Other advantages of geostatistical meth-
ods include determination of the best possible .. Fig. 4.41 The volume, size, and position in space of a
unbiased estimate of grade and tonnage, which is sample is the «support»
274 Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
of a phenomenon. Geostatistics also assume the from the surrounding sample values using krig-
stationarity into the mineral deposit. It means, ing. Geostatistical methods are optimal where
simply, that the statistical distribution of the dif- data are normally distributed. Therefore, the first
ference in, for example, grade between pairs of step in geostatistical studies is to check the nor-
point samples is similar throughout the entire mality of the data distribution. It can be carried
deposit or within separate subareas of the deposit. out using the methods described in 7 Sect. 4.2.2.
The concept of stationarity can be difficult to The four numbered steps will be presented here in
understand but can be associated to the term such a way to minimize the use of mathematical
4 homogeneity utilized by geologists to characterize expressions and notation (e.g., triple integrals).
domains of similar geologic features such as types
of mineralization. Spatial Correlation: Semivariogram
Classical statistic considers only the mag- The amount of spatial correlation or continuity
nitude of the data and geostatistics takes into is determined by the primary geostatistical tool:
account not only the value at a point but also the the variogram or semivariogram; there is a clear
position of that point within the ore body and in difference between both terms, but here they will
relation to other samples. Of course, geostatisti- be used indistinctly. The semivariograms, which
cal estimation does not mean necessarily better represent the characteristics of the mineraliza-
estimates than those obtained by other methods. tion, are a prerequisite to any geostatistical ore
In fact, any estimation procedure can produce reserve estimation, and they are used in all sub-
incorrect results because the procedure has not sequent phases. As explained in a previous sec-
been applied correctly, inappropriateness of the tion, semivariogram defines the concept of «area
procedure, or changings in the geologic model of influence» and can be used in determining the
as a consequence of new information further optimum drillhole spacing and optimum sample
obtained (Wellmer 1998). Geostatistics has a clear size. The semivariogram serves to measure and
potential if it is reconciled with the geology of express the correlation of the variable under con-
the mineral deposit (King et al. 1982). Thus, it is sideration in a specific space and at a given orien-
important to note that geostatistical methods can- tation. In this method, it is always assumed that
not replace meticulous geological data acquisition variability between two samples depends upon
and interpretation. They are computational tools the distance between them and their relative
that rely on good geology and extend its reach. orientation. By definition, this variability (semi-
For instance, erroneous application of geosta- variance or γ(h)) is represented calculating the
tistics is to calculate a semivariogram with data variance between pair of samples separated by a
that comprise distinct domains. For this reason, distance «h» (lag distance), following the formula:
geostatistical results (kriging) should always be
checked with other method such as classical ones. 1 n
2
Geostatistical calculations also require suitable γ (h) = ⋅ ∑ ( xi − xi + h )
2n( h ) i =1
computer programs and a considerable math-
ematical background. However, geologic cross
sections, bench plans, and most importantly, the where γ(h) is the semivariance, xi are the data val-
acquired understanding of the ore body in terms ues of the regionalized variable (e.g., ore grades),
of the lithologic, structural, or other controls on xi + h is the data value at a distance «h» from xi,
the mineralization is of paramount importance in and «n» is the total number of value pairs that
any geostatistical study. are included in the comparison; lag (h) is purely
A geostatistical ore reserve study will usually the spacing at which the squared differences of
include the following main steps: (1) study of the sample values are obtained (lag 1 is thus the mini-
geologic controls on the grade, thickness, or other mum sampling interval). For n samples regularly
variables of the mineralization, (2) computation distributed along a line, at intervals of «h» meters,
of experimental semivariograms, (3) selection of we will have (n − 1) pairs to compute γ(h), n − 2
suitable semivariogram models to adjust to the to compute γ(2h), and so on.
experimental semivariograms, and (4) estima- The sample pairs are each oriented in the same
tion of the variable value and the estimation error direction, are each separated by the same distance
4.5 · Estimation Methods
275 4
.. Fig. 4.42 Calculation of
γ(h) at different lags
Lag 1
Lag 2
Lag 3
Lag 4
(h) in meters, and are equivolume, the support enrichment, can be deduced from the study of
concept commented previously. On the semivar- the semivariogram. An insight is gained into the
iogram, γ(h) is plotted as a function of the spacing relative importance of spatial controls (e.g., dis-
or lag h, and the result is the so-called experimen- tance from an igneous contact, presence of faults,
tal or empirical semivariogram, because it is based or palaeo-shoreline) and random influences (e.g.,
only of samples. Alternatively, semivariograms fracture infillings or metamorphic lateral secre-
can be computed on the logarithms of grade if this tion veins) operating during the mineralization
variable is logarithmically distributed. A semivar- process (Annels 1991).
iogram is therefore ideally suited for clarifying
the problem of whether the sample values are Semivariogram Models and Fitting
statistically independent of each other or if they Once an experimental semivariogram has been
are spatially interdependent. Commonly, values calculated, it must be interpreted by fitting a model
of γ(h) increase steadily with increasing distance to it (. Fig. 4.43). Any function that depends on
1.4
Experimental semivariogram
1.2
576 401
592 562 359 301 175
1.0 Sph( 0.4, 100)
355 407
0.8 467
4
g (h)
Fitting a model
33
0.6 Sph ( 0.35, 20)
0.4
0.2 N (0.25)
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Sample separation (m)
Spherical Model
The spherical or Matheron model, and show variability equal to the The three parameters men-
and many others, can be described theoretical variance of sample val- tioned (range, nugget effect,
quantitatively by three param- ues. This variability is termed the and sill) characterize each type
eters: (1) range, (2) sill, and (3) sill (C) of the semivariogram. The of mineral deposit. Very irregular
nugget effect (. Fig. 4.44). Range
sum of the nugget effect plus the deposits, such as gold or peg-
(a) is the distance at which the sill is known as the total sill value matite deposits, will show high
semivariogram levels off at its pla- (C + C0). nugget effect and/or small range;
teau value. This reflects the classi- The third characteristic relatively uniform deposits such
cal geological concept of an area considered is the nugget effect. as stratiform, sedimentary Pb–Zn
of influences. Beyond the distance The semivariogram value at zero occurrences show low, even zero,
of separation, sample pairs no lon- separation must be zero, but there nugget effect and large range.
ger correlate with one another and is often a discontinuity near the Information from other deposits
become independent. Regarding origin, which is called the nugget of the same type, preferably
the sill, it is the value at which effect (C0). It expresses the local neighboring deposits or deposits
the variogram function plateaus. homogeneity or lack thereof of the in the same geological region,
For all practical purposes, the deposit. This is generally attribut- can help as a priori information,
sill is equal to the variance of all able to differences in sample for example, for the estimation
samples used to compute the values over very small distances of the range or the relative nug-
semivariogram. As a general rule, and can include inaccuracies in get effect, if in the early stage
the semivariogram model starts at sampling and assaying (this item of the exploration only limited
zero on both axes; at zero separa- sometimes is called «human» nug- data were available to calculate
tion (h = 0) there should be no get effect) as well as associated the variogram (Wellmer 1998).
variance. Even at relatively close random errors. If the semivario- Semivariograms in different
spacings, there are small differ- gram shows random fluctuation orientations can also identify the
ences and variability increases about a horizontal line, a so-called presence of anisotropic features
with separation distance. This is pure nugget effect is present in in mineral deposits. Anisotropic
seen on the semivariogram model the ore body. In that case, the best features are reflected by the range
where a rapid rate of change in option is to evaluate the deposit and sill, which are dependent on
variability is marked by a steep using classical methods since the orientation; the nugget effect
gradient until a point where the errors estimating the reserves of is generally an isotropic quantity.
rate of change decreases and the an ore deposit with pure nugget The spherical model has the
gradient is zero. Beyond this point, effect in the semivariogram can mathematical form shown in the
sample values are independent be huge. two equations below:
.. Fig. 4.44 Spherical
model Tangent at the origin
Covariance
Sill
Semivariogram
g (h)
Covariogram
Co
2a/3 a
Lag (h)
278 Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
simple kriging (SK), ordinary kriging (OK), indi- minimizing this estimation error or variance,
cator kriging (IK), universal kriging (UK), and kriging results in a series of simultaneous equa-
probability kriging (PK), among others. In krig- tions, which can be solved for each weighting fac-
ing, the coefficients of such a linear combination tor, given the position of the sample and a model
are obtained indirectly from the semivariogram, of the semivariogram representative of the min-
hence the importance of trying to fit correctly the eralization being studied. The estimation errors
model of semivariogram. Unlike other estimation in the process will be higher in regions of low
methods (e.g., inverse distance weighing or near- drilling density and obviously lower where the
est point), kriging also gives a confidence level of deposit has been extensively drilled with closer
each estimate. spaced holes.
The kriging estimator has the following gen- The system of linear equations (system of
eral form, for instance, to estimate a grade value ordinary kriging equations) is set up as follows:
in a point:
m
n ∑λ j γ ij + µ = γ i 0 i = 1, 2, … m
Z ∗ = ∑λi xi = λ1 x1 + λ2 x2 + λ3 x3 +…+ λn xn j =1
i =1
where «I» and «j» are data locations and «m» is
where Z* is the estimated grade, Xi is the sample the number of data used in the estimation. The
grade, λi is the weighting coefficient assigned solution of the m + 1 linear equations, including
to each respective Xi, and «n» is the selected Σλi = 1, minimizes the variance of the estimation
number of nearest neighbor samples that will be error. Thus, the essence of ordinary kriging is
used to estimate the grade. The suitable weights that the estimation variance is minimized under
λi assigned to each sample are determined by the condition that the sum of the weights is 1. In
two conditions. The first one expresses that z* the kriging system, «μ» is a Lagrange multiplier
and z must have the same average value within needed for the final solution, γij are known semi-
the whole large field and is written as Σλi = 1. variogram values from the semivariogram func-
The second condition expresses that the λi have tion estimated between data points «I» and «j»,
such values that estimation variance of z by z*, and γi0 are known semivariogram values between
in other words, the kriging variance should take data points «I» and the estimated location x0 and
the smallest possible value (Matheron 1963). In y0, if 2-D.
4.5 · Estimation Methods
279 4
For instance, in a four-sample kriging estima- is needed to diminish the value of the estimation
tion, the full set of kriging equations is the follow- variance. This is one of the most important appli-
ing, being K equal to λ in the previous formula: cations of point kriging.
Once kriging variance is determined, it is pos-
K1γ 1,1 + K 2γ 1, 2 + K3γ 1,3 + K 4γ 1, 4 + µ = γ 0,1 sible to calculate the precision with which it is pos-
K1γ 2,1 + K 2γ 2, 2 + K3γ 2,3 + K 4γ 2, 4 + µ = γ 0, 2 sible to know the various properties of the deposit
K1γ 3,1 + K 2γ 3, 2 + K3γ 3,3 + K 4γ 3, 4 + µ = γ 0,3 investigated by obtaining confidence limits (σE) for
critical parameters. According the features of geo-
K1γ 4,1 + K 2γ 4, 2 + K 3γ 4,3 + K 4γ 4, 4 + µ = γ 0, 4 statistics commented previously, the errors show a
K1 + K 2 + K 3 + K 4 = 1 normal distribution, which allows the 95% confi-
dence limit (±2σE) to be calculated. Another appli-
In addition to the estimate, the kriging variance cation of kriging variance can be the classification
σ2E or σ2K is found from of reserves according their levels of uncertainty
and precision, the latter based on the relative krig-
m
ing standard deviation (Diehl and David 1982).
σ E2 = ∑λi γ i 0 + µ
i =1
The general procedure of kriging contains a
number of important implications that are not
Kriging variance depends on the distance of particularly obvious to those with limited math-
samples used to estimate the point or block value. ematical background. Some of them are:
Thus, a lower kriging variance means a point or 1. Kriging is correct on average although any
block that is estimated from a near set of samples single comparison of a kriging estimate with
and a higher kriging variance represents a point a true value might show a large difference;
or block that is calculated using samples some however, on average such differences gener-
distance away. Having computed a reliable group ally are less for kriging than for other inter-
of regular data values using kriging, these val- polation techniques.
ues can be contoured and showed graphically as 2. Kriging of a location (point) for which infor-
well as the corresponding estimation variances mation is included in the kriging equations
(. Fig. 4.45). Thus, areas with comparatively
results in a kriging estimate equivalent to the
high estimation variances can be analyzed to see known data value; in other words, kriging
whether there are data errors or if further drilling reproduces existing data exactly.
90,000 90,000
(%) (%)
7 0.4
6 0.3
m m
5 0.2
4 0.1
62,000 62,000
29,000 m 50,000 29,000 m 50,000
Estimated grade (%) Kriging standard deviation
3. Kriging takes into account data redundancy; result that computation time is clearly increased.
in the extreme, a very tight cluster of several Sometimes, just less than the range of the semi-
analyses carries almost the same weight as a variogram can be a good option to select the
single datum at the centroid of the cluster. search radius, since beyond this distance sample
4. Kriging can be carried out as described but pairs no longer correlate with one another and
on transformed data; if the transform func- become independent.
tion is not linear, the back transform will not
produce an optimum estimator (Sinclair and Point Kriging and Block Kriging
4 Blackwell 2002). Point kriging takes into account only relation-
ships between individual sample points, which
In lognormal distributions, kriging is carried were drillhole sites in the previous example, but
out using log-transformed data. These lognor- does not take the size of the blocks into consider-
mal distributions are very common when using ation. This technique is then best suited to contour
geochemical variables, for instance, gold values. isolines of equal grades or thicknesses of the ore
Thus, the value estimated is the mean log-trans- body. With regard to block kriging, it estimates
formed value, the back transform of which is the the value of a block from surrounding data. Block
geometric mean. But in lognormal distributions, kriging can therefore replace such techniques as
the geometric mean is commonly lower than the inverse distance weighing or cross sections to
arithmetic mean. It should be therefore borne in evaluate the reserves of a mineral deposit. The
mind that the arithmetic mean and associated estimation block selected initially should have
error dispersion must be calculated from the esti- dimensions consistent with the anisotropy of the
mates of log parameters. deposit, the geological model, the grid size, and
Semivariogram modeling process and the the area of influence.
need of a high-quality model fitted to the experi- To determine the covariance between a sample
mental semivariogram are of paramount impor- and a block, the block is considered to be repre-
tance. Thus, an almost perfect semivariogram sented by a grid of «n» points. Thus, covariance
model must be integrated with the geologic model between each of these points and the sample is
of the mineral deposit. Once the semivariogram determined and the average computed. The grid
model is determined, the subsequent processes size could be 10 × 10 and the estimation would be
are (1) cross validation of the semivariogram the mean of 100 values. Block kriging amounts to
model, (2) criteria to select data for individual estimating the individual discretization points (e.g.,
point or block estimates, and (3) definition of 10 × 10) and then average them to obtain the block
minimum and maximum numbers of data for value. This formulation was originally the most
kriging each point or block. Finally, a systematic widely used form of kriging in mining applications.
kriging of each point or block is carried out. As a general rule, it is not prudent to com-
Regarding the selection of data, generally all pute blocks whose dimensions are less than half
data within a special search radius of the point or the sample spacing. As they diminish in size,
block being evaluated are selected. The search vol- such blocks become too numerous and the esti-
ume can be spherical or ellipsoidal, if anisotropy is mation grades quickly become meaningless as
present. A maximum number of data is imposed they become less and less related to the sample
on each point or block estimate so that the set of information. Moreover, the variance of such
kriging equations is relatively small and its solu- blocks will be excessive, in inverse ratio to size.
tion is efficient. In addition, a minimum number Regarding the shape of the block, an appropriate
of data is usually established with the objective to shape may be cubic blocks for an isotropic mass
prevent large errors in which only local stationarity and parallelepipeds with proportions related to
is ensured and guarantee interpolation as opposed the dimensions of the zone of influence.
to extrapolation. It is appropriate to need that data
be fairly well spread spatially, not all clustered. Indicator Kriging
For a particular data density, a search radius Indicator kriging (IK) was introduced in the early
too small results in too few data being selected. 1980s as a technique in mineral resource esti-
On the contrary, a search radius too large origi- mation (Journel 1983). It is the prime nonlinear
nates huge amount of data being elected, with the geostatistical technique used today in the mineral
4.5 · Estimation Methods
281 4
industry. The original appeal of IK was that it was such as those usual in most gold and uranium
nonparametric, in the sense they do not make any deposits (Sinclair and Blackwell 2002). New appli-
prior assumption about the distribution being cations of MIK include to infer the variogram for
estimated. IK involves transformation of data to the median of the input data and to use this for
zeros or ones based on the situation of a value all cutoffs. This so-called median IK approach is
relative to an assigned threshold. The binomial very quick because the kriging weights do not rely
coding of data into either zero or one, depending on the cutoff being considered (Ali Akbar 2015).
upon its relationship to a cutoff value, Zk, is given, Median indicator kriging is achieving growing
for a value Z(x): acceptance as practical and cost effective method
for resource estimation and grade control.
1 if z ( x ) ≥ zk
i ( x;zk ) =
0 if z ( x ) < zk Cokriging
Cokriging is a method of estimation that obtains
IK has the potential to generate recoverable the value of a variable evaluated in a point in
resources where carried out over a larger area space based on the neighboring values of one or
for a series of blocks. In other words, the propor- several other variables. For example, gold grades
tion of a block theoretically is available above a can be estimated from a combination of gold
given cutoff grade (an arbitrary threshold called and copper samples values. The equations used
the indicator threshold or indicator cutoff). in cokriging are basically the same as for simple
Thus, if the observed grade is less than the cutoff kriging, but considering the direct and cross
grade, indicator will be 1. Otherwise, it will be 0. covariances. The utilization of a secondary vari-
Therefore, indicator kriging is simply the use of able that is commonly more regular is clearly an
kriging to estimate a variable that has been trans- interesting advantage over ordinary kriging. It
formed into an indicator variable. Obviously, the allows estimation of unknown points using both
indicator variable changes as the variable (e.g., variables globally for the mean of all estimates but
cutoff grade) changes. IK is really a procedure that also conditionally for the estimates within indi-
avoids the influence of the high samples over the vidually specified grade categories. This can aid in
whole of the deposit rather than applying it only minimizing the error variance of the estimation.
to the estimation blocks close to these very high To perform cokriging, it is necessary to model not
grades. The technique is particularly applicable only the variograms of the primary and second-
where strict ore/waste boundaries exist within ary data but also the cross-variogram between
giving blocks, for example, large copper por- the primary and secondary data. If the secondary
phyries where grade zoning is the major control variables are present or available, then the use of
as well as in low-grade deposits where the cutoff these secondary variables via the cokriging tech-
value is of major concern. nique could be advantageous in estimating values
Such applications of indicator kriging have of the primary variable, although sometimes the
found an extensive utilization in mineral deposit improvement of cokriging is very little or none
estimation due to their simpleness. This indicator (Genton and Kleiber 2015).
kriging method has been utilized for estimat-
ing relative proportions of mineralized versus Cross Validation
unmineralized ground, the proportion of barren Different models can fit the same experimental
dykes within a mineralized zone (Sinclair et al. data, so it is natural to control which is the best
1993), to delineate different lithological units of model. The best method to select the adequate
an ore deposit (Rao and Narayana 2015), and semivariogram model for kriging is the so-called
so on. Repeated indicator kriging for different cross-validation process. It estimates the value at
thresholds, a process known as multiple indica- each drillhole or sample location after removing
tor kriging (MIK), allows the local cumulative the observed value by kriging all those adjacent
curve to be estimated. Thus, the local mean can values that fall in the search area around this
be determined, a block distribution can be esti- point. Therefore, not only the known value (Z) but
mated, and the proportion of blocks above cutoff also the estimated value (Z*) are computed, and
grade, and their average grade, can be calculated. the experimental error (Z − Z*) can be estimated
MIK is broadly used to apparently erratic values, as well as the theoretical estimation variance.
282 Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
The best variogram model would be the one that where Zi is the actual value at each point and
yields lower average error. In summary, cross N is the number of points. This calculation
validation is to krige known values to obtain takes into account the sign of (Z − Z*).
the best semivariogram to krige in unknown 2. Mean absolute error:
points or blocks. If the number of samples is
N
great, cross-validation techniques can be used to ∑ i =1 Z i − Z i∗
see if the method applied or the model fitted to
N
the experimental variogram is acceptable or can
4 be improved. However, in the early exploration This is the mean of the differences, but this
stages there are rarely enough data to do a mean- time the sign is ignored.
ingful cross-validation computation. 3. Mean kriging variance:
Cross-validation process can be performed in
two distinct ways: (1) a spatial leave-one-out rees- N
timation whereby one sample at a time is removed ∑ i =1σ K2
from the data set and reestimated from the remain- N
ing data and (2) a subset of the data (e.g., 20 or
30% of the total) being separated completely from 4. Mean square error of estimation:
the data set and reestimated utilizing the rest of
∑ i =1 ( Zi − Zi∗ )
N 2
the data. The first method is the most commonly
used, but there have been a number of objections N
to this option: (a) the method is generally not
sensitive enough to detect minor differences from 5. Number of points valued by point kriging.
one variogram model to the next; (b) the analysis
is performed on samples or composites but not in If the model allows accurate estimation of the
a different volume support; (c) the sill of the semi- data population, the value of (1) approaches
variogram cannot be cross- validated from the zero and is not more than 1% of Z (the mean of
reestimation; (d) semivariogram values smaller all the Zi values), (4) should be almost equal to
than the minimum lag between samples cannot (3), and (5) should be as large as possible. A sig-
be cross-validated (Isaaks and Srivastava 1989). nificant difference between (3) and (4) can be due
Therefore, it is difficult to define a useful good- to outliers, for example, abnormally high or low
ness of fit test for a semivariogram model. Many values in the data set, which greatly increase the
times the most important factor to select the best (difference)2 values between these and adjacent
semivariogram model is the user’s experience and points. Removal of these outliers can allow the
the goals of the project. mean squared differences value to approach the
As previously commented, in cross validation mean point kriging variance. Another way to test
each drillhole or sample has both an observed the semivariogram model is plotting Z against
value and a kriged estimate for the regionalized Z* and if the values are uniformly distributed
variable at this point. Thus, final outputs in the about a best fit regression line whose slope is 45°
cross-validation process are the following (Annels (the values show a high correlation coefficient,
1991): near 1), then the conditional unbiasedness has
1. Mean algebraic error: been achieved (. Fig. 4.46). The following Box
N Deposit Evaluation).
4.5 · Estimation Methods
283 4
.. Fig. 4.46 Testing the
semivariogram model
selected using cross valida-
tion (plotting Z – true value
against Z* – estimated
value) 3.0
Estimated values
x
2.0 y=
1.0
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0
True values
Box 4.5
with these rocks are silicified vol- drillholes and channel samples for The drillhole and chip sample
cano-sedimentary rocks that host the project. The database consists database used for estimation
gold and silver mineralization. The of 1,298 drillholes and channel of resources consists of 106,038
284 Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
N
0
00
01
N
56
44
0
30
00
00
00
0N
E
44
00
56
99
20
0N
00
43
E
00
98
4 56
0N
43
10
00
00
E
97
0N
43
00
56
00
96
00
43
E Erato
55
90
00 250
E TAA 0
200 Elev
0E
lev
ev v
El Ele
56
00 0
20 250
30
00
N
E
0
00
01
56
N
20
44
Fault structures
0
00
00
E
00
0N
44
56
00
10
00
99
E
0N
43
00
98
56
00
0N
43
X 00
E
00
Z
97
Y
0N
43
55
90
00
00
96
E
43
.. Fig. 4.47 Wireframe models for Amulsar deposit and interpreted faults (Illustration courtesy of Lydian
International Ltd.)
gold assays and 101,038 silver mation for gold and silver grades. gold variograms were generated
assays, and 1,198 dry bulk density Approximately 99 percent of assay and modeled for the Erato-LV and
measurements. The drillhole data- samples were sampled at 2 m TAA-LV declustered composites;
base excludes 92 geotechnical, intervals or less. Capping of high variograms were generated for
metallurgical, and condemnation gold and silver grades for the Erato, gold and indicator thresholds.
drillholes which were not assayed TAA, and LV zones is not required. Traditional semivariograms were
for gold and silver or were not Conditional statistics were used as the spatial model for Erato
assayed using the same techniques generated for the Erato and TAA and TAA zones. Gold indicator
used for all other samples (i.e., zones using gold composites and variograms were used to estimate
metallurgical boreholes). In addi- were used to determine intraclass gold grades. Gaussian-transformed
tion, eight drillholes within the mean grades to be used for post- gold variograms were developed for
mineralization areas were excluded processing of model panel grade variogram analysis and were back
or partially excluded as all or part estimates. Seventeen and sixteen transformed to gold values to derive
of the drillholes were not sampled indicator thresholds were selected change-of-support correction fac-
or drillholes were abandoned due for Erato and TAA zones, respec- tors and for the selective mining
to drilling problems. Drillholes for tively. These indicators were consid- unit (SMU) localization of the MIK
each of the two UV zones compris- ered sufficient to discretize both the estimates. Gaussian-transformed
ing Erato and TAA, and a single LV composite and metal values. The omnidirectional variogram models
zone covering the rest of deposit selected thresholds represent the were generated for LV zone gold
volume, were composited at 2 m entire grade range and therefore composites and silver compos-
intervals to provide common sup- represent the spatial variability ites for Erato, TAA, and LV zones
port for statistical analysis and esti- of the mineralization. A suite of (. Fig. 4.48). Some examples of the
4.5 · Estimation Methods
285 4
0.75
g (h)
0.50
0.25
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Distance (m)
0.0880 Spherical 60 60 60
0.2334 Spherical 57 57 57
variogram models for the project ranking of localized estimates, was applied in order to produce
are provided in . Table 4.12.
gold grades were estimated by resource estimates that reflect the
Erato and TAA zone compos- ordinary kriging (OK) into a target anticipated level of mining selec-
ites were used to estimate gold SMU model with the dimensions tivity. When estimating local recov-
into each of the Erato and TAA 10 mN × 10 m E × 5 m elevation. erable resources, the objective is
models using hard boundaries. Hard boundaries were used for to obtain the proportion of miner-
A panel model with the dimen- each respective zone to estimate alization above a particular cutoff
sions of 20 mE × 20 mN × 10 m gold grades into the Erato and grade (pseudo tonnage), within
elevation was used for the MIK TAA block models (. Table 4.13).
panels that are large enough to
estimates. In preparation for A change-of-support adjustment achieve a robust estimation.
286 Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
Elevation 2,270 10 73
A localized MIK (LMIK) SMU designed around areas that showed of silver) of inferred category
model was generated using the lateral continuity exceeding 150 resources (. Table 4.14).
MIK SMU-corrected histogram and meters. Indicated classification Regarding the mineral reserves
partitioning of the estimated ton- was extended to include overlying of the project, the pit designs and
nage and metal from the MIK panel or underlying blocks of the lower the estimate of mineral reserves
model evenly into SMU blocks volcanic unit. Resources classi- were based on a number of pit
within the panel. In this manner, fied as measured were contained optimization runs carried out
grades are mapped into each of within the indicated wireframe, but utilizing the Lerchs and Grossmann
the SMU-sized blocks, thereby block grades are estimated by 40 algorithm. These optimization runs
replicating the targeted mining composites and 60 composites for examined the effect of:
selectivity. Gold grades were the Erato and TAA zones, respec- 1. Cutoff grade ranging from 0.1
estimated by ordinary kriging for tively. The measured classification Au g/t to 0.3 Au g/t, in incre-
the LV unit using hard boundaries. encompassed only blocks in the ments of 0.05
No distinction was made between Erato or TAA zones. The likelihood 2. A 6.5 percent ramp gradient
Erato and TAA areas for these of the resource being potentially 3. The inclusion of Inferred mate-
estimates. Silver grades were esti- economic was determined by gen- rial
mated using OK for the Erato, TAA, erating a conceptual optimized pit 4. Waste haulage options, explor-
and LV zones using silver compos- shell using the following assump- ing the effect of a reduction in
ites with hard boundaries for each tions: (a) metal prices of USD 1,500 mining cost due to utilizing a
zone. Uncapped composites are per ounce gold and USD 25 per combination of waste dump
used for estimation of silver grades ounce silver, (b) average pit slope of and in-pit waste backfill
in the Erato and TAA models. Silver 32 degrees, (c) average mining cost 5. Optimizing each deposit sepa-
grades were estimated using an OK of USD 2.00 per ton and processing rately
estimator. Dry bulk density values and administration costs USD 4.60 6. The effect of sterilization
were assigned to each estimated per ton, and (d) gold cutoff grade due to a zone containing an
model on the basis of the average of 0.20 g/t. Mineral resources are endangered flora
dry bulk density measurements in reported on the basis of all esti- 7. the effect of applying dilution
each of the estimated zones. mated blocks that are contained by regularizing the resource
Indicated resources were within this pit shell. model
classified on the basis of a volume At a cutoff grade of 0.20 g/t 8. The sensitivity of the resource
that enclosed relatively closely gold, the mineral resources are block model considering only
spaced drilling (approximately estimated at 77.2 Mt at 0.78 g/t Au gold compared to including
45 m intervals) and included holes and 3.6 g/t Ag (1.9 million ounces the contribution of silver
drilled vertically and at inclined gold and 8.8 million ounces silver)
angles, demonstrating vertical of measured category, 45.1 Mt
. Figure 4.49 shows the optimi-
and horizontal continuity. The at 0.76 g/t Au 3.5 g/t Ag (1.1 mil-
zation results by pit shell for all
outline was drawn to enclose a lion ounces gold and 5.1 million
deposits and . Table 4.15 tabu-
continuous zone of mineralization ounces of silver) of indicated cat-
lates the mineral reserves for the
and areas where a high number of egory, and 106.2 Mt at 0.59 g/t Au
project.
composites are used to make each and 2.6 g/t Ag (2.0 million ounces
block estimate. These outlines were of gold and 8.9 million ounces
4.5 · Estimation Methods
287 4
1,600 400
1,400 350
Millions
1,200 300
Millions
1,000 250
Undiscounted cash flow
800 200
Tons (t)
600 150
400 100
200 50
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Pit shell number Waste Ore Undiscounted cash flow Pit shell selected
.. Fig. 4.49 Optimization results by pit shell for all deposits (Data courtesy of Lydian International Ltd.)
4.6 Mining Project Evaluation raw mineral commodities are price takers
rather than price makers.
Project evaluation is the process of identifying 5. Capital intensity: the mining industry, by its
the economic feasibility of a project that requires very nature, is capital intensive, being the
a capital investment and making the investment high level of expenditure due to exploration,
decision (Torries 1998). Much care and perhaps economies of scale, isolation, and power and
multiple evaluation methods are required to water factors.
obtain results on which to base mineral invest- 6. Environmental: protection of the environ-
4 ment decisions. Mineral investments show cer- ment is important for both industrial and
tain characteristics that differentiate them from resource companies, but mining cycle envi-
other types of investment opportunities such ronmental impacts (see 7 Chap. 7) are clearly
as the depletable nature of the ore reserves, the more intensive and harmful in mining proj-
unique location of the deposit, the existence of ects.
many geologic uncertainties, the significant time 7. Land rights: although industrial-based com-
needed to place a mineral deposit into produc- panies can be faced with problems related
tion, the commonly long-lived nature of the to land rights, they are not as exposed as
operation itself, and the strong cyclical nature of mining companies, which are often involved
mineral prices. This decrease in flexibility obvi- in exploration on land not covered under
ously increment the risk of mining projects com- freehold title.
pared to other types of investment opportunities.
The term risk has many meanings in the mining Moreover, the effects of time greatly influence the
world, but a broad definition of risk is «the effect value of a mineral project as they do any other
of uncertainty on objectives» (ISO 31000: 2009. long-lived investment because many mineral
Risk management – Principles and guidelines). It procedures are cyclical and the issues to forecast
can be used by any organization regardless of its prices and expenditures poses special problems in
size, activity, or sector. calculating and planning mineral projects (Labys
Deeper in the subject, Rudenno (2012) selects 1992). Time also affects mineral projects in sev-
up to seven differences between resource and eral ways that are not always present in other
industrial companies: investment opportunities. For example, the first
1. Volatility of share prices: share price volatil- higher-grade ore mined increases early profits
ity for resource stocks has historically been but diminishes the average grade of the rest of
greater than for industrials. the ore, thus reducing the global life of the mine.
2. Exploration: a unique feature of the mining Moreover, it is impossible to establish the right
industry is the need to explore in order to amount or grade of material to be mined until the
find and define an economic resource on deposit is depleted. This is related to geologic cer-
which a mining project can be built. tainty (only statistical estimates of the reserves)
3. Finite reserves: any mineral resource has a and economic certainty (it is almost impossible to
finite volume and therefore will have a finite determine reserves since future prices cannot be
life; industrial companies are in theory able to forecast accurately) (Torries 1998).
operate for an indefinite length of time, once In summary, the use of adequate project eval-
they have a raw material supply and a market uation techniques is more important in the min-
for their product. ing industry than in many other industries. This is
4. Commodity price volatility: resource stocks because the mining projects are extremely capital
are exposed to greater external commodity intensive and require many years of production
price volatility than most industrial stocks, before a positive cash flow commences and their
since most of the world’s major exporters of life is much longer compared to other industries.
4.6 · Mining Project Evaluation
289 4
It is important to keep in mind the dynamic nature Some of these steps are usually overlapped, but
of project evaluation. Numerous projects compete this is improbable to reduce the time involved. In
for the same scarce resources at any given time. this sense, it is not rare to spend about 15 years
Changes in the budget, evaluation criteria, or between the beginning of the prospection pro-
costs or benefits of any of the competing projects gram and the start mine production (Moon and
can change the evaluation results and ranking for Evans 2006).
any single project under consideration. The studies range from the lowest level of cer-
tainty (scoping) to the highest level of certainty
(feasibility) and show increasing levels of detail
4.6.1 Types of Studies and expense associated with their completion.
Only the final feasibility study is considered to
Three levels of geological/engineering/economic have sufficient detail to allow a definitive positive
studies are commonly applied by the mining or negative decision for corporate and financial
industry: the scoping study, the preliminary fea- purposes. However, it is important to note that
sibility (pre-feasibility) study, and the feasibility production of a final feasibility study report does
study. Depending on the context, each of these not in itself mean that a project is viable or that
types of study is sometimes generally refer- the project will be one that will attract project
enced as a «feasibility study.» The two important finance. Often these project stages are required
requirements for these types of studies, especially to be undertaken in line with international codes
feasibility reports, are as follows: (1) reports must such as JORC or NI 43-101 (see 7 Chap. 1) to
be easy to read and their information must be eas- determine what is required and includes their
ily accessible; and (2) parts of the reports need to associated confidence levels. Regarding the cost
be read and understood by nontechnical people of these studies, they vary substantially depend-
(Hustrulid et al. 2013). Once a resource estimate ing on the size and nature of the project, the type
has been completed, a decision will be made to of study being undertaken, the number of alter-
either to shelve the project, to continue drilling natives to be investigated, and numerous other
on the project with the hope of increasing the factors. For this reason, some estimated data are
resource, or to proceed with a preliminary eco- offered in each type of study.
nomic assessment or pre-feasibility study. These Pre-feasibility and feasibility studies involve
studies build upon the resource estimate by establishing several key components of a min-
designing a mine around the deposit and under- ing operation, including mine design, processing
taking economic analysis of the viability of a min- methods, reclamation and closure plans, and cash
ing operation. Each study builds upon the earlier flow analysis. These are referred to as the «modi-
study by increasing the detail and level of rigor. fying factors» under the International Reporting
The primary goal for determining the feasibil- Standards. Mine design involves determining the
ity of a mineral property is to prove that the min- mining methods, annual and life-of-mine pro-
ing project is economically feasible if it is designed duction, equipment needs, and personnel require-
and operated properly. The terminology for each ments. Processing methods are the methods and
stage of feasibility study is very varied, and there is equipment needed to concentrate mineral or
no agreed standard for quality or accuracy. Thus, recover metal from ore, commonly presented in a
it is very common to refer it as scoping studies, flow sheet diagram that outlines the steps the ore
pre-feasibility studies, and feasibility studies. It is will go through from the time it leaves the mine
convenient to use this terminology although the until the final product is produced. Reclamation
study process is iterative and several increasingly and closure plans are part of the overall mining
detailed pre-feasibility studies can be undertaken operation and must be factored into the mine
before committing to the final feasibility study. and mill design as well as the cash flow analysis.
290 Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
.. Table 4.16 Example of capital costs in a .. Table 4.17 Example of operating costs
feasibility study (sustaining cost covers the entire
mine site operation from year 1 to the end of Activity Annual Cost Cost
production) cost ($/y) per per
tonne tonne
Description Initial cost ($) Sustaining milled of conc.
cost ($) ($/t) ($/t)
taxes and royalties, and the revenues generated by reserve reporting. The evaluation is conducted
the sale of products. by using mine layouts and factoring known costs
and capacities of similar projects completed
Scoping Studies elsewhere. The study is directed at the potential
NI 43-101 Canadian code defines a prelimi- of the property rather than a conservative view
nary assessment, or scoping study or order-of- based on limited information, and it is commonly
magnitude study, as «a study that includes an performed to determine whether the expense of
economic analysis of the potential viability of a pre-feasibility study and later feasibility study
mineral resources taken at an early stage of the is warranted. At this stage, mineralogical stud-
project prior to the completion of a preliminary ies will identify undesirable elements and other
feasibility study.» Thus, this study is the first level possible metallurgical issues. It is also common
of geological/engineering and economic analysis to explore different options for mining and pro-
that can be performed, usually at an early stage cessing the deposit in order to choose the most
in the project. At this phase, it is obviously unde- promising methods for further study.
sirable to expend further funds on something Scoping study usually takes a few weeks to a few
that has no chance of being economic. The bases months to complete and cost USD 20,000 to USD
for these studies are the geology plans from the 200,000 (Stevens 2010) or 0.1–0.3%, expressed
exploration phase (. Fig. 4.50), limited drilling, as a percentage of the capital cost of the project
4.6 · Mining Project Evaluation
291 4
T.N
Tertiary fault
1°59.4’ 20°12.5’ uKC1 Carmacks, volcanics
LKqp Unnamed Suite, porphyry Secondary fault
mKN Mount Nansen, volcanics Primary fault
Grid north
rth
6 895 000 mN
mKN
LKqp
LKqp mKyW
EJyL
mKN
mKqW
PR
OP
ER mKqW
TY
BO LKqp mKN
UN LKqp
DA
RY
LKqp 6 890 000 mN
LKqp LKqp
mKN
LKqp mKN
LKqp LKqp
mKN
Property geology
LKqp
klaza property
385 000 mE
380 000 mE
mKgW
0 1500 3000 4500 6000 m
6 885 000 mN
UTM ZONE 8, NAD 83
DATE: MAR 2015
.. Fig. 4.50 Property geology of Klaza project used in exploration (Illustration courtesy of Rockhaven Resources Ltd.)
(Rupprecht 2004). The major risk at this stage is One of the most important aspects of a pre-fea-
that a viable mining project is abandoned due to sibility study is that a mineral resource cannot
an inadequate assessment. For this reason, it is be converted to a mineral reserve unless it is
paramount that expert people are implicated in the supported by at least a pre-feasibility study. It
study. The intended estimation accuracy is usually is common that the results of the pre-feasibility
30–35%, though some companies accept ±50%. study can be the first hard project information
which is seen by corporate decision-makers and
Pre-feasibility Studies investors. The aim of the pre-feasibility study is
NI 43-101 defines a pre-feasibility study as «a «to evaluate the various options and possible
comprehensive study of the viability of a min- combinations of technical and business issues
eral project that has advanced to a stage where to assess the sensitivity of the project to changes
the mining method… has been established and in the individual parameters, and to rank vari-
an effective method of mineral processing has ous scenarios prior to selecting the most likely
been determined, and includes a financial anal- for further, more detailed study» (Moon and
ysis based on reasonable assumptions of tech- Evans 2006).
nical, engineering, legal, operation, economic, There are many reasons for carrying out a
social, and environmental factors and the pre-feasibility study, being the most important as
evaluation of other relevant factors which are follows: (a) as a basis for further development of a
sufficient for a qualified person, acting reason- major exploration program following a successful
ably, to determine if all or part of the mineral preliminary program, (b) to attract a buyer to the
resource can be classified as a mineral reserve.» project or to attract a joint venture partner, (c)
292 Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
.. Table 4.18 Test results of a selective flotation process carried out in a pre-feasibility study
to provide a justification for proceeding to a final Accordingly, pre-feasibility studies can include
feasibility study, and (d) as a means to determine washing, milling, and numerous other tech-
issues requiring further attention (Rupprecht niques designed to prepare the material for sale
2004). For these reasons, especially the second and distribution to customers.
one, the pre-feasibility study must be carefully Environmental protection, permits including
prepared by a small multidisciplined group of legal and social, and the eventual closure of the
experienced technical people, and its conclusions mine must all be considered during this phase.
should be heavily qualified wherever necessary, The option that demonstrates the highest value
being the assumptions realistic rather than opti- with acceptable (lowest) risk will be selected as
mistic. Thus, the pre-feasibility study represents demonstrably viable. The cost of a pre-feasibility
an intermediate step between the scoping study study can be as little as USD 50,000 for a simple
and the final feasibility study, requiring a high project to more than USD 1,000,000 for larger,
level of test work and engineering design. At the more complicated projects or 0.2–0.8% of the
end of a pre-feasibility study, geological confi- capital cost of the project (Rupprecht 2004). It
dence is such that it is suitable to publicly dis- commonly takes from 6 months to 1 year to com-
close ore reserves from measured and indicated plete (Stevens 2010).
resources and any other mineral resources that Social and environmental baseline studies must
can become mineable in the future with further be carried out showing conformance to the Equator
study. These studies tend to achieve an accuracy Principles. Most importantly, the performance
within 20–30%. standards along with the World Bank Group’s
In a pre-feasibility study, economic evalu- Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines form
ation (see the following headings) is utilized to the basis of the Equator Principles. The Equator
assess various development options and overall Principles (EPs) are a voluntary set of standards
project viability. The results of the study are used adopted by financial institutions for determining,
to justify expenditure on gathering this addi- assessing, and managing environmental and social
tional information and the considerable expen- risk in project finance activities. According to this,
diture needed to carry out the final feasibility Equator Principles financial institutions (EPFIs)
study on a substantial project. In a pre-feasibility commit to implementing the EP in their internal
study, the details of the processing methods environmental and social policies, procedures and
will be based on initial metallurgical studies of standards for financing projects and will not pro-
the mineralization of the deposit (. Table 4.18) vide project finance or project-related corporate
rather than solely on standard industry methods. loans to projects where the client will not, or is
4.6 · Mining Project Evaluation
293 4
EUROPEAN UNION
Unique Number: EU
The rough diamonds in this shipment have been handled in accordance with
the provisions of the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme for rough diamonds.
THIS CERTIFICATE
unable to, comply with the EP. Obviously, Equator used to finance rebel movements. The main KP
Principles have greatly increased the attention and document applying to rough diamonds is the
focus on social/community standards and respon- KP Certification Scheme (KPCS), adopted in
sibility since 2010. They include robust standards November 2002. Today, the KP covers no less than
for indigenous peoples, labor standards, and con- 99.8% of the world diamond trade. . Figure 4.51
sultation with locally affected communities within shows the Kimberley Process certificate in the
the project finance mining market. The most European Union.
important lending institutions worldwide, many of
whom provide financing for mining activities, have Feasibility Studies
adopted Equator Principles. NI 43-101 defines a feasibility study as «a com-
A similar initiative is the Kimberley Process prehensive study of a mineral deposit in which
(KP). It was founded in 2000 in Kimberley, South all geological, engineering, legal, operation, eco-
Africa, by the governments of South Africa, nomic, social, environmental and other relevant
Botswana, and Namibia. There are actually 54 factors are considered in sufficient detail that it
participants in the KP, including the 28 EU mem- could be reasonable serve as the basis for a final
ber states, representing 81 countries. The KP tries decision by a financial institution to finance the
to join the diamond-producing countries and development of the deposit for mineral produc-
diamond importers together to remove trade tion.» The term «bankable» is often utilized in
in conflict diamonds and stop them from being connection with feasibility studies. It only means
294
Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
that the study acquires a quality that is acceptable Sensitivity analyses are carried out to establish
for submission to bankers or other institutions the major factors that can impact upon the reserve
that can finance the project. In fact, it does not estimate (. Table 4.21). This will help quantify
really reflect a different type of economic analy- the risk associated with the reserves, which at this
sis. A better term for a bankable feasibility study stage will fall within the company’s acceptable risk
would be a «bank-approved» or «bank-vetted category. Often, financial institutions utilize inde-
study» (Stevens 2010). The reality is that banks or pendent consultants to audit the resource/reserve
major investment firms will undertake their own calculations (Moon and Evans 2006). The defined
4 internal analysis of a feasibility study to determine mine plans in a feasibility study is based on mea-
if the project meets their investment objectives. If sured and indicated geologic resource, which
it does meet those objectives, it could be consid- would become proven and probable reserves.
ered bankable. At this stage, consultation and negotiation with
The feasibility study is the last stage needed local community groups, landowners, and other
to establish if a mine is economically viable. For interested parties will proceed to the point of
this reason, it is much more detailed and costly basic agreement. Full feasibility studies cost in
than the previous two study types. The objective the neighborhood of one to a few million dollars
is to remove all significant doubt and to present (Stevens 2010) or 0.5–1.5% of the capital cost of the
relevant information about referenced material project (Rupprecht 2004) and can take 1–2 years to
as well as to verify and maximize the value of the complete. This type of study is usually undertaken
preferred technical and business options identi- by engineering consulting firms with expertise in
fied in the previous pre-feasibility study. For this various aspects of mine design and development.
reason, a full feasibility study must prove within
a reasonable confidence that the mining project
can be operated in a technically sound and eco- .. Table 4.19 Contingency costs for indirect
nomically viable manner. Capital and operating costs (capital costs) in a feasibility study
costs are evaluated to an accuracy between 10%
Indirect Cost ($)
and 15%, covering realistic eventualities based on
the level of engineering completed. In these stud- 910-Construction indirect cost 18,155,000
ies, the product price is the most important single
945-Construction contingency 21,260,000
variable and yet the most difficult to predict. The
feasibility study should determine ore reserves 950-Owner’s cost 5,644,000
as per standard definition (e.g., NI 43-101, 995-Owner’s cost contingency 1,129,000
SAMREC, or JORC), scale of the project, con-
Total indirect, owner’s cost and 46,188,000
struction budget and schedule for the project, cost
contingency
estimate for operating and capital, contingencies
(. Table 4.19), market estimates (. Table 4.20),
Data courtesy of Nouveau Monde Mining
cash flow studies, and risk analysis (Rupprecht Enterprises Inc.
2004).
.. Table 4.20 Example of a commodity prices market study included in a feasibility study
efficiency of capital use or the rate of accumula- guideline for discount rate factors at each study
tion of wealth. level. Often, the different parts involved in the
4.6 · Mining Project Evaluation
297 4
rate at which the present sum and future sum are
.. Table 4.22 Guideline for discount rate factors
at each study level
equivalent. In other words, the present or future
sum of the all cash flows is equal to zero if IRR
Risk Study level Discount value is used as interest rate. It is clear that at the
rate (%) discount rate increases for a specific cash flow,
the NPV of the cash flow necessarily decreases.
Low Feasibility 8
The relationship between IRR and NPV can be
Medium Prefeasibility 10 written as
High Preliminary economic 12
assessment n CFt
NPV = 0 = ∑ t
− I0
Extremely Scoping study 15 t =1 (1 + IRR )
high
ion
ovat
Inn
curity
erse
Cyb
tures
t ven
Join
10 10
o energy
ess t
9 Acc 9
growth
ch to
8 Swit
cy
7 sparen 8
Tran
6 se 1
ial licen to operate
5 Soc 4 Resource nationalism
uctivity
4 Prod 5
3 ital access 2
Cap
2 h 3
Cas mizatio
t i n
1 op
in 2 0 1 5
2 0 1 6-2
ng
01
ki
n
Ra
7
Up from 2015 Down from 2015 Same as 2015 New to the radar
.. Fig. 4.52 The top business risks form mining and metals
300 Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
three top risks for each commodity (aluminum, exchange rates in the future. Finally, political
coal, copper, gold, iron ore, lead/zinc, nickel, risks are defined by the political instabilities. In
PGM, potash, silver, steel, and uranium). In this this sense, the general reasoning for a diversifi-
sense, «price and currency volatility» risk is the cation strategy is to reduce fluctuations in earn-
first one in six commodities and the second in ings produced by mineral price instability and/or
three more. unforeseen government actions or other events in
Where uncertainty and risk are moderately a particular country.
absent, project evaluation is an easy exercise. To account for risk and uncertainty (the uncer-
4 However, mineral projects commonly involve raw tainties begin with exploration and continue up to
materials for which prices or operating processes end of mine life) in economic evaluations, many
are difficult to forecast. In general, the higher the modifications to NPV analysis are used, including
risk experienced by an investor, the higher the mainly one or more of the following: sensitivity
expected returns. Without the promise of higher analysis, risk-adjusted discount rates, scenario
returns, an investor would have no reason to con- analysis and Monte Carlo simulation. Other less
sider projects with higher risks. Consequently, common techniques include, for example, cer-
the inclusion or exclusion of risk in economic tainty equivalence or Bayesian analysis.
evaluation is of huge importance. Although the
usage of the term risk as a synonym for uncer- Sensitivity Analysis
tainty is not right because their definitions are not Sensitivity analysis is a form of risk assessment
exactly the same, it is worthy to remember that that is applied to financial analysis of any mining
they are utilized indistinctly in this section. Risk project. It is a procedure that analyzes what will
can be denoted by single probability estimation, happen to the value of the mining project if any
whereas uncertainty can be denoted by a range of of the key inputs were to change. The basic pro-
estimates. cess for conducting sensitivity analysis involves
There are three categories of mineral- changing each input variable one at a time, leav-
development risk according to cause of the risk: ing all the other variables constant and assess-
technical, economic, and political risks (Park and ing the effect that has on the total project value.
Matunhire 2011). The technical risks, which are at This method of risk analysis is probably the
least partly under the control of the organizations most used in mineral project evaluations. The
active in mineral development, are divided into range of possible outcomes commonly includes
reserve risk, completion risk, and production risk. best-case and worst-case scenarios, showing the
Reserve risk, determined both by the nature and best and worst combinations of other possible
by the quality of ore-reserve estimates, reflects the values of each variable that influences NPV
possibility that actual reserves will differ from ini- estimation. Sensitivity analysis can also include
tial estimates. Thus, any resource and reserve esti- testing the extent to which individual variables
mation is guaranteed to be wrong; some, however, influence the economic engaging of a mining
are less wrong than others (Morley et al. 1999). investment.
Completion risk reflects the possibility that a In any mining project evaluation, certain com-
mineral-development project will not make it into ponents have a greater effect upon the size of the
production as anticipated. Production risk reflects cash flow, and hence value, than others. It is com-
the possibility that production will not proceed as mon to look at the effect on the net present value
expected because of production fluctuations. of the project, but it is possible and often neces-
The economic risks are divided into price sary equally to look at the effect on the IRR or the
risk, demand/supply risk, and foreign exchange payback period. There are three main objectives
risk. Price risk is the possible variability of future in the sensitivity analysis process: (a) to deter-
mineral prices. The most important risk factor is mine which variables have the biggest impact on
lack of knowledge of the future price of product the project value; (b) to reveals the significant
of mining (Rendu 2002). Demand/supply risk variables, which, if varied or misestimated, would
accounts for the difficulty in achieving reliable significantly change the acceptability of the proj-
demand/supply forecasts, and foreign exchange ect; and (c) to determine which variables we need
rate risk is the variability of possible foreign to be estimated more accurately. The results of a
4.6 · Mining Project Evaluation
301 4
.. Fig. 4.53 Spider graph
of IRR sensitivity (Illustra- 65%
tion courtesy of Alabama
Graphite Corp.)
55%
35%
25%
.. Fig. 4.54 Tornado
graph of NPV sensitivity at Sensitivity of NPV 5%
5% discount rate (Illustra-
tion courtesy of Euromax Recovery
Resources)
Copper Price
Factor
Operating Cost
Negative change
Positive change
Gold Price
Capital Cost
1,100 2.50 $474 $412 $221 $174 $61 $25 12.7% 11.1%
4 1,220 2.90 $939 $839 $513 $440 $260 $205 19.8% 17.8%
1,400 3.50 $1,637 $1,469 $951 $835 $559 $474 28.6% 25.9%
decision. One way to identify these unknowns is enormous amount of combinations of different
is to construct scenarios (e.g., optimistic, base, variables and different amounts of variation that
and pessimistic) involving the expected ranges of we will have to deal with. For this reason, and the
input variables. The base case is constructed from huge amount of calculations that result, Monte
the best estimates of the project parameters, and Carlo analyses are nearly always carried out
the resulting NPV is often, although incorrectly, using specific software packages that can model
called «expected value» of the project (Torries different combinations very quickly. The number
1998). The pessimistic case shows the results of iteration is determined regarding the project
of what happens where everything goes poorly size and the importance of risks (1,000, 2,000,
while the optimistic case shows what happens 5,000, and so on). The higher number of runs
where everything goes well. gives the more accurate results. In most cases,
to make the calculation easier, the variables are
Monte Carlo Simulation assumed independent from one another although
A more quantitative approach to risk assessment most of the variables are commonly correlated.
must also incorporate mathematical and statisti- For example, ore grades are positively correlated
cal methods to assess the risk associated with a with ore recovery. Regarding the presentation of
project. In the Monte Carlo method, a simulation Monte Carlo simulation results, for every com-
modeling technique, random number generator bination of input variables a project value is cal-
is used to calculate probability for each combi- culated. After repeating the calculation for every
nation of events. The randomized calculation is combination (number of iteration), all the project
repeated for many iterations so that an estimate values are plotted on a histogram and statistical
of the overall probability for each outcome can parameters, such as median, mean, mode, per-
be estimated. Thus, the method accounts for risk centiles, etc., are taken into account. The decision
in a continuous manner instead of a discrete way rule is to accept those investments with positive
because it takes into account all possible values means or expected profits. . Figure 4.55 shows
of the underlying determinants of profitability the distribution of NPV values in a Monte Carlo
rather than just different specific values. simulation (Park 2012).
In the same way that sensitivity analysis As a summary of the different steps included
changes one variable at a time, the Monte Carlo in a mining project economic evaluation, the
simulation changes two or more input variables following box shows an example of this type of
at the same time. Obviously, the overall impact studies (. Box 4.6: Matawinie Project Economic
1.5 84.2
5.0% 90% 5.0%
2.0
Net Present Value
1.8
Minimum -15,747,693.70
1.6 Maximum 101,422,079.17
Mean 42,263,405.47
1.4 Std Dev 24,645,557.93
Values 10000
Values x 10Ù-8
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-20
20
40
60
80
100
120
Values in Millions
.. Fig. 4.55 Distribution of NPV values in a Monte Carlo Simulation (Park 2012)
Box 4.6
Matawinie Project Economic Analysis: Courtesy of Nouveau Monde Mining Enterprises Inc.
The economic/financial assess- able to variations in capital and a range of prices 30% above and
ment of the Matawinie Project operating costs within the margins below this base case forecast.
of Nouveau Monde Mining of error associated with prelimi- The sensitivity of base case
Enterprises Inc. is based on nary economic assessment (PEA) financial results to variations in
Q2-2016 price projections in U.S. estimates. However, the project’s the exchange rate was examined.
currency and cost estimates in viability remains more vulnerable Those cost components which
Canadian currency. An exchange to the USD/CAD exchange rate and include US content originally con-
rate of 0.780 USD per CAD was the larger uncertainty in future verted to Canadian currency using
assumed to convert USD market market prices. the base case exchange rate were
price projections and particular The main macroeconomic adjusted accordingly.
components of the cost estimates assumptions used in the base case The federal and provincial
into CAD. No provision was made are given in . Table 4.27. The price
corporate tax rates currently appli-
for the effects of inflation. The forecast for graphite concentrate cable over the project’s operating
financial indicators under base is based on 60-month size-purity- life are 15.0% and 11.9% of taxable
case conditions are shown in dependent averages calculated income, respectively. The mar-
. Table 4.26. A sensitivity analysis
from the Benchmark Mineral Intel- ginal tax rates applicable under
reveals that the project’s viability ligence Flake Graphite Price Index. the recently adopted mining tax
will not be significantly vulner- The sensitivity analysis examines regulations are 16%, 22%, and 28%
304 Chapter 4 · Mineral Resource Evaluation
.. Table 4.26 Financial indicators under base .. Table 4.28 Main technical assumptions
case conditions used in the base case
Pre-tax payback period Years 2.9 Design milling rate K tonnes/year 1,212.5
Discount rate % per year 6 and 10 Data courtesy of Nouveau Monde Mining
variants Enterprises Inc.
aAverage values have been calculated based on
Data courtesy of Nouveau Monde Mining the cash flow statement and represent the
Enterprises Inc. average over the life of mine
80 1000
60
40 800
600
0
-20
400
-40
-60
200
-80
-100 0
-120
After-tax cash flow
Cumulative A-T cash flow
-140 -200
-2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Years
.. Fig. 4.56 After-tax cash flow and cumulative cash flow profiles (Illustration courtesy of Nouveau Monde
Mining Enterprises Inc.)
of total annual operating costs. the impact of changes in total pre- and operating costs, taken one at
Since operating costs vary annu- production capital costs («Capex»), a time. The NPV is more sensitive
ally over the mine life, additional operating costs («Opex»), product to variations in Opex than Capex,
amounts of working capital are price («PRICE»), and the USD/CAD as shown by the steeper slope of
injected or withdrawn as required. exchange rate («EX RATE») on the the Opex curve. As expected, the
The total revenue derived from project’s NPV at 8.0% and IRR. Each NPV is most sensitive to varia-
the sale of the concentrate was variable was examined one at a tions in price and the USD/CAD
estimated at USD 2,430.9 M, or on time. An interval of ±30% with exchange rate. The NPV remains
average, USD 78.79/ton milled. increments of 10.0% was used for positive at the lower limit of the
4 The total operating costs were the first three variables. USD/CAD price interval and at the upper
estimated at USD 844.2 M, or on exchanges rates of 0.70, 0.75, 0.80, limit of the exchange rate interval
average, USD 27.36/ton milled. The 0.85, 0.90, 0.95, and 1.00 (relative examined.
financial results indicate a pretax variations of −10.3, −3.9, 2.6, 9.0, The same conclusions can be
net present value («NPV») of USD 15.4, 21.8, and 28.2%, respectively) made from the after-tax results
403.7 M at a discount rate of 8.0%. were used. The US content associ- of the sensitivity analysis. They
The pretax internal rate of return ated with the capital cost estimate indicate that the project’s after-
(«IRR») is 31.2% and the payback was adjusted accordingly for each tax viability is mostly vulnerable
period is 2.9 years. The after-tax exchange rate assumption. to a price forecast reduction and
NPV is USD 237.0 M at a discount The before-tax results of the change in the USD/CAD exchange
rate of 8.0%. The after-tax IRR is sensitivity analysis, as shown in rate, while being less affected by
24.7% and the payback period is . Fig. 4.57, indicate that, within
the underestimation of capital and
3.5 years. the limits of accuracy of the operating costs. Nevertheless, the
Regarding the sensitivity cost estimates in this study, the NPV remains positive at the lower
analysis, it has been carried out, project’s before-tax viability does limit of the price interval and at
with the base case described not seem significantly vulnerable the upper limit of the exchange
above as a starting point, to assess to the underestimation of capital rate interval examined.
400
200
0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Relative variation (%)
Price Opex Capex Ex-rate
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311 5
Mineral Resource
Extraction
5.1 Introduction – 312
mining methods. These methods are fairly 250,000 tons per day of copper, gold, and silver
described together with loading and hauling ore and greater amount of waste, being in terms of
equipment. Transition from surface mining production, the largest world copper mine.
to underground mining is also considered. Whatever the investment activities or metal
To illustrate the development of each mining prices, the amount of metal produced every year in
method, several case studies are included in global mining is fairly stable and increasing slowly
the text. With regard to drilling and blasting, but steadily. Total volumes of rock and ore handled
drilling methods, types of industrial explo- in the global mining industry amount to approxi-
sives, and blast design are discussed. The last mately 40,000 millions of tons per year. Roughly
heading of the chapter is devoted to grade 50% are metals, coal about 45%, and industrial
control, which is essential to the economics minerals account for the remainder. The capability
of a mine. of the Earth to meet these rocks and minerals
demand is not truly a matter of resources, since they
are clearly there, but rather a matter of price and
5.1 Introduction cost (Hustrulid and Fernberg 2012). The answer to
this question will be determined by the ability of
Mineral extraction is the procedure of excavation mining and mineral processing technology to stay
and recuperation of mineralization and associated ahead of demand growth (Randolph 2011).
waste rock from the crust of the Earth to derive a During the development and extraction stages
profit. This mineralization generates the essential of mining, significantly similar unit operations are
metal and mineral products used by present soci- commonly used leaving aside the mining method
ety. Mining is where all the hard rock, time and selected. These steps contributing directly to min-
cost of exploration, evaluation, financial analysis, eral extraction are called «production operations»
permitting, and construction pay off. Thus, extrac- and conform globally to the production cycle.
tion is the culmination of the preceding stages. This employs unit operations that are normally
Although extraction focuses on production, it is grouped into rock breakage and material han-
accompanied by some exploration and develop- dling. The basic production cycle in mining con-
ment work, which should continue until the end sists of drilling + blasting + loading + hauling. In
of the mine’s life. The process of planning a mine addition to the operations of the production cycle,
can be reduced to a network of interrelated sys- certain auxiliary operations must be commonly
tems that are tied together by a common philoso- performed. Thus, mines require compressed air,
phy of mine planning: the resource being mined is electrical power, mine ventilation, mine dewater-
to be extracted in a safe (. Fig. 5.1), efficient, and
ing, or pumping and backfill distribution. For
profitable manner (Bise 2003). Increasing mining instance, in a common day, a typical underground
costs, declining average ore grades, environmental mine uses a greater mass of ventilating air than
considerations, and improved health and safety ore; the deeper the mine, the more air to be moved.
awareness are some of the main challenges facing For this reason, it is essential to ensure that all the
the mining industry in the last decades (Wetherelt workings in the mine are kept free of blasting
and Van der Wielen 2011). fumes and dust. Finally, modern mine designs
In this extraction procedure, mineralization is have to incorporate underground garages, fueling
obtained from the ground using surface and/or stations, and repair areas.
5.2 · Surface Mining vs Underground Mining
313 5
.. Fig. 5.1 Lac des Iles
mine rescue team (Canada)
(Image courtesy of North
American Palladium Ltd.)
deposit being extracted and the environment to the major factors in deciding when to transition
perform the general lowest cost and return the from surface to underground mining of a given
maximum profit (Hartman and Mutmansky 2002). deposit.
Some deposits are mined completely with sur- Where choosing between surface and under-
face methods, while others can only be worked ground methods, there are many factors, both
underground. If an ore body is located very deep, quantitative and qualitative, that must be evalu-
surface mining obviously is not a viable method. ated to select the mining method. Some of the
These deposits commonly display geological and factors that must be considered include (a) size,
mineralogical characteristics that require more shape, and depth of the deposit; (b) geological
selective ore extraction. In some cases, especially structure and geotechnical conditions; (c) produc-
5 in areas of high construction density, it is almost tivities and machinery capacities; (d) availability
impossible to obtain permits for new surface of experienced work force; (e) capital require-
mines. This is the case of quarries for aggregates ments and operating costs; (f) ore recoveries and
in large metropolitan areas of many developed revenues; (g) safety and injuries; (h) environmen-
countries. To solve this problem, the unique pos- tal impacts, during and after the mining; (i) recla-
sibility is to develop underground quarries. mation and restoration requirements and costs;
The issue arises where the deposit is located at and (j) societal and cultural expectations (Nelson
depth that is amenable to either surface or under- 2011). For example, if the mineral deposit lies
ground mining methods. If an ore body is large horizontal, it is commonly mined through either
and spreads from surface to great depth, mining surface or underground mining methods, but not
process starts near the surface, and then extrac- both; instead, for a steeply dipping vein or massive
tion continues by underground mining of the deposit that outcrops on the surface and extend
deeper parts of the ore body utilizing a ramp from very deep, the best strategy is often to mine at first
the lower part of the pit (. Fig. 5.3). The increas-
using surface methods and then changing to
ing cost of extract waste at greater depths is one of underground mining. In fact, the ore-to-waste
.. Fig. 5.3 Software mining design including an open-pit and underground planning with the respective bore holes
and block models (Illustration courtesy of Datamine)
5.2 · Surface Mining vs Underground Mining
315 5
ratio is the principal feature in the choice between begins, in which that large capital investment is
surface and underground mining. often necessary before production can start. The
Although both methods have benefits and development of a large underground mine can take
drawbacks, surface mining is usually a more prof- as many as 5–10 years. Interest costs during this
itable method than underground mining. In terms time will therefore be high and can comprise
of daily production tonnage, surface mines are 30–40% of the pre-mining capital requirements
almost always larger than underground mines before mining can start. However, for large tonnage
producing the same commodity. This is because production, capital and operating costs are com-
surface mines must extract much higher waste monly higher for surface mines. In these cases, a
rock, whereas many of the underground mines dual feasibility study must be performed compar-
extract the same mineral more selectively and ing the surface option to the best underground
with less dilution. With all other conditions equal, mining option. In all circumstances, capital costs
surface mining is normally regarded as preferable, increase and operating costs decrease with increas-
because of lower development costs, quicker start- ing production tonnage.
up time, and lower number of accidents; the The time between overburden removal and
underground mining environment is recognized the mining of the product mineral in surface
as being more hazardous than the surface envi- mines should be as short as possible to optimize
ronment. Underground mining is generally more overall cash flow. Otherwise, high preproduc-
expensive than surface mining since it is more tion development costs are produced, and the
capital intensive. Surface mining is also preferred interest costs during development are high and
because it does not need to extract an excessive represent a significant portion of the pre-min-
amount of waste rock to access the ore. ing capital requirement before mining can start
In an underground mine, a significant amount (Nelson 2011). The dominance of surface opera-
of infrastructure must be installed before mining tions (ICMM 2012) (. Fig. 5.4) is based on the
amount of rock handled, many times mainly the mining ratio 1:6 will maintain in the midterm
removal of overburden, which is often drilled (Ericsson 2007).
and blasted. Thus, by necessity, the surface Based on the previous commented factors,
operations are larger than the underground the selection of the best mining method for a
ones. Moreover, as a result of economy of scale, given deposit, including the choice between sur-
mining design and equipment have drastically face and underground mining, is a complex pro-
increased in size in the last decades, although cess involving the analysis of many interrelated
this strategy cannot always be advantageous. variables. These variables are not only technical,
Consequently, a number of large mining com- but they include consideration of environmen-
panies pursued a strategy of owning and operat- tal, social, and political conditions and con-
5 ing large-scale world-class mines, typically in straints and of the time and expense required to
the form of large surface mines, although the obtain the government permits. The process is
depth at which surface mines can be developed usually iterative in nature, looking at many pos-
is limited. sible approaches and determining how all the
There was a slow trend in the late twentieth variables interact with each other. Mining com-
century toward surface mining production. Two panies and consultants commonly use detailed
of the most important reasons for this were the and sophisticated models. These models incor-
need to mine lower ore grades (ICMM 2012) and porate all the technical and financial data to pro-
the development of new technologies. The former vide exhaustive output including items such as
was due to depletion of the richer ore bodies and mine and mill production, direct and indirect
the higher cost associated with underground costs, taxes and royalties, and cash flow and risk
extraction methods, which are not economic to analysis. Once a mining method has been cho-
produce low ore grades. Regarding the latter, the sen, the process has not finished because other
more efficient extraction of lower-grade deposits decisions need to be made such as the specific
using new equipment and new processes, such as underground method that will be used or the pit
the hydrometallurgical methods for copper configuration for the surface mining selected,
extraction, has enabled companies to work with among many others. In this case, the main goal is
lower ore grades than with traditional methods. to maximize ore recovery and minimize removal
However, it is important to note that surface of waste rock in the most economic, safe, and
mines create much larger environmental foot- environmentally sound manner (Stevens 2010).
print than underground mines. For this reason,
permit for construction of a new surface mine or
expansion of an existing one cannot be obtained 5.2.1 Stripping Ratio
easily. In this position, underground mining
should be examined. One of the methods to describe the geometrical
In the early years of the twenty-first century, efficiency of a surface mining operation is with the
new efficient underground methods and equip- term «stripping ratio» (. Box 5.1: Stripping Ratio).
ment have made possible to turn surface mines In-pit design and scheduling is an essential param-
that had become uneconomical, because of their eter. The stripping ratio commonly increases with
depth, into profitable underground operations. the depth of the pit and determines the economic
The ore body in these mines is usually steep dip- limit of the surface mine. Thus, an increase in the
ping and can be mined with the most efficient stripping ratio can render the deeper ore uneco-
block caving methods. The competition for land nomic to mine by surface mining but economic to
in many densely populated countries has gener- mine to underground methods. The stripping ratio
ated the concept that underground mining is the for metal mines is usually between 1:1 and 3:1 but
only feasible possibility. However, such develop- can exceed 10:1 in mines with high-grade ore.
ments have halted the growth of surface mining, Stripping ratios greater than 20:1 occur in some
and it is forecasted that the underground/surface coal mines (Stevens 2010).
5.2 · Surface Mining vs Underground Mining
317 5
Box 5.1
Stripping Ratio
Moving waste material and over- The ratio of the total amount The stripping ratio of a
burden to recover the ore is known of waste to the total amount of deposit may be used, at least par-
as stripping. Therefore, stripping ore in an entire mine or from the tially, to evaluate how profitable
ratio (a key statistic for mining start of mining up to the moment it may be. For instance, a project
companies and almost universally of the present calculation is with a very high strip ratio likely
used) represents the amount of defined as the overall stripping will not be profitable. That is
uneconomic material or waste rock ratio. A stripping ratio can also be because a high strip ratio means
that must be removed to extract calculated over a much shorter that the unwanted material is
one unit of ore or profitable mate- time span such as 1 year, and this much greater than the amount
rial. The stripping ratio in . Fig. 5.5
can be referred to as the instan- of ore that can potentially be
(an open-pit with an ore body dip- taneous stripping ratio where the extracted, making it too expen-
ping α) is the ratio between ABC instant in this case is 1 year (Hus- sive to mine. Conversely, a project
and BDEC. For instance, a stripping trulid et al. 2013). Thus, instanta- with a low strip ratio will probably
ratio of 5:1 or simply 5 means that neous stripping ratio is the real have good prospects for profit-
it must be mined five times more relation of the removed waste vol- ability. Obviously, since the waste
amount of waste than ore. The umes and the mineral exploited in rock must be also drilled, blasted,
ratio is commonly expressed as the pit during a certain and defi- and hauled out of the pit and this
cubic meters/cubic meters, tons/ nite period of time. The instant process does not produce any
tons, or even in cubic meters/tons could be defined as a longer or revenue, minimizing the stripping
for some minerals. If the waste shorter period. For example, the ratio is critical from an economic
and ore have the same density, it instantaneous stripping ratio for viewpoint. As a result, mining
is obviously the same to estimate a day in which the mine extracted companies calculate strip ratios
the stripping ratio in cubic meters/ 5000 tons of waste and 2000 tons for open-pit projects well before
cubic meters or in tons/tons. A of ore will be 2.5. The pit slope they enter development and
wide variety of other units is some- angle plays an important role in production and seek out projects
times used such as overburden the estimation of the stripping with relatively low strip ratios.
thickness/coal thickness or cubic ratio. Steeper slope angles, com-
meters/thermal unit in coal mining mon in competent rocks, allow for
operations. a lower stripping ratio.
Ore body
d
a
E
can involve a significant risk to a project. For irregular shape. Unplanned dilution is usually
example, a 10% error in copper grade can gener- caused by overbreak of wall rock especially at the
ate a shift of 60% in the net present value of a proj- hanging wall ore/waste boundary. Generally, it is
ect (Parker 2012). Under existing economic of the order of 10% but values exceeding 40%
conditions, maximum mining efficiency can be have been recorded (Annels 1991). It is almost
defined as 0% dilution at 100% extraction of the impossible and costly to eliminate dilution in
mineral being mined. In many projects, it is com- practice. Some amount of dilution is practically
mon to undertake a global dilution such as 5% for unavoidable in most underground mining oper-
massive deposits and 10% for tabular deposits ations (Scoble and Moss 1994). However, selec-
(Ebrahimi 2013). tive underground mining methods such as
5 Dilution can be estimated as the ratio of the sublevel stoping result in a lower rate of dilution
tonnage of waste mined and sent to the mill to the than bulk mining methods (Wellmer et al. 2008).
total tonnage of ore and waste combined that are In surface mining, dilution can vary in a single
milled, being usually expressed in percent format: mine for different benches and zones.
Dilution can also be classified as internal or
external (. Fig. 5.6). In the context of using a
External dilution
Mining block
5.3 · Surface Mining
319 5
Blackwell 2002). The local accuracy of external used basically in metals and diamonds (. Fig. 5.7),
dilution estimate depends on the quality of the quarrying and mining extract industrial minerals
geologic model. and rocks such as crushed and dimension stone,
and strip and auger mining are methods mainly
applied to coal deposits.
5.3 Surface Mining Open-pit and strip mining are the two most
dominant surface mining methods in the world,
Surface mining, which is the extraction of miner- accounting for approximately 90% of the surface
alization from the ground in mines open to the mineral tonnage. The advantages and disadvan-
surface, can be mechanical or aqueous extraction. tages of one type of surface mining versus another
The former predominates, whereas the latter can- are often related to the equipment used and the
not be employed unless there is sufficient water associated costs and benefits derived from their
quantity available. There is a great variation in use (Bohnet 2011). Strip mining has the greatest
detail in surface mining, but only some basic tech- choice of equipment (e.g., bucket wheel excava-
niques are employed, being the terminology more tors), whereas open-pit loading equipment is usu-
easy to understand than in underground meth- ally matched with haul trucks that can be loaded
ods. Thus, there are four main mechanical extrac- in four passes. In this sense, the life of a mining
tion methods to obtain minerals from the ground: project is an essential factor to select the most
(1) open-pit mining, (2) strip (opencast) mining, suitable mining method.
(3) quarrying mining, and (4) auger mining. In Some practical and useful formulas can be
turn, aqueous extraction can be varied: dredging, provided to estimate the life of a mining project,
hydraulic mining, in situ leaching, and evaporite being the most used those described by Taylor
processing. The subdivision of the mechanical (1977). Considering a wide range of ore body
extraction methods is clearly related to the sizes and shapes, the extraction rates seemed pro-
commodity mined because open-pit mining is portional to the three-quarter power of the ore
.. Fig. 5.7 Mirnyy (Yakutia, Russia) open-pit mine to extract diamonds (Image courtesy of Alrosa)
320 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
tonnage, and the designed lives were proportional stabilization against the costs and implications of a
to the fourth root of the tonnage. Thus, Taylor’s slope failure (Pine 1992; Wyllie and Mah 2004).
rule can be formulated as a simple and useful The geotechnical aspects that must be cor-
guide that states rectly considered during the design, operation,
and abandonment of an open-pit excavation are
the following:
1. Local geological structure and its influence
on wall stability
In this equation, it is useful to utilize amounts
2. Shear strength of the rock mass and its
expressed in millions, and except for particular
geological structure
conditions, the common variation is about a fac-
5 3. A proper analysis of rainwater inflow, surface
tor of 1.2 above and below. The rule can thus be
drainage pattern, groundwater regime, and
restated as
mine dewatering procedures and their
influence on wall stability over time
4. Analysis of open-pit wall stability for the
projected geometry of the pit
5. Appropriate drilling and blasting procedures
to develop final walls (. Fig. 5.8)
The rule offers an adequate output rate for early
.. Fig. 5.8 Appropriate drilling and blasting procedures are fundamental to develop the final walls of the open-pit
(Image courtesy of Rio Tinto)
compile a detailed model would only be available utilized to develop the geotechnical model. This is
at the feasibility or construction stages. At earlier a stepway procedure of including subsequent lay-
stages such as scoping or pre-feasibility studies, a ers of individual data sets into a 3-D solid model
geotechnical model containing much less detail applying computer-based modeling tools. The
can only be possible (. Box 5.2: Geotechnical
geological model, which displays the rock-type
Model). limits within the mine, is the beginning point and
Data compiled in the four models (geological, constitutes the first layer of the geotechnical
structural, rock mass, and hydrogeological) are model. The layers of other information (e.g., rock
5 Box 5.2
Geotechnical Model
The availability of a comprehensive rock, focusing on the engineering properties in the various geological
geotechnical model is the funda- aspects. This model differs some- units present in a pit slope.
mental basis for all slope designs, what from that required by mine Regarding the presence of
and it comprises four component geologists, whose focus is primarily groundwater in a pit slope, it can
models: (1) the geological model, on mineralization (Read and Kee- have significant negative effects
(2) the structural model, (3) the rock ney 2009). on its stability. In the case of
mass model, and (4) the hydro- The aim of the structural open-pit mines excavated within
geological model (Guest and Read model is to describe the orienta- weak materials such as clay or
2009). Several computer-based tion and spatial distribution of the completely weathered rock, pore
modeling tools are available for the discontinuities that are likely to pressures play a significant role
development of 3-D geotechni- influence the stability of pit slopes. on the stability of pit slopes. High
cal models. These tools permit These discontinuities can be pore pressures reduce the effective
visualization and construction of divided into two groups: (a) large stresses with concomitant reduc-
comprehensive models that can structural features such as folds tion in shear strength of both soil/
include geological and structural and faults that are widely spaced rock material and rock mass. This
information, ore grade distribu- and continuous along strike and could lead to instability in the pit
tions, groundwater distributions, dip across the entire mine site slope. High water pressures also
and a variety of geotechnical (major structures) and (b) closely reduce shear strength of structural
details. Additional information in spaced joints, cleavage and faults, defects in unweathered strong
the geotechnical model includes etc., that typically do not extend rock, leading to structurally con-
climate, surface drainage, and for more than two or three mining trolled instability. Groundwater can
regional seismicity. The geotechni- benches (minor structures). also create saturated conditions
cal model comprising the four com- The rock mass model repre- and lead to water ponding inside
ponents must be in place before sents the engineering properties of the pit, which in turn can lead to
the subsequent steps of setting up the rock mass. It comprises the var- unsafe working conditions. Other
the geotechnical domains, allocat- ious material types and structural problems that could result from
ing design sectors, and preparing defects in which the open-pit slope saturated conditions or standing
the final slope design can start. will be excavated, the rock mass water in the pit include loss of
The purpose of the geological properties including the properties access to all or part of the pit, dif-
model (. Fig. 5.9) is to permit
of the intact pieces of rock, the ficulties in the use of explosives
3-D visualization of the material structures that cut through the for rock blasting, and reduced effi-
types that will be present in the rock, and the rock mass itself. These ciency in the mining equipment.
pit slopes. Different material types properties govern the perfor- Thus, it is essential to develop a
often have different strength mance of the slope and therefore good groundwater model at early
characteristics, which require due the design approach. In a slope stages of any open-pit mining
attention and consideration in constructed in hard rocks, failure project so that effective control
the process of pit slope design. could occur along geological measures can be designed and
The model should describe the structures, which are considered as implemented to minimize the
regional and mine site geology pre-existing planes of weakness. adverse effects of the ground-
and provide clear and unambigu- In relatively weak materials such water regime. In open-pit mines
ous information on location and as weathered or soft rock, failure excavated below the groundwater
extent of different material types. can propagate through the intact table, dewatering or depressur-
It should represent a broader view material and/or along geological ization can be necessary for the
of the geology of the deposit, structures. Therefore, it is essential abovementioned reasons (Kroeger
including the surrounding waste to determine the engineering 2000; Beale 2009).
5.3 · Surface Mining
323 5
.. Fig. 5.9 Geotechnical composite from stratigraphic block model (top) to lithologic model (bottom) using
RockWorks 17 (Illustration courtesy of RockWare)
Sector 1
Sector 6
5 Sector 7
Sector 8
that are distinct from those of its neighbors to be in a state of limiting equilibrium, while if
(. Fig. 5.10). These features will define the stabil-
FOS > 1, the slope is considered to be theoreti-
ity based on the orientation of pit slopes. The cally stable. There are no strict criteria that spec-
amount geotechnical domains significant to pit ify the acceptable FOS, but for static loading
wall design can change depending on the charac- conditions, values of 1.2–2.0 are commonly used
teristics of the mine. Thus, several domains can be depending on the type of slope and its impor-
necessary to outline a large mine excavated in a tance.
complex geotechnical environment.
Implementation of the Slope Design
Geotechnical Slope Design and Stability The implementation of the design typically
Analysis involves minimizing unnecessary damage to
The geotechnical slope design is the process of slopes during blasting, excavation control and
determining the optimum slope angles and scaling, groundwater and surface water control, as
dimensions for open-pit mines. Designing a geo- well as installation of ground support and rein-
technical model is one issue, but implementing forcement. These measures are added to the pro-
the information it includes to the slope design is duction cost, but they are required to improve
another (Guest and Read 2009). In open-pit min- stability. For example, poor blasting procedures
ing, there is a general tendency to increase the near mine slopes can originate loose rock on slope
slope angle as an attempt to decrease the stripping faces and batter crests, overbreak in the slope face,
ratio, which in turn can originate higher return on and cumulative depletion in the strength of rock
investment. However, an increase of the slope mass in which the slope is developed. Performance
angle decreases the stability of the slope, and it monitoring of open-pit walls is required to check
could lead to safety implications and higher oper- the geotechnical parameters and assumptions uti-
ating costs due to slope failures. Thus, the slopes lized to design the existing walls, to assure that
must be constructed to an optimum angle without any potential falls of ground are identified previ-
compromising both safety and economics. ous to them becoming harmful, and to set correct
Regarding the design acceptance, a slope in plans where ground movements are detected.
mining is defined as stable if the forces resisting
the potentially shearing, sliding, or toppling mass Slope Monitoring
of material on the slope are greater than the forces In an active excavation, slope monitoring is crucial
driving the mass. The ratio of the resisting forces in predicting and preventing slope failures, and,
to the driving forces is termed the factor of safety when failure is imminent, mitigating the effects of
(FOS) and has been the basis of stability a slope failure. A comprehensive slope stability
acceptance criterion for many engineering appli- monitoring program reduces the risk of major
cations. Where FOS = 1, the slope is considered production delays or even sterilization of part of a
5.3 · Surface Mining
325 5
or other characteristics of a borehole that could
indicate deterioration of stability. Additionally,
seismic monitoring techniques can be used. These
rely on geophones registering acoustic emissions
associated with failure events. The most cost-
effective approach to slope stability monitoring is
generally a combination of several of these tech-
niques where they are used to complement one
another. For instance, laser systems or prism
monitoring can be used to determine overall sta-
bility of pit slopes and identify possible failure
zones. If instability of a slope is detected, exten-
someters or radar systems can be used for more
precise determination of movement in this area.
A last important consideration in slope stability
is the presence of groundwater. Piezometers are the
main tool for determining groundwater level.
These, together with rain gauges, can act as an early
warning system and serve as a basis for adjustment
the rate of water extraction from dewatering wells
to prevent groundwater-induced failures.
machines, and haul trucks comprise the major In conclusion, many factors must be consid-
cost items (. Box 5.3: Equipment Selection
ered in selecting the most economic fleet of equip-
Problem). ment. Where there are a number of options, the
The increasing size of mining equipment has best is to select the one offering the highest degree
occurred in parallel with the addition of new tech- of flexibility to the mining operations and surviv-
nologies that have brought noticeable changes in ing future crisis (Bohnet 2011).
the mining industry in the last 20 years. An exam-
ple of these new technologies is the dispatching and Loading Equipment
global positioning systems for fleet management Loading or excavating is the third main stage in the
such as the Dispatch System (Modular Mining production cycle of a mine. These terms are not
5 Systems, Inc.), which provides optimization of the synonymous, but they are commonly used inter-
truck locations in real time, thus decreasing truck changeably. However, the term loading is com-
queuing and shovel hang time (. Fig. 5.13). This
monly utilized to indicate that the material is
process is accomplished with sensors integrated placed in a haulage device. Once the rock has been
into the vehicle design. fractured by drilling and blasting, loading process
Box 5.3
.. Fig. 5.12 Optimal combination of a large shovel and truck (Image courtesy of Anglo American plc)
.. Fig. 5.13 Modular
dispatcher, Dispatch System
(Image courtesy of Modular
Mining Systems Inc.)
begins. Mining systems can generally be classified face mining operations. Cyclic excavation systems
as continuous or cyclic. Continuous excavation include shovels, hydraulic excavators, draglines,
systems used in surface mining include bucket and wheel loaders that are applicable for a large
wheel excavators and bucket chain excavators or range of operational scales, commodities, and sur-
dredges, commonly applied to brown coal mining face mining configurations. Because all loading
for power generation, essentially large-volume sur- tools in cycling excavation systems perform basi-
328 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
cally the same function – they load trucks – differ- in achieving acceptable productivity and efficiency
ences lie in features such as capacity, mobility, from excavators are matching the trucks to excava-
flexibility, life, and support requirements. The tor sizes, ideally three or four loading passes,
choice of loading unit is dependent on the mini- selecting the right excavator for the bench height,
mum number of active works areas, ore selectivity, and providing enough working space for the exca-
and total production and blending requirements. vator and trucks to operate (Hustrulid et al. 2013).
Continuous excavation systems are generally
matched to continuous transport systems such as Bucket Wheel Excavators
belt conveyors or pipelines. There could be also The bucket wheel excavator (BWE) is the most
applications where continuous excavation could powerful tool for mining in unconsolidated and
be matched to cyclic transport with mining trucks, soft rock (. Fig. 5.14). It is commonly used in
but operational life or production rate cannot jus- coal seam mines, reaching daily outputs of up to
tify investment in continuous transport. Cyclic 250,000 m3. BWE combines three parts of the
excavator systems can be adapted to continuous mining process in one machine: extraction, load-
transport systems particularly for large-scale long- ing, and transportation to the conveyor. The in-
life deep open-pits where waste and ore trans- pit conveyor system then transports the excavated
ported on conveyors, generally after crushing to material to the dumping site or stockpile. For
conveyable size, is the best economic solution. purposes of comparison, BWE is a high-capital,
Most often, cyclic excavation systems are matched low operating cost that has limited flexibility and
to cyclic transport systems, typically conventional can operate through a limited range of applica-
loading equipment loading mining trucks. tions with sensitivity to geological variance
Excavation equipment can be evaluated in (Humphrey and Wagner 2011). These machines
terms of productivity (metric tons per hour) and are highly customized and vary in design more
efficiency (cost per metric ton). Important factors than do any other mining machines, to the extent
5.3 · Surface Mining
329 5
.. Fig. 5.15 Electrical
cable shovel (Image
courtesy of Codelco)
that nearly every machine is almost unique. They tenfold in the past 50 years. In the 1960s, a typical
are very robust in design and consequently very shovel had a 4.5 m3 bucket to load a 30 ton truck;
long lived, although very expensive. Due to the actually, machines with as large as a 70 m3 bucket
associated conveyors, BWE requires linear, flat- load trucks of 400 tons or more. Compared with
floored mining faces that advance in straight or rope shovels, hydraulic shovels have less reach, so
radial patters. For this reason, major application they move more often, but they travel at higher
of this equipment has historically been large lig- speed and do not require assistance with a trailing
nite mines. cable or cable bridge. The growth of loader
machines has led to a new delineation in the
Shovels loader market, with wheel loaders predominant at
In mines of medium to large size, the principal the lower range of bucket capacity, hydraulic
loading equipment is the shovel. It can be hydraulic shovels in the middle range, and electrical shovels
or electrical and bucket sizes range from 15 to at the upper end of bucket capacity.
70 m3. The electrical cable shovel or rope shovel
(. Fig. 5.15) continues to be the primary loader of
Hydraulic Excavators
selection for large open-pit mines. Although ini- For hydraulic excavators, face shovel (. Fig. 5.16)
tially costly, these machines have the productivity, and backhoe configurations are available. Face
ruggedness, and longevity required by mining shovel configurations are preferred in harder rock
operations to reliably load broken rock into large and with higher rock faces, whereas backhoe con-
trucks for haulage to processing plants or waste figurations allow for more selective digging and
dumps over the life on an operation. The depen- faster cycle times. Hydraulic excavators can be
dence on the trailing cable somewhat limits mobil- diesel or electrically driven. They are somehow
ity; its handling can be facilitated with the utilization similar to hydraulic shovels and even both terms
of special cable handling trucks. The advantages of are often used interchangeably.
electrical cable power are the effective use of power,
the credibility of the system, and the monitoring Draglines
equipment (Hustrulid et al. 2013). Draglines (. Fig. 5.17) are self-contained systems
The productivity and unit cost efficiency that load and transport material to a dump point.
demanded of the mining industry have resulted in They are highly productive, comparatively low in
substantial increases in electrical cable shovel size operating cost and labor requirements, and extre
in the last decades. Shovel capacities have grown mely robust. Consequently, they have very long
330 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
.. Fig. 5.17 Dragline
operating in a phosphate
mine (USA) (Image
courtesy of PotashCorp)
lives, commonly 30–40 years. Because of their the current pit is placed in the previous adjacent
high productivity and capability of direct disposal pit, from which product has been removed by aux-
of material, draglines are favored for area mining iliary equipment.
(see section «Strip Mining») in areas of flat-lying
tabular geology with high production require- Wheel Loaders
ments. The most common application for large Wheel loaders are used in soft to hard formations
draglines is overburden removal in coal mining, and are forthcoming with small bucket size of 0.5–
having up to 125 m3 bucket size. The bucket is 20 m3. These units are commonly wheel mounted,
pulled by a dragrope over the face toward equip- but a few models are also offered with crawler
ment itself, hence the name dragline. In most basic mounting for their use in problematic terrain. Large
dragline operations, the machine removes over- wheel loaders are often favored as support loading
burden material to uncover ore that is the most equipment because of mobility advantage. They can
recent in a series of parallel adjacent pits (narrow more readily clean up small quantities of batter
and relatively long). Overburden material from trimmings. Wheel loaders can be applied as prime
5.3 · Surface Mining
331 5
.. Fig. 5.18 Special tow truck transport medium for mining equipment (Image courtesy of Eduardo Revuelta)
loading equipment where mobility, in-pit blending, a few mines worldwide utilized rail haulage and it
and multi-material selectivity are major issues, is still being used. An essential feature to be con-
particularly in shallow open-pit operations such sidered in terms of rail transportation (. Fig. 5.19)
as lateritic ores, bauxite mining, and the like is the requirement to ensure almost completely
(Hardy 2007). More recently developed or upgraded horizontal track placement. This status has largely
large wheel loaders have the advantage of faster dig- restricted opportunities to employ this type of
ging cycles that more closely approach a rope or haulage. The application of rail haulage only has
hydraulic shovel. economic sense if the distance transported is
appropriately long (Czaplicki 2009).
Hauling Equipment Longer haulage distances in many large pits,
The fourth and last stage of the production cycle availability problems with haul trucks, and
in a mine is haulage; hoisting is the term used improvements in technology have revived inter-
where essentially vertical transport is accom- est in in-pit crushing and conveying (IPCC).
plished. In surface mining works, truck haulage is Since mineral and waste transportation costs
the biggest factor in the operating costs, forming include the greatest amount of surface’s mine
from 50% to 60% of the global costs (Ercelebi and working costs, in-pit crusher and a conveyor
Bascetin 2009). Off-highway trucks (they must be belt, instead of truck transport, can reduce this
translated – as well as other mining equipment cost aspect, mainly where pits have become
(. Fig. 5.18) – in a special tow truck transport
deeper. This system uses a crusher/sizer unit to
medium) have dominated haulage in surface min- process material from a cyclic loader to a size
ing operations for many years. Some decades ago, that is suitable for conveyor transport, e xtending
332 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
are more energy efficient than trucks and require dominated haulage in mining operations, although
less skilled labor for maintenance (Utley 2011). articulated dump trucks have proven to be a viable
Whether IPCC is economically viable is a func- alternative. The truck drive systems can be broadly
tion of production, duration of the operation, and divided into mechanical drive, with automatic
the distance and vertical lift of the haulage route. transmission, and electric drive (AC or DC) in
5.3 · Surface Mining
333 5
.. Fig. 5.21 Rigid-frame haul truck (Image courtesy of Anglo American plc)
which the engine drives a generator that powers Because haulage costs are very high, a thor-
the electric motor used for traction. Electric drive ough understanding of truck haulage is impera-
is currently becoming the predominant type tive. Most mines are designed to minimize the
because of its superior drive performance, ease of travel distance between the loading unit and the
maintenance, and cost advantages made possible crusher in order to reduce the number of trucks in
by rapid advances in technology. the fleet, decrease wear on the truck, and limit the
334 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
round trip time for each load. Two important operations. Two examples of auxiliary operations
tasks must be undertaken for the proper use of equipment are the track dozers and the motor
haulage trucks. First, the trucks must be matched grades.
in size to the excavator. Second, the number of
trucks in the fleet must be matched to the haulage Track Dozers
layout so that the system produces in a near- Large track dozers are extremely common in all
optimal manner. mining operations. They are designed to move the
greatest amount of material in the most efficient
Wheel Tractor (Open Bowl) Scrapers way and generally are used for both utility and pro-
One of the oldest concepts of bulk material han- duction work. Utility work includes tasks that sup-
dling is the wheel tractor or open bowl scraper port a mine’s main production fleet such as dumpsite
(. Fig. 5.22). Today it is the only machine that can
preparation and cleanup, bench preparation, road
self-load, haul, and dump with a single operator. creation, stockpile work, and reclamation. These
Mobility and flexibility are key characteristics of machines can also develop production works such
this type of equipment, which makes it ideal for as excavation and to rip in situ or blasted material
small, short-life mining projects. Its capability to from one area to another. Track dozers are complex
remove and place material in controlled lifts machines due to their variety of mechanical, electri-
makes it the machine of choice for topsoil reloca- cal, and hydraulic systems all fitted into a compact
tion in reclamation operations. design. Most of the industry commonly uses the
smaller size of track dozers because of their lower
Auxiliary Operations operation costs and flexibility.
Auxiliary operations consist of all activities sup-
portive of but not contributing directly to the pro- Motor Graders
duction of ore. Since this unit operations do not In good road conditions, trucks run faster and more
generate incomes, there is a tendency in mining safely, fuel costs are lower, and tire damage is
organizations to assign them a staff function and a reduced as truck maintenance is. Since loaders and
low priority. However, efficient operations depend haul trucks are responsible for producing ore, motor
largely on auxiliary operations. Many of these graders (. Fig. 5.23) generate a clear impact on how
operations common to mining are classified as productively these machines can operate, especially
supportive on the extraction function, but others in their role in haul road maintainability. Thus, they
are associated with development and reclamation are some of the most productive, and productivity
5.3 · Surface Mining
335 5
.. Fig. 5.23 Motor grader
.. Fig. 5.24 Control of dust generation (Image courtesy of Anglo American plc)
enhancing, machines on site. Motor graders are skillfully, it is also possible with motor graders to
designed to meet the specialized requirements of finish a slope. Finally, since dust in a mining opera-
large mining operations. They help to create and tion presents one of the most visible and invasive
maintain constant grade and proper drainage. By operational constraints, a haul road dust prevention
using the blade incorporated in the machine system is essential to avoid dust lift-off (. Fig. 5.24).
336 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
5.3.3 Surface Mining Methods total open-pit excavation volume in the world.
Application of this mining method to coal is less
Open-Pit Mining common.
Open-pits can be in the form of inverted, trun- Many features define the size and shape of an
cated, or circular cones where the radius of each open-pit, and these must be correctly understood
circular bench decreases with depth (. Figs. 5.7
and utilized in planning of any open-pit opera-
and 5.25). Thus, mining occurs in successively tion. The importance of each factor is based on
narrower benches in order to maintain safety and the particular project, but the following are the
stability inside the mine. It is important to note key characteristics affecting pit design: geology,
that each successive bench in the mine is smaller grade and localization of the mineralization,
5 than the last one developed, which causes the extent of the deposit, topography, property
depth of the pit to be mined is determined by the boundaries, bench height, pit slopes, road grades,
size and location of the first cut or bench. mining costs, processing costs, metal recovery,
In stratiform deposits, shallow and large open- marketing considerations, stripping ratios, and
pits can be designed in the shape of footprints cutoff grades (Armstrong 1990).
with steep sides and flat bottoms. However, some
pits can be very deep, up to 1 km. The objective is Open-Pit Geometry
to extract both metallic and nonmetallic ores Mining geometry is a dynamic rather than a
while dumping overburden and tailings at a dedi- static concept because the different geometries
cated disposal site outside the final pit boundary. are very important so that the needed economic
Open-pit is utilized where the ore body is typically result, revenue and costs, is realized. To evaluate
pipe-shaped, vein-type, steeply dipping stratified, the large number of possibilities, the utilization
or irregular. Iron, copper (. Fig. 5.25), and gold of computers has become invaluable. In open-pit
mineralization together account for most of the mining, the ore body and the associated waste are
.. Fig. 5.25 Bingham Canyon (USA) Copper open-pit mine (the largest and deepest excavated hole in the world)
(Image courtesy of Atlas Copco)
5.3 · Surface Mining
337 5
.. Fig. 5.26 Some con-
cepts of open-pit design
D BH
extracted from the top down in several horizon- shelf or ledge at the ultimate pit wall slope. The
tal layers of similar thickness called benches design of all these components is controlled by the
(. Fig. 5.25). Thus, benches are the main extrac-
geotechnical configuration of the slope.
tion components in an open-pit mine and possi- Several features can influence the selection of
bly the most distinguishing feature. They are bench dimensions. This includes ground compe-
crucial in an operation as they accommodate the tence, existence of water, presence of geological
active drilling and blasting and excavation areas. disturbances (e.g., faults, joints, bedding planes),
Each bench has an upper and lower surface sepa- and cutting height of the excavator (Tatiya 2013).
rated by a distance equal to the bench height. Bench height decision is essential since once this
Thus, the bench height is the vertical distance value is determined, the rest of the dimensions in
between the highest point of the bench (crest) the open-pit follow consequently. One of the most
and the lower point (toe) (. Fig. 5.26). In gen-
usual bench heights in large open-pits is 15 m
eral, all benches in an open-pit have the same (Hustrulid et al. 2013), although for smaller pits
height, but geological conditions can dictate the the value might be 12 m or less. A common guide-
opposite. line is that the bench height must be matched to
There are several types of benches: (a) working the loading equipment. Regarding the bench
benches, which are in the process of being mined; width, it varies according to equipment size and
(b) inactive benches, the remnant of working the type of bench. Working benches should at
benches left in place to maintain pit slope stability; least be wide enough to accommodate the turning
and (c) safety or catch benches, with a purpose of radius of the largest haul truck plus the width of
collecting the material which slides down from the safety berm. Bench width commonly ranges
benches above. Constituting one of the busiest from 30 m to several hundred meters.
areas of an open-pit, working benches have to Hustrulid et al. (2013) recommended the fol-
accommodate large excavators and dump trucks as lowing steps where considering bench geometry:
well as the muck pile formed after a blast. Therefore, 1. Mineral deposit characteristics such as total
maintaining the quality of a suitable working sur- tonnage and grade distribution dictate a
face is vital to ensure acceptable safety and produc- certain geometrical approach and production
tivity levels at an active excavation. In addition to strategy.
leaving the safety benches, berms or piles of bro- 2. The production strategy yields daily ore/
ken materials are often constructed along the crest waste production rates, selective mining and
to form a ditch between the berm and the toe to blending requirements, and number or work-
catch falling rocks. A berm is also a horizontal ing places.
338 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
A B D B C
Berm
5 Calculation Details Measurement (m)
A Safety distance 8
B Truck width 7.3
C Berm width 3.7
D Distance between trucks 3.7
E Slope width (A+2B+C+D) 30
3. The production requirements lead to a face orientation, and blasting practices. Normally,
certain equipment set (fleet type and size). bench faces are mined as steeply as possible. In
4. Each equipment set has a certain optimum most hard-rock open-pits, the face angle ranges
associated geometry. approximately from 55° to 80°. Mining starts with
5. Each piece of equipment in the set has an the top bench, and after a sufficient floor area has
associated operating geometry. been exposed, extraction of the next layer can
6. A range of suitable bench geometries results. start. In most mines, the top few benches are com-
7. Consequences regarding stripping ratios, monly formed by soil and overburden material.
operating vs. capital costs, slope stability Pre-stripping is the term used to refer the removal
aspects, etc., are evaluated. processing of these materials. The entry to the pit
8. The «best» of the various alternatives is is generally defined utilizing a ramp or road that
selected. can be spiral around the pit or situated on one side
of the pit with switchbacks at each end.
In turn, the slope of the pit wall is one of the major It is important to note that haul roads and
elements affecting the size and shape of the pit. ramps connect the benches, allowing equipment
The pit slope helps to determine the amount of to move freely about the pit and for ore and waste
waste that must be moved to mine the ore. It is to be hauled out of the pit. Thus, haul roads con-
usually expressed in degrees from the horizontal stitute a key element of an open-pit mine. Haul
plane. The global height, from the toe to the crest, roads can significantly impact pit angles and
is the overall pit slope. Thus, the overall pit slope stripping ratios depending on the adopted design
angle can be established as the angle calculated in and geometry. As such, sound haul road design
degrees constituted while joining the toe of the and management can play a significant positive
lowest bench to the crest of the top most bench of influence on the safety record, profitability, and
a pit where benches achieved their ultimate final environmental impact of a mine (Wetherelt and
designs. Slope angle is clearly an essential param- van der Wielen 2011). The width and steepness of
eter that has meaningful economic impact. If the the haul road or ramp are based on the type of
slope angle is too steep, the pit walls can collapse; equipment to be placed (. Fig. 5.27). According
if it is too shallow, excessive waste rock must be to the location and use, haul roads are generally
removed. The exposed subvertical surfaces of the around 3–3.5 times wider than the largest truck
benches are called the bench faces. They are size on two-way straights. For one-way haul roads,
described by the toe, the crest, and the face angle. a width of 2–2.5 times that of the largest truck size
It can vary considerably with rock characteristics, is generally enough. Any change in the road width
5.3 · Surface Mining
339 5
will directly affect the overall pit wall slope and agricultural nutrients to support varying degrees
increment drastically the stripping ratio, particu- of vegetation growth. It is included sometimes in
larly in deep open-pit mines (Bozorgebrahimi the overburden, although the differences are clear.
et al. 2003). Both are not ore but the topsoil has an essential
end use. Depending of climate, topography, and
Topsoil and Overburden Disposal bedrock geology, the layer or layers of soil can be
In mining, overburden refers to all unprofitable just a few centimeters deep or extend to several
material that needs to be excavated to access an meters in depth. In many operations, topsoil stor-
ore deposit. If overburden is encapsulated age is required for reclamation purposes at the
between two layers of ore, it can be referred to as end of the mine life. Thus, soil and growth media
interburden. Overburden forms, by far, the largest are commonly stockpiled on the mine site for fur-
volume of material produced by most open-pit ther use in reclamation. To replace topsoil as it
mines. In which concerns material handling, originally existed on mined areas requires that
there are three important differences between ore each layer be carefully excavated and placed in an
and overburden: (a) overburden is not benefici- area of easy recovery. In some cases, separate stor-
ated and will generally not generate any revenue; age of different topsoil and subsoil layers can be
(b) overburden tonnages almost invariably exceed necessary to ensure quality of the material.
ore tonnages in an open-pit mine; and (c) the rock Depending on the duration of topsoil storage,
mass characteristics are often different from that revegetation and erosion control can be required.
of the ore. The first two points imply that handling Because of the unconsolidated nature of the
of overburden and related costs should be kept to topsoil, it often requires different excavation tech-
a minimum. Furthermore, overburden can con- niques. As topsoil is generally free digging, scrap-
tain sulfides or other substances that are poten- ers, bulldozers, front-end loaders, and small
tially damaging to the environment. Consequently, hydraulic excavators are the most common equip-
selection of the most suitable site for the overbur- ment used in topsoil removing. Bulldozers can be
den embankment involves a trade-off between used for pushing materials onto piles for further
handling costs related to overburden disposal and excavations by front-end loaders or hydraulic
the environmental impact of the overburden at a excavators. Alternatively, they can support scraper
particular site. To minimize costs related to the operation by ripping soil. Haulage distance is an
handling of overburden, it is often blasted to a important consideration in choice of equipment.
coarser fragmentation than ore and in many cases At short haul distances, scrapers and bulldozers
excavated and hauled by larger-capacity equip- are the best option, whereas a more conventional
ment. excavator/truck haulage operation tends to be
The overburden removal system should be in more economical at longer haul distances
harmony with the mine planning of the future. (Wetherelt and van der Wielen 2011).
Unless this and the other factors influenced by
overburden removal schemes are carefully consid- Open-Pit Design and Optimization
ered, operation can suffer in efficiency and costs The management of a large open-pit mine is a
(Aiken and Gunnet 1990). Minimizing costs huge and complex tax, especially for long-lived
involves selecting and overburden embankment mines. Thus, one of the most important economic
site in close proximity to the mine where the envi- inputs of an open-pit is the calculation of the final
ronmental impact is as small as possible. Preferably, pit limit. It is the consequence of mining the
this site is close to the projected final pit limit, at amount of material that originates the global
the same or at lower elevation than excavation to maximum benefit while fulfilling the operational
minimize upslope haulage costs. With these con- needs of safe wall slopes (Cacceta 2007). The ulti-
siderations in mind, optimization of overburden mate pit limit evidently gives the size of the mine
management at a mine site can have considerable at the end of its life. This limit of the open-pit
positive influence on the environmental impact must be set at the planning stage and defines
and economic viability of a mine (Wetherelt and many significant features such as the amount of
van der Wielen 2011). mined mineralization, the metal content, and the
Topsoil is the near-surface portion of the amount of waste. Other similar terms for this con-
material lying above the ore so that it has sufficient cept are pit outline or pit contour.
340 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
Predictably, the size, geometry, and location of first objective will be included in the pit (Armstrong
the ultimate design of the pit are important in 1990). The result of these aims is to establish the
planning tailing areas, waste dumps, access roads, design that will maximize the total profit of the pit
concentrating plant, and all other surface facili- in terms of the physical and economic parameters
ties. The open-pit mine design issue is thus to applied. As these parameters change, the pit design
decide the blocks of a mineral deposit to extract can also change.
to maximize the total profit of the mine while ful- Pit design relies on preliminary analysis con-
filling digging constraints on pit slope and those sisting of (1) an ore body model in which the
that enable underlying blocks to be extracted only deposit is discretized into a grid of blocks, each of
after blocks on top of them. The ultimate pit only which consists of a volume of material and the
5 exists if mining stops, that is, up until that time its corresponding mineral properties; (2) the value of
final form is uncertain. Consequently, the utiliza- each block, which is determined by comparing
tion of the term final pit is discouraged (Whittle market prices for ore with extraction and process-
2011). ing costs; and (3) a geometric model of the
deposit» (Newman et al. 2010; Amankwah 2011),
Open-Pit Design being the block model produced in a variety of
There are many ways of designing an ultimate ways depending on the structure of the ore body.
open-pit, differing by the size of the mineral This block model can consider millions of blocks
deposit, the features of the data, and the accessibil- based on the size of the deposit and the blocks.
ity of computer mining software (see 7 Chap. 8).
The block dimensions are dependent on the
As a rule, two methods can be broadly outlined: physical characteristics of the mine such as pit
manual or hand methods and computer methods. slopes, dip of deposit, and grade variability as
The manual or hand design method is rarely used well as the equipment used. However, the block
nowadays because computers are used worldwide, sizes should reflect the selective mining unit
and relatively inexpensive software is available. A (SMU) to be used. If the ore blocks have heights
complete description of this technique is shown by equal to the bench height, or to some exact frac-
Annels (1991). Regarding the computer methods, tion of them, then it is an easy matter to locate
the growth of their use in the last two decades has bench faces to enclose as much ore as possible
enabled to handle huge amounts of data and to (Annels 1991). The raw material grade, especially
study more pit alternatives than with manual in metal mines, is susceptible to the dimensions
methods. In computer methods, again two groups of mining blocks (e.g., bench height) and there-
can be defined: computer-assisted hand methods fore the size of the equipment. For example, in a
and automated methods or computer methods mine with erratic spatial ore distribution (e.g.,
stricto sensu. In the first, the calculations are done many gold deposits), the dimensions of the min-
by the computer under the direct guidance of the ing block size have a dramatic impact on the ulti-
technician. In the automated methods, the soft- mate pit value and must be determined very
ware program designs the ultimate pit limit based precisely. The smallest mining unit or selective
on a given group of economic and physical con- mining unit (SMU) is the smallest block inside
straints without assistance of the technician. These which ore and waste cannot be separated, and
methods are called in a general sense optimization grade estimates are utilized to maximize the pit
methods and they obviously use different mathe- value. In fact, the determination of mineral
matical algorithms to perform the ultimate pit. resources and/or reserves from a block model
Regardless of the method used, in designing needs the selection of a block of SMU size.
the open-pit, it is necessary to set up values of the The second step is carried out computing,
physical and economic parameters. The final pit based on tonnage and grade data, an estimated
limit will mean the maximum limit of all material profit of extraction for each block in the model. The
matching these criteria. Thus, the material ore body model is utilized to define the ultimate pit
included in the pit will find two objectives: (a) a limits that are the limits of the deposit up to which
block will not be mined unless it can pay all costs it is economic to extract. Based on the financial,
for its mining, processing, and marketing and for metallurgical, and geotechnical information, the
stripping the waste above the block; and (b) for net profit of each block is calculated. This type of
conservation of resources, any block meeting the block model is commonly referred as economic
5.3 · Surface Mining
341 5
block model. In the third step, a geometric model is grams, whereas moving cone method is commonly
performed based on slope angle computations. integrated in low-cost software (. Box 5.4: Lerchs
These angles are determined by the structural com- and Grossmann Algorithm).
position of the rocks and change depending on the The moving cone is the simplest method for
location and depth. If it is possible to fix the block determining the optimal pit shape, being also the
values and the slopes, an optimal outline can be most widely utilized of the heuristic algorithms
determined. It is clear that an increment of the val- since it is very easy to program and simple to
ues of the blocks generates an increase in the size of understand. In this method, the optimum pit is a
the optimal pit, while an increment in slopes means combination of groups of removal cones of blocks.
the optimal pit gets deeper. Main problems of the method include the follow-
ing: (a) the final pit design relies on the sequence
Open-Pit Optimization in which reference blocks are chosen; and (b)
Optimum pit design is done by utilizing mining many reference blocks might need to be chosen,
software that either uses the floating or moving cone and the associated value of the cone computed, to
method or the Lerchs and Grossmann algorithm achieve a reasonable although not even necessar-
(Lerchs and Grossmann 1965). The Lerchs and ily optimal pit design (Annels 1991).
Grossmann algorithm guaranties the optimality Aside from the algorithm used by the software
with respect to defining the pit limits that maximize package (e.g., moving cone, Lerchs and Grossman,
the undiscounted profit, while floating cone routine Milawa, Korobov, and others), the aim of an opti-
is heuristic and can give suboptimum results. For mization mining software is to generate the most
this reason, Lerchs and Grossmann algorithm is the cost-effective and most profitable open-pit design
most used method in optimization software pro- from a block model of an ore body. New algorithms
Box 5.4 `
are described recently, many of them related to each block, a subgroup of nested pits from those
environmental constraints including ecological calculated in the sequencing step is selected. For
costs of open-pit mining such as prevention and instance, in . Fig. 5.28 the blue area (the smallest
restoration costs or cost of carbon emission from pit) is the one that represents the best value that is
energy consumption (e.g., Xu et al. 2014). possible in the early stages of mining as it is the pit
that would still be valuable even under the worst
Production Scheduling economic conditions (i.e., a low commodity price).
Production scheduling of the open-pit mines is a The green (largest) pit represents the pit with the
difficult and complex optimization problem. It can longest life under the best economic conditions.
be outlined as the sequence in which ore and waste Each of these pits is called a «pushback or phase»
of the pit are extracted over the lifetime of the (Chiscoine et al. 2012). By changing the commod-
mine and the time gap in which every material is ity price, for instance, from a low value to a high
to be extracted. The main goal production sched- value, it is possible to originate an increasing size
uling is «to maximize the total discounted profit number of pits and a diminishing average value
from the mine subject to a variety of physical and per ton of mineralization included in the open-pit.
economic constraints; in the process, a set of Since the smallest size open-pit covers the highest-
nested pits is generated, starting with the ultimate valued ore, the production is scheduled by extract-
pit contour, by varying the economic parameters» ing smallest pit first followed by the production in
(Cacceta 2007). This process assumes an a priori larger pits. The incremental mining from the
discretization of time into periods and a priori smallest pit to larger pit is commonly referred to as
definition of production capacity in each time pushback mining. . Table 5.2 shows an example of
period. To determine the time of extraction for pushback values for a production schedule.
5.3 · Surface Mining
343 5
.. Fig. 5.29 The Ekati Diamond Mine (Image courtesy of Dominion Diamond Corporation)
500 Z
a 500 Z b
450 Z
400 Z
400 Z
350 Z South pipe
350 Z
300 Z
300 Z
250 Z
250 Z
200 Z
200 Z
150 Z Southwest
extension 150 Z
100 Z
100 Z
50 Z Main pipe 50 Z
5
0Z
0Z
-50 Z
.. Fig. 5.30 Isometric views of Misery Main a and Pigeon pipes b (Illustration courtesy of Dominion Diamond Corporation)
trucks) and are carried out in benches usually 300-km-long and 80-km-wide geologic belt that
10 m high. Pattern of pit slopes changes drastically spreads eastward from southern Portugal into
between ore and waste, being conformed based on southern Spain. Mineralization is formed by syn-
detailed geotechnical and hydrogeological investi- genetic massive sulfides including polymetallic
gations and operational specifications for each mineralization, as in most other Iberian Pyrite
pipe. A single circular access ramp around the Belt deposits. Cobre Las Cruces is a blind deposit
perimeter of the pit is projected progressively as with no outcrop because of the 100–150 m of
the benches are mined. Waste rock is hauled to an sedimentary rocks overlying the deposit. The cop-
assigned waste rock storage zone and dumped to per in the ore is primarily found in chalcocite with
an engineered design. In general, kimberlite is some minor amounts found in chalcopyrite,
hauled direct from the pit benches to the process tennantite-tetrahedrite complex, and enargite.
plant. Kimberlite ore is selectively mined on the The ore from the open-pit mine ranges in grade
basis of visual delimitation. from 5% to 10% copper and the design grade is
Production blastholes are 270 mm diameter 6.02% Cu.
drilled on a 6.5 m by 7.5 m equilateral pattern with The Cobre Las Cruces mine is a medium-sized
10 m bench heights. Wall control blasting meth- open-pit mining operation using conventional
ods including pre-shear firings on the perimeter truck and shovel operations. The mining fleet is
of the pit excavation improve final highwall stabil- basically made up of hydraulic shovels and 90 t
ity. Wall control processes on the final pit walls haul trucks. The hydraulic shovels have a 7 cubic
consist of drilling 165 mm presplit blastholes on a meter bucket. The support fleet consists of conven-
2.0 m spacing on the pit perimeter, followed by a tional equipment such as graders, tractor dozers,
row of 270 mm wall control blastholes on a 3.0 m water tankers, etc. From 2015 onward, the mine is
burden and 4.0 m spacing, then a second row at a expected to produce around 72 kt tons of copper
5.0 m by 5.0 m spacing before switching to the cathode per year. Mine development required a
standard production pattern. Since the blastholes preproduction phase of almost 24 months for pre-
are commonly wet, a gassed emulsion explosive stripping to expose sufficient ore to ensure steady
doped with 30% AN prill is utilized both in waste ore production. The overall pit slope angle is about
and kimberlite blasting. The pre-shear holes are 28° in the upper and lower tertiary marl and sand-
loaded with a radially decoupled explosive con- stone, 45° in the Paleozoic bedrock, and between
sisting of a 44 mm diameter continuous water gel 32° and 36° in Paleozoic soft rocks (shales). Trucks
product and high-strength detonating cord. haul the ore to the blending yard within the north
dump complex and then to the primary crusher
zz Cobre Las Cruces Copper Mine (Sevilla, located near the processing plant. Overburden
Spain): Courtesy of Cobre Las Cruces – First material (marls and sandstone from the aquifer) is
Quantum Minerals Ltd. hauled to inert dumping facilities. In the later years
The Cobre Las Cruces mineral deposit is located of the project, partial backfilling of the pit with
in the eastern end of the Iberian Pyrite Belt, a marl will occur although CLC is considering
5.3 · Surface Mining
345 5
delaying the backfill operation in order to main- (monthly) pit surveying allows for accurate assign-
tain access to the primary ore resource. ment of tons and grades mined and dispatched to
The mining phases generally comprise wide the respective destinations. Accordingly, feed to
benches of between 30 and 200 m in width, pro- the plant is known and is verified with a milled
viding several mining horizons to satisfy the feed measurement for reconciliation of tons and grade.
requirements for blending. Benches (interval Final metal generated as cathode is reconciled
between berms) are mined to a height of 10 m in back to the declared tons and grades. Over the life
ore and waste. In general, ore is hauled to a ROM of the operation, final metal processed/sold is 9%
pad located immediately east of the pit, whereas below the predicted mineral resource estimates
waste is hauled to various dumps around the and is 1% higher than the predicted grade control
northern, eastern, and southern extremities of the model estimates. Where dilution and mining
ultimate pit. The mining sequence broadly follows recovery are taken into account, the variance
the sequence of events as follows: between actual production and the reserve esti-
1. Blastholes are sampled and the results are mate is reduced to less than 7%. Accordingly, min-
used in conjunction with the resource model ing reconciliation is good, with limited concerns
to delineate the ore zones. identified during modeling/planning, mining, and
2. Blast patterns are designed to reduce material processing.
throw and ore dilution.
3. Ore and waste are blasted and mined zz Ambatovy Nickel Mine (Antananarivo,
separately in order to minimize ore loss and Madagascar): Courtesy of Sherritt
dilution; the current values used in reserve International Corporation
estimation are mining loss = 2% and mining Ambatovy is a large-scale nickel and cobalt min-
dilution = 4.3% at 0.1% Cu. ing located 80 km east of Antananarivo (the capi-
4. The removal of waste in the successive tal of Madagascar) near the town of Moramanga.
cutbacks utilizes bulk systems of operation. It develops an open-pit mining operation and an
5. Perimeter blasting is used to ensure pit wall ore preparation plant. From the mine, the slurried
profiles are cut to the correct angle and to laterite ore is sent via pipeline of approximately
minimize wall damage. 220 km in length to a processing plant and refin-
6. Diesel/hydraulic excavators load rock into ery situated south of the Port of Toamasina.
haul trucks. Project construction began in 2007 and was com-
7. Ore is hauled from the pit to the ROM pleted in 2012. The estimated life of the operation
blending area where finger stockpiles are used is approximately 29 years.
to ensure ore blending can be achieved. Gneisses and migmatites form part of the
high-grade metamorphic rocks that underlie the
Regarding grade control, blastholes are currently eastern two-thirds of Madagascar. As Madagascar
sampled for grade control. In-pit mapping and broke away from the African continent, the
blasthole drill sample analysis are utilized to guide breakup was accompanied by volcanism and
short-term mine planning and design in accor- internal rifting, the latter forming the horst and
dance with the longer-term strategic mine plans. graben structural features that are pertinent to the
Typically, blast patterns in ore are 4 m × 4.5 m, Ambatovy mine. A large intrusive, known as the
square or staggered. The holes are drilled vertically Antampombato complex, cuts the gneissic terrain
and sampled to 5 m depths with some over-drill- and dominates the geological setting of the
ing to support locally relevant blast designs. Ambatovy mine. Within this complex, Ambatovy
Mining software is used to collate the grade con- mafic-ultramafic intrusion can be identified. It
trol data and to update the geology and grade esti- consists mainly of ultramafic rocks with pyroxe-
mates into a grade control block model. Results nite injections. Since ultramafic rocks are highly
are interpreted as in-pit mark outs, according to unstable in a tropical weathering environment,
the short-term mine and blast designs. Mark outs Ambatovy presents a deep weathering alteration,
are assigned evaluated grades as per the grade with a complete lateritic profile capped by a ferru-
control block model and are assigned to the ginous duricrust. Thus, the ore deposit is a typical
digging and truck dispatches for the respective nickel laterite in which enrichment has occurred
run of mine stockpiles and waste dumps. Regular in the residual soils formed by tropical weathering
346 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
Ore processed
1.4 7
1.2 6
1 5
0.8 4
0.6 3
0.4 2
0.2 1
0 0
Q1-Y1
Q2-Y1
Q3-Y1
Q4-Y1
Q1-Y2
Q2-Y2
Q3-Y2
Q4-Y2
Q1-Y3
Q2-Y3
Q3-Y3
Q4-Y3
Y4
Y5
Y6
Y7
Y8
Y9
Y-10
Y-11
Y-12
Y-13
Y-14
Y-15
Y-16
Y-17
Y-18
Y-19
Y-20
Y-21
Y-22
Y-23
Y-24
Y-25
Y-26
Y-27
Y-28
Y-29
Y-30
5 Ore mined and processed Ore processed from stockpile Ni %
.. Fig. 5.31 Mill feed production schedule – mined and stockpiled feed and nickel grade by period (Illustration
courtesy of Sherritt International Corporation)
of ultramafic bedrock. Prolonged weathering has rock. Bulldozers with rippers are utilized in hard
produced a thick mature laterite profile in which zones occurring in the ferricrete materials. Once
the nickel grades have been enriched from the lev- the ferricrete material is removed, equipment
els seen in the underlying bedrock. footing on the ferralite and saprolite material will
The Ambatovy mine contains 135.4 Mt. of require a layer of aggregate sheeting to maintain
mineralized material above the cutoff grade with equipment efficiency.
an average nickel grade of 0.834% and average Ore control drilling is systematically done to
cobalt grade of 0.076%. Waste tonnage in the collect assay information on a 20 m × 20 m grid in
mine is 45.3 Mt. for a stripping ratio of 3:1. The advance of mining. The main grade control pre-
bench height and width are 6 m and 5.8 m, respec- production drilling is carried out with reverse
tively, being the face angle 45°. The Ambatovy pit circulation drillhole sample collection. Samples
dimension is about 4.0 km long and 2.3 km wide. are collected and assayed on a consistent basis.
The base of the pit is at an elevation of 978 m, This drilling is completed in advance of produc-
resulting in a pit depth of approximately 75 m. tion drilling. In locations where the grade distri-
The Ambatovy pit has been split into nine push- bution is highly variable, a sonic-type drill will
back phases. The phases are designed to allow for bore on a reduced grid of 10 m × 10 m spacing.
mining of the higher nickel grade zones first in Ore control models are assembled to assist in the
order to maximize plant throughput during the control of the mine operation based on ore grade
years of the project, maintain the biological cor- and quality contacts.
ridors, and provide in-pit waste backfilling oppor- Hauling is done with a fleet of 40 ton articu-
tunities. Thus, the Ambatovy open-pit will lated trucks. The mine haulage fleet is currently
produce 190.4 Mt. of mill feed including 2.4 Mt. being replaced with larger 100 ton haul trucks.
of ore currently in stockpile and 115.0 Mt. of The 40 ton trucks will be kept to perform a num-
waste rock over a 30-year mine operating life. ber of support tasks around the mine. All excava-
. Figure 5.31 presents the mill feed summary by
tion is now performed with backhoes in the
direct feed ore, stockpiled ore, and the average 4.8 m3 size class. The excavators are being replaced
nickel head grade by period. with larger front-end shovels to match the 100 ton
Current mining activities have shown ore and haul trucks, and 17 m3 hydraulic front shovels are
waste to be amenable to free digging; thus, they anticipated. The current backhoes will be kept to
will not require drilling/blasting, which is reflected work with the smaller fleet of smaller trucks.
in the mining costs. The operating bench height is Waste and stockpiled material will be delivered to
6 m in ore and waste with the ability to mine split the appropriate storage locations. Waste and low-
benches at 3 m height as required, maximizing ore grade storage will be accomplished in 6 m lifts.
recovery and minimizing dilution and ore loss. Low-ground-pressure dozers are used at the stor-
Minimal blasting is required in specific locations age sites to maintain truck efficiency when poor
to bring down ramps into hard saprolite or hard footing conditions occur.
5.3 · Surface Mining
347 5
zz Kişladağ Gold Mine (Usak Province, Turkey): half of the pit is limited to a single ramp. Ramps
Courtesy of Eldorado Gold Corporation were designed with a minimum width of 26.3 m
Kişladağ is a low-grade, bulk-tonnage, open-pit for the two-way traffic ramps and a minimum
mine that uses heap leaching for gold recovery, width of 16.0 m for the single-lane ramp used
being the largest gold mine in Turkey. Kişladağ is only for the bottom four benches. The pit expo-
a porphyry gold deposit that formed beneath a sure on surface ranges in elevation from 960 m
coeval Miocene volcanic complex in western to 1080 m, and the pit extends down to a bottom
Anatolia, Turkey. Gold mineralization occurs elevation of 500 m. The entire pit has a surface
within zones of quartz-pyrite stockwork and dis- footprint of 125 ha. Pit designs have been com-
seminations. Oxidation extends to a depth of pleted for four mining phases, namely, the ini-
20–80 m, but there is no supergene enrichment. tial pit, two intermediate pits, and a final pit
The ground conditions at Kişladağ mine are (. Fig. 5.32). The four phases are based on pit
highly variable. Zones of geotechnical importance shells while considering practical mining widths
include the weathering profile that divides the for the intermediate pits. Of the total proven
oxide and sulfide horizons, the three intrusions, and probable reserves (217,470,000 t), a total of
which have different alteration profiles and struc- 25,694,000 tons is oxide ore at a grade of 0.72 g/t,
tural characteristics, and a series of late state brit- and 191,776,000 tons is sulfide ore at a grade of
tle deformations called friable zones. These major 1.01 g/t based on a cutoff grade of 0.35 g/t Au
zones are also affected by a local rock mass fabric, for oxide ore and 0.50 g/t Au for sulfide ore. A
which includes multiple joint sets of varying per- 10 m drilling bench height is used with about
sistence and orientation. The open-pit slopes have 1 m subdrill totaling 11 m. Production drilling
been monitored on a continuous basis since the also provides samples for grade control pur-
start of operations. The monitoring program con- poses.
sists of measurements of slope displacement using Hydraulic excavators and a front-end loader
prisms, changes in groundwater levels using complimented with off-highway trucks make up
piezometers, regular inspections of the berms and the production fleet. The currently selected exca-
highwalls, and development of a hazard map for vating equipment consists of hydraulic shovels
mine operations. A slope radar system is also with 21 m3 bucket capacity loading into a fleet of
planned, as the mine gets deeper. dump trucks each with a capacity of 136 tons. A
The final reserve pit has been designed to eco- front-end loader has been selected as a secondary
nomically extract the oxide and sulfide resources loading unit. For blasthole drilling, rotary rock
that are convertible to ore reserves. It extends drills have proven to be capable of meeting pro-
about 1250 m from north to south and 1350 m duction targets while also providing grade control
from east to west. The mine was delineated utiliz- data. All final walls and long-standing intermedi-
ing mining software based on a 10 m bench height ate walls are presplit to a 20 m face height (10 m in
with double benching for most pit walls. Thus, pit the friable zones). The equipment required for
development will be varying for five geotechnical constructing and maintaining haul roads, waste
sectors. Twenty meter high benches will be devel- dumps, and for in-pit duties includes a wheel
oped in two 10 m steps. The 20 m face height will dozer, two dozers, two graders, three water trucks,
be reduced in some locations, where ground type and a rock breaker.
is expected as friable. Slope face angles will change
from 65° to 75° depending on the sectors and Strip Mining
oxide-sulfide type of ground. Spill berm widths Strip mining or opencast mining is a surface
will vary from 6.7 to 9 m and were used to separate method that resembles open-pit mining. Opencast
bench stacks and satisfy the overall slope angle mining seems to be a more descriptive generic
limitations. Geotechnical berm widths will be in term for the method (Hartman and Mutmansky
the range of 12.5–28 m. Inter-ramp angles varied 2002). It is used for large, tabular, flat-lying min-
from 39° to 56°. The overall slope angle of the final eralization that is close to the surface. Although a
pit design is 41.9° for N, 42.4° for NE, 41.3° for SE, range of commodities such as phosphate, bauxite,
43° for S, and 46.5° for W geotechnical sectors. tar sands, manganese, and even industrial materi-
The upper half of the pit (above 750 m eleva- als from quarries have been recovered by this
tion) has a double ramp network, and the lower method, the most common deposits worked by
348 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
.. Fig. 5.32 Kişladağ final open-pit design at 2030 (Illustration courtesy of Eldorado Gold Corporation)
under appropriate conditions. In the case of coal conveyors is feasible. Dragline equipment, sup-
seams, individual strip geometry is typically from plemented by truck and shovel systems, are also
30 to 100 m wide and to the economically recover- observed in strip mines. In this method, stripping
able basal coal seam. Final landforms in strip ratios can be relatively high, and slope angles can
mines can range from voids whose batters have be steep, largely due to the relatively low overall
been regraded to voids that have been fully back- height of these slopes (Carter 2011).
filled to the original topographic levels. The two main variations of strip mining are
Strip mining is unique in that the drill and area mining and contour mining. Area mining is
blast process itself can be employed as an overbur- performed on moderately flat terrain with flat-
den removal process. As the overburden is to be lying seams; mining cuts are made in straight,
placed into the mined-out void, immediately parallel panels, advancing across the property.
adjacent, certain pit configurations and operating Contour mining (. Fig. 5.34) is usually carried
methodologies lend themselves to cast blasting. out in mountainous terrain, with cuts located on
Cast blasting is where a powder factor and delay the contours of the topography. The mining pro-
design are selected to purposely cause the frac- ceeds around the hills extracting the seam to a
tured rock mass to heave in the direction of the depth fixed by the stripping ratio. This method is
mined-out void with large quantities of overbur- commonly practiced in the Appalachian coal-
den, up to 30%, resting in the final position. It fields (USA) (Hartman and Mutmansky 2002).
therefore requires no further handling by mining
equipment. This is a particularly economical Quarrying Mining
method of overburden removal. Quarrying is the extraction of rock (e.g., indus-
Strip mining is a bulk earthmoving operation trial minerals and rocks) from the ground. As
making use of large-scale mechanized equipment. such, the geology of a country or region deter-
This enables high-productivity and low-mining mines where a quarry is located. Quarries are very
charges allowing extraction of even low-grade similar in design and operation processes to
and deep-seated mineral deposits with higher val- open-pit mines. Commodities mined in quarries
ues of the stripping ratio (Tatiya 2013). Thus, the include aggregates, dimension or natural building
use of highly productive equipment such as stone, raw materials for Portland cement and lime
bucket wheel excavators and high-capacity belt manufacture, clays for bricks and tiles, and many
350 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
other, especially industrial minerals (e.g., calcite, the majority of dimension stone quarries are con-
talc, feldspars, and silica sand). ducted according to a regular bench design. The
In crushed stone for aggregates, the excavated rock is commonly cut in the quarry using dia-
rock is crushed, screened, and separated into dif- mond wire. Other techniques such as explosive
ferent size fractions for subsequent sale and use. splitting or flame jet burner are sometimes used in
Since the products are usually of relatively low hard rocks (e.g., granite), although flame jet
value and for local markets, they are transport burner damages the rock to a considerable depth.
cost sensitive. Hence, wherever possible, quarries The marketable dimension blocks obtained by
of crushed stone are located as close as possible to drill-and-shear techniques are then transported to
the market (e.g., a big city). If site investigations the factory, where the blocks are again cut and
for a new quarry of aggregates either sand and sliced in different sizes and shapes. In this type of
gravel or crushed stone are carried out, local fac- quarries, bench faces are commonly vertical due
tors to study include depth of overburden, size of to the good geotechnical features of the rocks.
reserve, water table (dewatering is sometimes These products are frequently high value in com-
necessary), rock type, visual impact (landscaped parison with crushed stone for aggregates. For this
amenity banks must be constructed and/or large reason, they can be transported and sold world-
number of trees planted), the presence of roads wide as building stone. An example are the alabas-
and railways close to the plant, and distance to the ter panel windows used in the Cathedral of Los
market. Special measures are required to mini- Angeles (USA) since the raw material to obtain
mize adverse environmental impacts such as the panels was previously mined near Zaragoza
noise from drilling, vibrations from blasting, and (Spain) and then transported to the USA.
dust from crushing and screening to the neigh-
boring areas. Auger Mining
Natural building stone quarries are also com- Auger mining (. Fig. 5.35) is a comparatively
mon examples of this type of surface mining, low-cost method of coal mining. It starts in the
although with some specific characteristics. Thus, West Virginia coalfields (USA) in the 1940s, being
5.3 · Surface Mining
351 5
.. Fig. 5.35 Auger coal mining (Australia) (Image courtesy of Coal Augering Services)
.. Fig. 5.36 Auger mining equipment (Image courtesy of Coal Augering Services)
in use today (e.g., the USA and Australia). Auger steep for overburden removal because retrieval of
mining is used on mountainous terrain and needs coal using underground methods can be unfeasi-
a surface cut, extraction of overburden, and a ble or unsafe or to extract a proportion of the coal
fraction of the coalbed to enable the auger access left from underground methods. In case of physi-
to the bed. The auger method involves boring cal constraints, auger mining is usually the only
horizontal or near-horizontal holes in a face of the choice to increment the amount of coal produced.
coal and loading the coal extracted by the auger. It This method uses large-diameter drills mounted
is usually utilized to add value at contour or strip on mobile equipment to bore into a coal seam
mines where the overburden becomes too great to (. Fig. 5.36). Holes are horizontally drilled at
be economically extracted in a determined pit regular intervals to depth of as much as 300 m and
design. It is also applied where the terrain is too with diameters of up to 2 m. Where the hole is
352 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
.. Fig. 5.37 Namdeb
walking jack-up platform
that includes a purpose-
designed dredge pump to
extract sand and gravel
and pick out diamonds in
Namibian coastline (Image
courtesy of De Beers)
mined to its defined depth, the auger equipment spirals, and shaking tables (see 7 Chap. 6). The
is translated laterally 1 or 2 m and another hole is body of water used for dredging can be natural or
drilled. human made. Dredges are often classified by
method of excavation and material transport.
Aqueous Extraction Mechanical dredges are those that mechanically
Aqueous extraction encompasses several methods excavate and transport the mineral. Hydraulic
that are used in special circumstances. They have in dredges, also called suction dredges, are designed
common the use of water or a liquid solvent as the to transport the mineral in slurry form, using
basic component in the mining process, either by water as the transport medium. The valuable
hydraulic disintegration or physicochemical disso- minerals or metals obtained with this method are
lution. Examples of these methods are dredging meaningful: gold, diamonds, cassiterite, heavy
(. Fig. 5.37), hydraulic mining, in situ leaching,
mineral sands (. Box 5.5: Heavy Mineral Sands
and evaporite processing. Dredging is the most Dredging), and precious stone.
common method of large-scale mining of placers, Hydraulic mining (. Fig. 5.39) or hydraulick-
which involves the extraction of the unconsoli- ing is a method of mining placer deposits that was
dated materials from a body of water without the utilized in the past but actually is not applied due
use of explosives or any other significant means of to environmental issues. It is a low-cost method to
rock-breaking force (Bullock et al. 2011). This extract large amounts of unconsolidated material.
method is particularly suitable if adequate water In this method, a high-pressure stream of water is
supply is available and the mining operation can directed against a bank to undercut and cave it.
comply with the applicable environmental regula- The loosened particles are then washed and trans-
tions. Modern dredges can produce between 600 ported by gravity to a concentrating device.
and 1500 tons per hour (Haldar 2013). In situ mining is the extraction of the meaning-
The dredging process is usually performed ful elements of a mineral deposit without physical
from a floating vessel called a dredge, which can removal of the solid material (Bates and Jackson
include many processing facilities. The concentra- 1987). It is commonly carried out by dissolving the
tion of minerals is performed using jigs, cyclones, mineral in an adequate liquid that is later removed
5.3 · Surface Mining
353 5
Box 5.5
Heavy Mineral Sands Dredging at Cooljarloo Mine (Perth, Australia): Courtesy of Tronox Ltd.
The Cooljarlo heavy mineral of overburden per annum; in 2015 Heavy mineral concentrate is
deposit lies within the Perth Basin 4.2 million BCM of overburden pumped to a central stockpile
in Western Australia. The detrital was removed. The overburden is where it is stacked ready for
heavy minerals of the Perth Basin generally between 2 and 15 m rehandling into triple-trailer road
include ilmenite, rutile, and zircon, thick. Equipment used to remove trains for transport to Tronox
which were derived from igneous this overburden includes one 250 Chandala Processing Plant for
and metamorphic rocks in the ton excavator with a fleet of five separation and processing (see
adjacent Archaean shield to the 100 ton dump trucks. The 7 Chap. 6). Tailings from the plant
east in the interior of Western excavator can move up to 800 comprise washed sand and clay at
Australia, concentrated in BCM/hour. 2900 tons per hour. The tails is
nearshore sediments through Two dredges (. Fig. 5.38)
directed either via a floatline and
multiple phases of weathering, operate in a pond up to 25 m floating tails stacker back to the
erosion, and deposition. Most of deep and mine ore between 22 dredge pond to form stable
the high-grade heavy mineral and 30 m thick. They together beaches and to enable the return
deposits at Cooljarloo occur as mine 23 million tons of ore per of stripped overburden or sent via
shoreline accumulations year, which is delivered to the external tails pipelines up to 6 km
comprising detrital ilmenite, rutile, shared wet processing plant. The in length to backfill previously
leucoxene, and zircon with floating dredges pump slurried mined out-pits. Thus, as the ore
subordinate monazite and a ore to a floating concentrator that body is mined, overburden and
gangue of aluminosilicates, recovers heavy minerals from the sands with little mineral content
kyanite, staurolite, andalusite, and sand and clay using a series of are returned to fill the void, clay
tourmaline. gravity spirals. The pond is usually residue is pumped to solar drying
The dredging operation at the 1 Km long and 400 m wide. The cells, and the surface is contoured
south mine excavates the deeper pond water is natural groundwa- to resemble the original land-
deposits located below the water ter and is fresh. These facilities are scape, prior to re-spreading
table. A contract overburden controlled by six operators via topsoil and seeding for rehabilita-
removal fleet handles up to 4.5 computers and GPS satellite tion. No chemicals are used in the
million bank cubic meters (BCM) navigation. process.
for recuperation of the needed constituent. In situ Regarding solution mining, it is likely to be
mining includes in situ leaching, solution mining more economical and is inherently safer than
to extract water-soluble salts, brine extraction, sul- conventional underground mining. It will increase
fur extraction using the Frasch process, and others. in the future as more effective reagents are devel-
In situ processes could potentially deliver the high- oped and application methods are improved.
est goal: a zero environmental footprint. Solution mining is used to the exploitation of eas-
The application of commercial scale in situ ily dissolved materials, for instance, sodium- and
leaching to sedimentary uranium deposits has been potassium-bearing evaporates or sulfur, and has
around since the 1960s (Albanese and McGagh also been applied to the extraction of uranium ores
2011), being copper, gold, and silver deposits other hosted in porous sandstone. In a wider sense, coal
common examples of minerals mined by this gasification by underground combustion can be
method. Surface leaching commonly uses heap included in this type of surface mining.
leaching of mineral values. The key to successful A good example of this technique is the extrac-
leaching of uranium is the identification of suitable, tion of natural sodium sulfate in glauberite mines
below water table sedimentary deposits in which of Spain (. Box 5.6: Glauberite Solution Mining).
uranium is confined in permeable rocks by imper- The mining method employed begins with removal
meable layers. Thus, the process leaves the ore in of overburden in an approximate 100 × 100 m pool
the ground and recovers uranium by pumping a that is then drilled and blasted over the whole area.
leachate solution into boreholes drilled into the A system of wells is then developed and water is
deposit; the pregnant solution from the dissolved injected to the glauberite body and recirculated,
minerals is then pumped to the surface. being the mineral dissolved. The rich sodium
5.3 · Surface Mining
355 5
Box 5.6
sulfate brine obtained is pumped and sent to an deposits occur so far from surface that only
evaporation plant where the brine is converted underground mining is allowed. Besides these
later into high-quality anhydrous sodium sulfate contrasted situations, there are some deposits that
salt. start at surface or near surface and continue to
In evaporite/evaporation operations, the valu- great depth. In such vertically extensive ore bod-
able minerals are produced from a saline solution ies, a combination of both surface and under-
by evaporation in a closed basin. Halite, potash, ground methods could result in a higher net
and trona are typical examples of this category. profit than only one (Bakhtavar 2013). Within
The minerals can be recovered by conventional this transition zone, it is necessary to consider
mining operations or by solution mining. In the issues such as the production rate or the eco-
5 latter case, recovery is often accomplished by nomic and risk features because these factors can
evaporation of the water from brines in solar decide the open-pit to underground mining point
ponds (. Fig. 2.50). Thus, saline solutions are
that is the best for the project. However, as the
pumped into large, shallow ponds to allow the costs of underground mining can be many times
water to evaporate, being essential a warm and that of surface mining, only moderate- to high-
dry climate. Evaporation conditions, volume of grade deposits can be mined by underground
solution to be processed, and the expected low methods below an open-pit. Accurate estimation
rainfall in the area are commonly the major of the depth in mines where both methods are
parameters of concern in this type of mineral utilized is of significant interest (Bakhtavar et al.
extraction (Hartman and Muntmansky 2002). 2009). The point at which economic consider-
ations define the change from open-pit to under-
ground method is referred to as «transition
5.4 urface Mining to
S depth.» To take the decision of where to end the
Underground Mining open-pit method and begin the underground
method is referred to as the «transition problem,»
Mineral deposits can be so close to the surface and it has originated some attention in the litera-
that their extraction by surface methods can eas- ture since the 1980s (. Box 5.7: Venetia Transition
Box 5.7
Africa’s production and about an estimated 96 million carats vertical shafts and horizontal
10% of De Beers production from 130 Mt. of mined kimber- tunnel development to provide
of 31 million carats last year. lite material over its 22-year life the establishment of, and access
By 2021, the diamond-bearing span, the project is the biggest to, loading levels. The work
ore at the current Venetia Mine capital investment in South includes associated ventilation,
is expected to be depleted. Africa in the company’s history. ground, and water-handling
In order to extend the life of The Venetia project will infrastructure. Both 7 m diam-
the mine, in 2007 De Beers build an underground diamond eter vertical shaft bottoms will
and Anglo American took the mine beneath the existing open- stretch 1080 m although the
decision to construct a new pit mine (which is among the ore body will be exploited to
underground mine beneath top eight diamond mines in the about 900 m. Although the ore
the open-pit. The project team world) replacing about 3.2 mil- bodies extend beyond 1000 m,
is currently developing the lion carats a year of production this was determined the optimal
decline from the surface to a by late 2021, as the surface- depth, particularly with regard
depth of 900 m and sinking stripping mining ratio becomes to development completion
two vertical shafts to a depth too expensive. The scope of timeframes.
in excess of 1000 m and is on works comprises the building Two main ore bodies will be
track for production to com- of an entire underground mine. mined through underground
5.4 · Surface Mining to Underground Mining
357 5
mining. The first ore body will The second ore body will be This equates to 5.9 Mtpa, which
be mined by means of a sub- mined by means of a modified matches the throughput capa-
level caving mining method, sublevel caving mining method bility of the existing main treat-
producing 4 Mtpa (average of producing 1.9 Mtpa (average of ment plant.
3.5 million carats per annum). 0.9 million carats per annum).
This combination of initial surface mining and can be mined using a combination of surface and
further underground mining is called sequen- underground mining because the costs of under-
tial mining. It is selected on the basis of the ore ground methods are commonly many times that
deposit geometry (dimensions, shape, and depth), of surface methods.
rock characteristics and conditions, productivity, After feasibility of underground mining has
capacities of machineries, capital requirements, been proved, timing of transition to underground
operating costs, investments, amortization, depre- mining must be decided. There are two major con-
ciation, ore recovery, safety, and environmental siderations for this decision. First, it is important to
aspects, among other aspects. It is important to maintain continuity of the operation because
keep in mind that extension of an open-pit with a underground mining should supplement and even-
new pushback often involves removal of millions tually take over production from the open-pit with-
of tons of material generating huge capital invest- out major permanent changes in tonnages of ore
ment. Thus, decisions to expand or deepen an shipped to the mill. Differences between the open-
open-pit, instead a transition to underground pit and underground ore grade and composition
mining, required extreme care. Detailed planning can complicate this issue. Second, while a smooth
and modeling before reaching the transitional transition requires a production overlap, neither of
depth of the mine is essential as many problems the two operations should compromise the safety of
can arise influencing the production flow the other (Wetherelt and van der Wielen 2011).
(. Fig. 5.42). It is important to bear in mind that
The main issues to be evaluated in determining
only moderate- to high-grade mineral deposits the optimal transition depth are the availability of
358 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
.. Fig. 5.42 Grasberg
(Indonesia) copper and
gold open-pit mine at 2014
and proposed transition to
underground mining
(Image and illustration
courtesy of Freeport-
McMoRan)
Grasberg
open pit
Grasberg
block cave
Big
Kucing gossan
liar
feed, feed grade, and resource utilization impact. technique, dynamic programming, neural network,
Consequently, there is a range of parameters that etc., and based on these methods, different software
can be checked to estimate the sensitivity of the packages are widely used (e.g., Datamine, Vulcan,
optimal transition depth. It is important to specify MineSight, and Gemcom).
the ultimate depth of an open-pit mine as early as Thus, the open-pit to underground transition
the planning stage considering economic effi- problem is one of the hot topics in the mining
ciency of underground mining of the remaining industry that has not been mathematically solved
mineral reserves later on (Ordin and Vasilev 2014). since there is not a mathematical algorithm that
The optimization of the transition depth is also can successfully optimize the transition depth by
a complex topic. It is defined as the process of considering the life of the mine schedule of both
determining what part of the ore body (e.g., what open-pit and underground all together. Due to the
blocks in a block model) should be mined by open- complexity of the problem and its size, often the
pit, what parts should do by underground methods, transition depth is defined by considering the
and when they should be extracted so that opera- open-pit and the underground separately. Defining
tion can maximize the long-term NPV of the proj- the transition depth by comparing the costs of
ect. The problem of optimizing a simultaneously these two mining methods, the economics of the
producing open-pit and underground mine plan is mining project cannot be optimized in terms of
really complex, and for a current technology, an the net present value of the project. The under-
iterative process must be embraced in attempts to ground development work and the value of the
establish the optimal solution. To consider the tran- underground mine are not properly considered;
sition depth as an essential issue, a number of algo- therefore, the costs and the value of the overall
rithms were developed in the last two decades (e.g., project cannot be correctly estimated. Where cor-
Nilsson 1982; Bakhtavar et al. 2009; Ordin and rectly defined, the transition depth can signifi-
Vasilev 2014; among many others). The solution cantly enhance the discounted net present value of
uses the Lerchs-Grossman algorithm, floating cone the mining project (Traore 2014). The final design
5.5 · Underground Mining
359 5
.. Fig. 5.43 Illustration of
a crown pillar between an
open-pit and underground
mine
Open pit
Crown pillar
Ore
body
Underground
of the combination surface mining-underground mined and the versatility of its methods to meet
mining frequently includes a crown pillar left in conditions that cannot be approached by surface
place while underground mining is developed mining. Moreover, underground m ining is a
(. Fig. 5.43). The height of the crown pillar is com-
method with less environmental impact to gain the
monly established equal to the maximum width of access to a mineral deposit. In contrast, it is usually
stopes to be extracted promptly beneath. more expensive and involves greater safety risks
than surface mining. In general, an underground
mine is more complex and generally more expen-
5.5 Underground Mining sive than a surface mine because the development
openings of an underground mine can be consid-
Underground mining consists of the extraction of erably more costly than surface mining on a ton-
material in excavations below the Earth’s surface nage basis.
(. Fig. 5.44). This type of mining employs its own
The social, economic, political, and environ-
and distinctive nomenclature. Thus, . Fig. 5.45
mental factors of underground mining are often
shows the main terms commonly used to describe quite different from those of surface mining. A
underground working and other aspects of under- more skilled labor force can be required, financing
ground mining. Underground mining exists can be more difficult because of increased risk, and
where a surface mine becomes cost prohibitive to subsidence can become the most important envi-
operate by different reasons: (a) the ratio of ronmental concern (Hartman and Muntmansky
extracted waste to ore becomes too high; (b) waste 2002). In underground mining, overburden extrac-
storage space is insufficient; (c) pit walls fail; (d) tion to gain access to mineralization is kept to a
environmental considerations outweigh extrac- minimum, being this access obtained by tunnels or
tion benefits; and (e) environmental or social fac- shafts. Thus, there is only a small amount of waste
tors limit the viability of surface mining. In such rock generated (development waste), and conse-
cases, underground mining can be the only choice quently limited excavation and relatively small
for a given deposit. openings are necessary for most underground
However, it is important to note that the eco- mines. The waste can even be useful since it can be
nomic feasibility of an underground operation used as backfill in the mine.
depends on more or less the same economic s tudies Underground mines are generally utilized to
as an open-pit mine. If the appeal of surface min- exploit high-grade, deep mineralization, usually
ing lies in its mass production and minimal-cost with mining production rates lesser than 20,000
capabilities, the attraction of underground mines tons per day. For instance, a 10,000 ton mining
derives from variety of ore deposits that can be production rate is a typical production of highly
360 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
.. Fig. 5.44 Aguas Teñidas underground mine (Spain) (Image courtesy of Matsa, a Mubadala and Trafigura Company)
mechanized and large-capacity underground 3900 m and TauTona sinks to depths of between
mines. A particular case should be block caving 2900 and 3480 m).
underground method, since it can achieve mining
production rates much greater than 20,000 tons
per day. In addition, the use of smaller equipment 5.5.1 Geotechnical Considerations
in underground mining means production rates in Underground Mining
that are obviously much lower than at a surface
mine. In terms of ore tonnage, underground Obviously, geotechnical features of the ore and
mining is relegated to a secondary role for many waste rocks are essential to develop a safe under-
commodities. However, it is possible to assume ground mine. Thus, the main goals of geotechni-
that underground mining will continue to play an cal consideration in underground mine design,
important role in supplying mineral resources in independently of the mining method applied, are
the future, with many large underground mines in (a) to ensure the overall stability of the complete
operation around the world. mine structure, defined by the main ore body,
Underground mining methods are always mined voids, ore remnants (pillars), and adjacent
selected below 1000 m depth, because it becomes country rock, (b) to protect the major service
difficult in a surficial exploitation to maintain the openings and infrastructure throughout their
stability of a 1000 m high rock slope. Large tabu- design life, (c) to provide safe access and working
lar mineral deposits with long vertical or horizon- places in and around the centers of ore produc-
tal dimensions or mineralization lying more than tion, and (d) to preserve the mineable condition
300 m below the Earth’s surface are commonly of unmined ore reserves (Brady and Brown 2006).
mined utilizing underground methods as well. In The characteristics of the ore body itself consti-
this sense, Mponeng and TauTona (. Fig. 5.46)
tute the basis to the geotechnical study, including
gold mines, located in South Africa, are currently the thickness and orientation of the mineraliza-
the two deepest mines in the world, respectively tion, the ore and rock strength, the distribution of
(Mponeng exploits at depths of between 2400 and mineralization within the ore body, and the depth
5.5 · Underground Mining
361 5
.. Fig. 5.45 Main terms
used in underground
mining (Illustration
courtesy of Atlas Copco)
7
1 9
2 10
11
12
13
5
14
15
16
17
6
.. Fig. 5.47 Checking fall of ground (FOG) lights underground at central shaft in Bathopele platinum mine (South
Africa) (Image courtesy of Anglo American plc)
of mineralization and surface conditions. Thus, mine structures, rock bursts, and higher cost of
geotechnical data are needed to decide: (1) most ground control and mine support directly
economical method of excavating ore and waste influence mining productivity. Instability of such
rock, (2) pillar sizes and extractions ratios, (3) fea- structures results, as a rule, in severe accidents
tures to control the subsidence, and (4) where to and long-term suspension of production up to
locate the accesses to the mine. As early as possible mine closure, which causes social tension and
in the mine feasibility assessment process, it is high economic loss. For this reason, geomechani-
essential to understand and fully consider the cal monitoring in underground mineral mining
interrelationships between the local geotechnical to evaluate the stress state and properties of rocks
environment and the mining process (Fritz and is of paramount importance. Therefore, a moni-
Coldwell 2011). There are important benefits toring program should be implemented in order
linked to an early prioritization of geotechnical to get better understanding of the rock mass
evaluation and impact on underground mine plan- deformation mechanisms.
ning. Regarding the hydrogeological conditions, This geomechanical monitoring structure can
groundwater commonly concerns upper areas of a be outlined utilizing a package of instrumental
shaft and must be controlled by grouting to pre- (. Fig. 5.47), visual, and numerical methods for the
vent water from entering the shaft. evaluation of mechanical condition and its altera-
With deeper level mining and higher overbur- tion in rocks and in structural components of
den pressure, it is very important to give geome- mines. The information support of monitoring sys-
chanical validation to engineering decisions to be tems is based on instrumental and theoretical meth-
in accord with the ground conditions. Collapse of ods allowing (a) acquisition of reliable source data
5.5 · Underground Mining
363 5
on natural stress state and mechanical properties of 4. Rock performance monitoring: measurement
rock masses, (b) determination of mechanisms of of the operational response to mining of the
change in the stress-strain state of structural ele- host rock mass
ments in the course of deformation under natural or 5. Retrospective analysis: quantification of in
induced forces, and (c) experimental-analytical jus- situ rock mass properties and identification of
tification and estimation of limit state criteria in dominant modes of response of mine
rocks and other materials (concrete, backfill) structure (Brady and Brown 2006)
(Baryshnikov et al. 2014).
The uncertain geotechnical environment in
which an underground mine operates is among 5.5.2 Underground Infrastructure
the prime reasons for geotechnical accidents.
Accidents in the form of roof collapse, fallouts, An underground mine has different components
uncontrolled caving, etc., can lead to loss of lives that ensure the extraction of ore and the safety
and machinery along with substantial ore loss and and movement of people and equipment.
loss in productivity. For instance, one of the worst Therefore, each mining method requires different
underground mine accident in the world was the underground infrastructure such as access drifts
so-called «Mufulira disaster,» recorded in Zambia to sublevels, drifts for longhole drilling, loading
in 1970 when 89 miners died due to flooding. The drawpoints, and ore passes. Together, they form
accident took place in the morning of 25 September an intricate network of openings, drifts, ramps,
1970, when half of the mine was flooded because shafts, and raises. The mine requires three groups
mud and water from the slime dam seeped of physical plant installations: the surface plant,
through cracks in an old slope, c ausing a section of the shaft plant, and the underground plant. The
the overhanging wall to give way. Thus, the mud first consists of a variety of facilities to provide the
and water rushed into the eastern section of the mine with necessary services such as access roads
mine and flooded all shafts below 500 m. and parking, transportation facilities, power and
Geotechnical risk assessment at early stages water supply, service and maintenance buildings,
such as mine design can even help to make mineral processing plant, bulk storage, and waste
changes in the design, for example, the use of sup- disposal facilities for air, water, and solids. The
port methods in risky areas of the mine. The risk shaft plant includes the facilities installed for
assessment process can be defined into four sec- material handling of ore and associated waste and
tions: hazard identification tool, risk assessment the means of transport of miners and material. It
approaches, risk assessment parameters, and risk generally incorporates systems for ventilation,
representation tool (Mishra and Rinne 2014). drainage, power supply, and communications.
Once a geotechnical risk assessment is completed, Regarding the underground plant, it covers vari-
the result should be analyzed to test if the risk ous installations to make the system work effi-
must be mitigated or completely avoided, for ciently and safely, including storage bins, loading
example, switching to a different method or aban- pockets, power distribution equipment, under-
doning the area. Geotechnical risk assessment ground maintenance facilities, and numerous
process in a mine should be subjected to continual other installations that provide auxiliary services
improvement through feedbacks from the mine to the underground operations (. Fig. 5.48).
and via lessons learned during every assessment. Mine ventilation is one of the most important
To summarize, the methodology for the facilities of underground mining. Air quality in
implementation of a rock mechanics program can mine workings is an area of particular concern to
include the following steps: the underground development. It must be main-
1. Site characterization: definition of hydrome- tained at an acceptable health standard. A con-
chanical properties of the host rock mass for tinual and adequate supply of fresh air must be
mining made available to working areas. Underground
2. Mine model formulation: conceptualization mines use networks of fans, gates, and surface
of site characterization data openings to move fresh air into the mine and
3. Design analysis: selection and application of remove exhaust air. High-pressure fans on sur-
mathematical and computational schemes for face extract exhaust air through the upcast shafts
study of various mining layouts and strategies and ventilation doors control the underground
364 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
.. Fig. 5.48 Station for underground maintenance equipment (Spain) (Image courtesy of Iberpotash)
airflow, passing fresh air through active work number, shape, and size of the main openings.
areas. As most of the infrastructure is located on Factors to influence this decision include the
the footwall side of the ore body, the fresh air is depth, shape, and size of the deposit, the surface
normally channeled via the footwall toward the topography, the geological conditions of the ore
hanging wall, from where the exhaust air is body and surrounding rock, the mining method,
routed to the surface (Nord 2007). It is particu- and the production rate, among others. Sometimes
larly important to clear the air after an under- underground development openings double for
ground blast, because harmful gases such as exploration purposes and vice versa. Those open-
carbon monoxide or oxides of nitrogen can build ings driven in advance of mining can provide
up. A good ventilation system will rapidly clear valuable exploration information and afford suit-
the air around a blast as blasting reduces the con- able sites for additional exploration drilling and
centration of oxygen in the air. . Figure 5.49
sampling. Likewise, openings driven for explora-
shows an aerial view of ventilation equipment at tion purposes can be utilized to develop the
Aguas Teñidas Mine (Spain). deposit; some shafts and drifts would almost cer-
Underground development openings, which tainly serve subsequently to open up the deposit.
are designed so that the ore bodies are easily
accessible and transportable after excavation, usu- Underground Access
ally can be ranked in three categories by order of The access method to underground works is an
importance in the overall layout of the mine: (1) important aspect of underground mine develop-
primary or main openings (e.g., shaft or slope), ment and operation because it is required for
(2) secondary or level or zone openings (e.g., drift people, equipment, and ventilation as well as for
or entry), and (3) tertiary or lateral or panel open- transporting ore to the surface. Underground
ings (e.g., ramp or crosscut). The construction of mines usually have several access points with dif-
underground openings is specialized and expen- ferent objectives such as a ramp for equipment
sive, and consequently, this phase of mine devel- and personnel and a shaft for transporting ore out
opment has become increasingly mechanized and of the mine and form ventilation. There are gener-
efficient in order to reduce costs. A number of ally three methods of accessing an underground
initial decisions related to the primary develop- mine: shaft, adit, and decline or ramp. The shaft
ment openings of a mine must be made early in remains the mine’s main artery, and downward
the mine planning stage and include the type, development is by ramps to allow access for the
5.5 · Underground Mining
365 5
.. Fig. 5.49 Aerial view of ventilation equipment at Aguas Teñidas Mine (Spain) (Image courtesy of Matsa, a Mubadala
and Trafigura Company)
machines. A decline ramp from surface can facili- Because shafts are essential in the general
tate machine movements and transport of people planning of mine development, their localization
and materials. It can also be used for ore transpor- is commonly predetermined, being this position
tation by truck or conveyor, eliminating the need changed where adverse geotechnical conditions
for hoisting shafts. are identified. Ground conditions and water-
bearing structures also govern the ultimate local-
Shafts ization of shafts. The decision to locate the shaft is
A shaft is a vertical excavation in which elevators critical if the terrain is moderately flat because the
are used to transport people and ore in and out of process to develop a shaft is very expensive, and
the mine. It is used where the deposit is located only a vertical shaft, well located with respect to
deep within the ground. Most shafts are divided the ore deposit, will be helpful later in the produc-
into a number of compartments each with a dif- tion work. Thus, the correct configuration of the
ferent use. For example, one compartment for shafts will provide optimum operational benefit.
moving people, a second for skipping ore to the The shaft can be rectangular, circular, or elliptical
surface, and other compartments for ventilation in profile, although almost all hard-rock under-
and electrical infrastructure. The main factor to ground mines commonly have circular section
establish the shaft size is the estimation of reserves shafts because this shape generates a correct
in the sector to be mined by the shaft. Thus, the geometry for airflow and suitable rock support
ore body size will define the rate of mining, and characteristics.
this will determine the tonnage (ore and waste) to
be hoisted, the number of persons, and the mate- Raises
rial to be moved in a given shift. . Figure 5.50
Raises are steeply inclined openings linking the
show De Beers’ Venetia Mine in South Africa mine sublevels at several vertical elevations. They
with two headgears. One is the production shaft, are normally placed near the stopes employing
used to lift kimberlite (containing diamonds) and specialized cyclic or continuous operations.
waste rock. The second is the production services Specific applications of bored raises are transfer of
shaft, used to transport employees and equipment material, ventilation, personnel access, and ore
in and out of the underground mine. production. Inclination varies from 55°, which is
366 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
.. Fig. 5.50 Venetia mine shafts (South Africa) (Image courtesy of De Beers and Anglo American plc)
the lowest angle for gravity translation of blasted was classified as very dangerous can now be rou-
rock, to vertical, with cross sections from 0.5 to tinely undertaken as a safe and controlled activity.
30 m2. Since manual excavation of raises is a very
dangerous job, the raise boring machine is cur- Adits
rently utilized for boring ventilation raises, ore An adit is a horizontal excavation that is used in
passes, and rock fill passes. It provides safer and mountainous areas where the ore body is located
more efficient mechanized excavation of circular near or above the valley floor. This type of devel-
raises up to 6 m diameter because this method opment is the most difficult to design in certain
eliminates the need of explosives. aspects, being commonly considered only where
Raise boring is the procedure of mechanically topographic relief is considerable. In this opening,
boring a vertical or inclined shaft between two or the ore and waste can be taken down and out of
more levels. In conventional raise boring, a down- the mine at minimal operating cost. All the hori-
ward pilot hole is drilled to the target level by the zontal openings are developed by a process called
raise boring machine, where the bit is removed drifting or tunneling. The traditional method of
and replaced by a reaming head (. Fig. 5.51). The
performing this operation is to drill and blast the
machine then reams back the hole to final diam- face, load the material into a haulage device, and
eter, rotating and pulling the reaming head then provide support and ventilation to the newly
upward. The cuttings fall to the lower level and are advanced face. Thus, drilling and blasting are the
removed by any convenient method. The capital standard excavation method for drifting. The
cost of a raise boring machine is high, but the exceptions to the use of blasting are underground
return on investment is very worthwhile. mines in relatively soft rock such as coal and salts
Advantages of raise boring are that miners are not where the rock can be removed without the need
required to enter the excavation while it is under- for blasting (Stevens 2010). In addition, using
way, no explosives are used, a smooth profile is explosives in underground coal mines creates a
obtained, and manpower requirements are significant safety hazard because methane gases
reduced. Above all, an operation that previously and dust associated with the coal can ignite.
5.5 · Underground Mining
367 5
.. Fig. 5.51 Raise boring
process (Illustration
courtesy of Atlas Copco)
1 5
2
3
4
6
.. Fig. 5.52 LHD used with remote control (Image courtesy of Matsa, a Mubadala and Trafigura Company)
excavation. The support of excavations is com- installation while passive support (steel arches)
monly classified as primary or secondary. The is not installed with an applying load and devel-
former is applied during or immediately after ops its load as the rock mass deform. More com-
extraction to ensure safe working requirements monly used surface rock support methods are
during further excavations, whereas the latter is rockbolts and grouted cables as active rock sup-
applied as any additional support or reinforce- ports, and mesh, shotcrete and steel sets as pas-
ment at a later stage. Support can also be sepa- sive rock supports.
rated into active or passive; active support (e.g., Mechanically anchored rockbolts are probably
tensioned rockbolts) means a predetermined the earliest type of rock reinforcement utilized in
load to the rock surface at the same time of underground operations to prevent major ground
370 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
.. Fig. 5.54 Installing rockbolts at Bathopele mine (South Africa) (Image courtesy of Anglo American plc)
ore or waste passes. Grouting serves two main surface support in mines. There are two applica-
purposes in rockbolt installations. First, it bonds tion methods for sprayed concrete: dry mix and
the bold shank to the rock making it an integral wet mix, having each type its special utilization in
5.5 · Underground Mining
371 5
.. Fig. 5.55 Installing cable bolts at Dishaba Mine (South Africa) (Image courtesy of Anglo American plc)
.. Fig. 5.56 Spraying shotcrete onto the walls of a drift underground at Snap Lake Mine (Canada) (Image courtesy of
De Beers)
372 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
.. Fig. 5.57 Installation of canopy jack at Tumela Mine (South Africa) (Image courtesy of Anglo American plc)
surface rock support. The present tendency is to carry the dead weight of the failed material sur-
utilize fiber-reinforced shotcrete or Fibercrete. It rounding the opening. Thus, the subsidence of the
forms actually a very versatile support technique roof can be supported by steel sets. A wide range
with the addition of microsilica to the mortar of rolled steel sections are available in the market.
mix. The mixture coats 50–100 mm thick layers . Figure 5.57 shows the installation and inspec-
on the roof and walls anticipating smaller frag- tion of canopy jacks to secure a brow at Tumela
ments from falling (Haldar 2013). PGM Mine (South Africa). The image also dis-
Regarding the ancient methods of support, plays timber passive support.
steel set has commonly substituted timber as the
traditional passive support technique in under-
ground mining. In general, steel or timber sets 5.5.5 Underground Methods
only generate support instead of reinforcement.
In hard-rock mining, steel sets have restricted uti- There are many different underground methods
lization because most support duties can be car- that have been developed to respond the needs of
ried out more efficiently using rockbolts, shotcrete, differing geometry and the geotechnical features
or combination of these systems. The main excep- of the host and surrounding rock. These under-
tion is in extremely broken ground related to the ground mining methods, called stoping by the
presence of faults of shear zones. In such cases, it American miners, are difficult to classify ratio-
can be unable to anchor the rockbolts in the rock nally since each method depends not only on ore
mass, being thus steel sets needed in order to body geometry but also includes other consider-
5.5 · Underground Mining
373 5
.. Fig. 5.58 Underground mining using unsupported method (Spain) (Image courtesy of Iberpotash)
ations such as ground conditions, hydrology, support, (b) methods requiring substantial artificial
grade distribution, the presence of structures (e.g., support, and (c) caving methods in which failure of
faults or dykes), scale of operations, economic fac- the back roof is inherent to the extraction process.
tor, availability of labors, and materials/equip- Underground mining method can also be separated
ments as well as environmental considerations. in selective and bulk methods. The former are uti-
The reason why the choice of a method is cru- lized to recover ore without dilution, whereas the
cial is that it largely governs the type and placement latter are used to extract large tonnages of ore with
of the primary development openings. If distur- low cost. Evidently, selective methods are more
bance of the surface due to subsidence, inevitable expensive per ton of rock extracted than bulk meth-
with caving methods and possible with other meth- ods, but the revenue per ton of ore is greater.
ods, is anticipated, then all the access openings Selective methods typically apply to narrow pre-
must be located outside the zone of fracture cious metal vein deposits and high-grade base metal
bounded by the angle of draw. The angle of draw is veins such as those hosting lead and zinc, whereas
the angle between a vertical line drawn upward to bulk methods are used for mining low-grade large
the surface from the edge of the underground open- ore bodies which cannot be extracted profitably
ing and a line drawn from the edge of the opening using selective mining methods. In this section, the
to the point of zero surface subsidence. The larger goal is to summarize briefly the main characteristics
the angle of draw, the wider will be the area on the of the major underground mining methods accord-
surface in which subsidence should be present. ing to the first classification (ground support).
To show the significance of ground support, The unsupported methods (. Fig. 5.58) of min-
underground mining methods can be classified in ing are generally utilized to mine mineral deposits
three main types based on the extent of support that are roughly tabular, plus flat or steeply dipping,
required: (a) methods generating openings that are and are commonly related to high competent ore
naturally supported or requiring minimum artificial and waste rock. They are termed with this name
374 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
.. Fig. 5.59 Two rooms and one pillar in a room-and-pillar underground system (Spain) (Image courtesy of Pedro
Rodríguez)
since they do not utilize any type of artificial ele- Unsupported Methods
ment to help in the support of the openings.
However, a great number of roof bolting and local- Room and Pillar
ized support measures are commonly needed. In Room and pillar is the most classical unsupported
room-and-pillar method, a classical unsupported method (. Figs. 5.59 and 5.60). It is planned for
method, the support of the roof is generated by mining of flat, bedded deposits of limited thick-
natural pillars of the mineral that are left standing ness, normally showing an inclination that does
in a systematic configuration (. Fig. 5.59).
not exceed 30°. Examples are sedimentary depos-
Supported mining methods need important its such as limestone or sandstone containing
amount of artificial support to keep stability in lead, salt layers, phosphate, some base metal
openings as well as systematic ground control deposits (. Box 5.8: Rudna Copper Mine), lime-
throughout the mine. They are utilized in mines stone, magnesite, and dolomite. This method
with ground conditions ranging in competency recovers the mineralization as completely as pos-
from moderate to incompetent. In fact, the sup- sible in open stopes, called rooms, leaving pillars
ported method is basically used where the other of ore to support the hanging wall (hence the
two types of methods, unsupported and caving, name room and pillar) but without jeopardizing
are not appropriate. Cut-and-fill stoping is the working conditions and personal safety. The
most typical of these methods and is utilized in dimensions of rooms and pillars depend upon
steeply dipping metal deposits. factors such as the stability of the hanging wall
The third group, caving methods, is varied and and the ore, the thickness of the deposit, and the
involves induced, controlled, or massive caving of rock pressure. In this respect, the stability of the
the ore body and/or the overlying rock. The min- ore and the hanging wall is a flexible concept.
ing workings are defined to collapse with inten- Increasing the number of pillars and reducing the
tional caving of the ore and/or host rock. room width can compensate for poor ground
Subsidence of the surface normally occurs after- conditions, but ore recovery is sacrificed since a
ward. Two methods of this group widely applied larger portion of the ore body is left to support the
due to their high productivity are longwall min- back. Although it is not common, sometimes
ing and block caving. areas of waste can be utilized as pillars.
5.5 · Underground Mining
375 5
.. Fig. 5.60 Room-and-
pillar method (Illustration
courtesy of Atlas Copco)
2
3
Box 5.8
tions, and each section is prepared involves removing ore from all self-propelled drilling rigs, loading
for mining by driving tunnels on sides of the pillar, thereby reducing of blasting material to drilled holes
all four sides to verify geological its size. Mining areas are sealed by drilling rigs, group blasting of
continuity and ore grade. Mining following secondary extraction in the ore, followed by the ventila-
sections are located primarily order to prevent further access and tion of the areas blasted (from
beyond the limits of the major are then allowed to cave naturally. 30 min. to 2 h; in seismic areas this
pillars required to protect shafts, It is understood that the current time is longer) and (b) loading
permanent underground instal- system of primary and secondary of the ore using self-propelled
lations, and surface facilities. For mining is capable of extracting loaders into haulage vehicles and
the extraction of ore in a mining 75–90% of the in situ ore. its transport to dumping stations
section, a series of parallel tunnels Where the ore is less than and protection of the exposed
5 (rooms) are driven in an updip or
cross dip direction, with support
about 6 m thick, single-level min-
ing of rooms is carried out, with
face by anchor bolts using bolt-
ing rigs; the crushed ore is then
provided by roof bolts. Connec- pillar dimensions varying from transported mainly by conveyor
tions are made between the rooms 5 to 7 m by 5–7 m to as large as belts (. Fig. 5.61) to the storage
by driving tunnels, essentially 17 m by 17 m. If the ore is thicker, sites by the shafts and is hoisted to
at right angles to the rooms, at rooms are excavated in two levels. the surface.
regular intervals. The result is that The upper level, under a dolomite Given the extent of the devel-
a series of more or less square or roof, is mined first, with a subse- oped underground area, water
rectangular pillars are left in place quent extraction of a lower-level inflow to the workings is extremely
between the rooms and crosscuts. bench. The resulting void is filled low. Underground inspection
This phase of mining is referred to with hydraulically placed sand. confirms that there is minimal
as primary extraction. In recent mining operations, evidence of any significant water
After primary extraction has backfilling of the mined-out void, flow. The installed pumping capac-
been completed in a number of with hydraulically placed sand, is ity provides a substantial margin
adjacent sections, or in a complete carried out. Underground mining of safety in comparison with aver-
production area, and provided that operations are fully mechanized age inflows. In certain portions
there is no adverse impact on other and, generally, employ sufficient of the mining area, the overlying
areas, the ore that remains in the units of equipment of appropriate dolomite and limestone beds form
pillars can be partially recovered size. Mining is conducted in the an aquifer that has the potential
in a phase of secondary extrac- following cycle: (a) drilling the to release significant short-term
tion. Thus, secondary extraction blasting holes with the support of water flows into the underground
workings. In such areas, retention employs hydraulic backfill in cer- from the underground workings
reservoirs have been constructed tain mining areas, drainage from are delivered to the tailings stor-
to provide storage in the event that the backfill contributes to the over- age facility, from which it is either
short-term inflows exceed pump- all mine pumping requirement. It is recycled to the concentrators or
ing capacity. Since Rudna mine understood that all water pumped treated and released to the river.
In this method, the ore is blasted and the to abandoning the stope. This is because they still
material loaded in the room where it was extracted have valuable grade content. In this case, some pil-
and transported to a point where it will flow, lars must be left standing to maintain active sup-
either by gravity or mechanical means, to a cen- port for the hanging wall. It is common in this
tral gathering point to be taken out to the mine. method to collapse the rock mass into the rooms
This is because the direction of excavation (angle sometime after the extraction process has finished.
of dip) is below that which would cause the dry The main advantages of the room-and-pillar
material to flow by gravity to a drawpoint or gath- method are the high degree of flexibility and the high
ering point. The loose rock is then translated by degree of mechanization since many aspects of the
dump trucks or LHD vehicles to the surface for mining cycle are repetitious. It is a very selective
waste disposal or processing in the case of miner- mining system leaving waste material on pillars,
alization. In thin ore bodies, loading points can be being also relatively inexpensive. It can be operated
necessary for transferring ore from loader to in multiple fronts and does not require much antici-
hauler. As all activities are carried out on one or pated development. Regarding the disadvantages,
very few levels covering a large area, there are the method requires maintenance of the roof and
many faces available at any time, so high equip- eventually the pillars, the loss of ore in pillars, and the
ment utilization is possible. Thus, this method of need of significant capital investment for extensive
extraction is well adapted to mechanization. All mechanization. If the method progresses in depth,
tunnels are excavated by drilling and blasting, and the tension in the open space increases significantly.
the production rate ranges from 500 to 35,000
tons per day, being the recoveries of extraction Sublevel Stoping
obtained in mining in advance as high as 85%. In Sublevel stoping (. Fig. 5.62) is an unsupported
soft-rock deposits such as salt or coal seams, drill- method used for mining mineral deposits with
ing and blasting are not required and the valuable steeply ore bodies and regular boundaries, stable
mineral is extracted using machines such as con- rock in hanging wall and footwall, and competent
tinuous miners. Mineralized heights greater than mineralization and waste rock. This method
about 6 m are commonly operated by multiple requires extensive ore body development with rela-
passes. Barren rock originated during extraction tively high capital expenditures, but production
can be easily disposed in the mined voids. costs are comparatively low because much of the
Rooms and pillars are commonly disposed in development is in ore (Lawrence 1998). The thick-
regular configurations to simplify planning, design, ness of the deposit between the hanging wall and
and operation, being designed with circular or footwall usually varies from a few meters to tens of
square pillars and elongated walls dividing the meters wide. In this method, mining starts at the
rooms. Mining the ore body creates large openings bottom of a level and proceeds upward. The ore
where machines can travel on the flat floor. Since body is vertically divided into levels, and between
personnel works continuously under exposed roof, two levels, the stopes of convenient size are formed,
close observations of the performance of roof and hence the name sublevel stoping. Leaving a crown
pillars are needed. Rockbolts are used extensively pillar at the top of the stope safeguards the level
as rock reinforcement. Usually, the pillars remain above while lower level is utilized as haulage level to
after mining is complete and they are not recovered collect the mineralization from the stopes. The level
because it is difficult and expensive. However, developments, commonly in the footwall, range
where all the ore in the openings has been mined from 50 to 150 m, based on the vertical extent of
and translated to the surface, in a second phase of the ore body and the number of production open-
this method, several pillars can be mined out prior ings that can be extracted in each level. Between the
378
Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
.. Fig. 5.62 Sublevel
stoping method (Illustra-
tion courtesy of Atlas
Copco)
1
5
6
2
7
8
3
main levels, ramps are usually driven for haulage reports to the drawpoints for extraction. The load-
transport. These ramps also give access to the sub- ing can be carried out using remote control LHD
levels, which are developed at intervals to remove working in the open stope, which reduces the
blocks of ore. Dilution with waste rock can occur if amount of drift development in waste rock. Once
ore boundaries are irregular or if caving occurs, but the stope is definitely mined, a backfilling process is
usually 100% of the ore of the stope is recovered. performed with a mixture of sand and rocks, waste
The ore is blasted from different levels of eleva- rock with cement, or dewatered mill tailings. The
tion. Production mining is achieved almost exclu- backfill material must have a lot of strength to sup-
sively by longhole drilling, and the length of the port the roof of the empty stope. This process allows
holes depends on the shape of the ore body and the for recovery of the pillars of unmined ore between
predetermined sublevel spacing. Longholes do not the stopes, producing a high recovery of the miner-
exceed 25 m because hole deviation and control alization; pillar recovery is a common practice in
become major problems beyond this length. In this method. Successful ore recovery would then
blasthole open stoping, the ore is blasted in vertical require draw of fragmented ore from beneath less
slices, whereas in vertical crater retreat (VCR), the mobile, barren country rock (. Box 5.9: Aguas
ore is blasted in horizontal slices. Broken ore Teñidas Polymetallic Sulfide Mine).
Box 5.9
Aguas Teñidas Polymetallic Sulfide Mine (Huelva, Spain): Courtesy of Matsa, a Mubadala &
Trafigura Company
The Aguas Teñidas Mine is based sulfide (VMS) deposits on the comprised of heavily tectonized
on one of an east-west striking northernmost limb of the Iberian volcano-sedimentary sequences,
chains of volcanogenic massive Pyrite Belt. The mine geology is with crosscutting thrust faults and
5.5 · Underground Mining
379 5
shear zones. The main lithologi- systems. The eastern ramp pro- have been inclined, up to a maxi-
cal units at the mine comprise a vides access for all service vehi- mum of 20%.
footwall rhyodacitic unit, massive cles, personnel, and temporary On any 20 m wide panel,
sulfide mineralization, and a hang- mucking access where required. stopes are generally mined out
ing wall volcano-sedimentary unit. The western ramp provides the from bottom to top. If there is
The deposit includes four miner- principal ore haulage system. This more than one stope on the
alization types: polymetallic lead/ ramp is approximately 3.7 km long same elevation for any panel, the
zinc rock, massive cupriferous, and has a portal at the extreme stopes are mined out from south
barren pyrite, and a cupriferous western side of the property, very to north. All longhole drilling pro-
stockwork. The principal ore min- close to the processing plant. Ore vides 89 mm diameter drillholes.
erals are sphalerite, chalcopyrite, haulage is currently provided by Most of the production drilling
and galena. Pyrite generally a fleet of mostly 30 t trucks. Stope is from the top down, in general
forms 50–80% of the massive mucking is achieved by direct from a central upper crosscut.
sulfide. Both massive sulfide ores loading of trucks by Scooptrams ANFO is used for stope blasting.
(polymetallic and cupriferous) are from the stopes as well as a Longholes are typically spaced
hosted in a massive pyrite struc- system of ore passes. The ore with 2.6 m burden, spaced later-
ture and are identified from the passes are generally 3 m diameter ally at 3.2 m. Blasting results to
pyrite host rock by grade rather raised bored excavations, or 4 m date have been very good.
than any physical differences. x 4 m developed raises. In poorer For primary stopes, a high-
Geotechnical practices may ground, one of these ore passes strength (HS) paste fill is used
be summarized as: (a) geotechni- has been steel lined. At the cur- (. Fig. 5.63). As the mine evolves,
cal mapping: lithology, RQD, rent time, the ore from these ore more secondary stopes will be
rock strength, and various joint passes is loaded into trucks at the mined out, which can be filled
factors are recorded in detail for base, by dedicated Scooptrams. with a mixture of low-strength (LS)
all excavations and geotechnical There are currently three opera- paste fill and waste. For the earlier
diamond drillholes; (b) Q class: tional ore passes. years, the ratio of paste fill types
all of the information obtained The basic level vertical spac- will be 2:1 between HS/LS. In later
from the mapping is combined ing is 30 m. An independent spiral years, as a higher proportion of
to make a single encompassing system allows access to all parts of secondary stopes are mined out,
Q class number; this number is the mine from the eastern service the ratio will switch round to
decimalized and ranges from very ramp, independent of the mine approximately 1:2 HS/LS. In most
small (<0.4) for very poor ground ore haulage ramp. The haulage years, a total amount of paste
to +10 for very good ground. (c) galleries are currently laid out fill (HS + LS) of approximately
geotechnical domain: the criteria with an offset of approximately 400,000 m3 will be required. Most
described are applied to assign a 50 m from the massive sulfide stope muck is first transported
single domain number based on northern contact. The ore body to the ore pass systems via the
the derived Q class number; the is basically partitioned into 20 m haulage galleries. From there, it
domain number ranges from 1 wide stope panels. However, is loaded into trucks for haulage
for very poor ground to 5 for very instead of individual perpendicu- up the main haulage ramp to the
good ground. For planning pur- lar crosscuts on each panel line, surface stockpiles.
poses, support requirements have the crosscuts have been designed The scheduling work was
been defined according to the as ‘Y’s, with the perpendicular completed using mining software.
geotechnical domain and whether part off the haulage drives every The main objective of the stope
the development is permanent or 40 m and then with branches off production was to achieve MATSA
temporary. These requirements to the different stopes. This has production targets, leading to
have been defined in terms of advantages in terms of requiring annual production of 2.2 Mt. of
rockbolting, mesh, shotcreting less development and less disrup- ore, combined polymetallic and
(gunite), and cable bolting. For the tion off the haulage drives where cupriferous. In the schedule setup,
poorest ground (Domain 1), the the secondary stopes need to stope production is built up from
support required includes Split be accessed. The orientation of the different mine activities: stope
Set rockbolts, mesh, shotcrete and design of these ‘Y’s is customized development, cable bolting, long-
cable bolts on both the floor and according to local ground condi- hole drilling, slot development,
walls. For the best ground (Domain tions. In general, the waste cross- production, and paste filling.
5), in temporary excavations, only cut drives have been designed Individual rates are applied to the
Split Set rockbolts are required. as being relatively flat. However, different activities, and from these
The access to the mine is in some cases due to local stope the overall stope production is
principally provided by two-ramp block variations, the crosscuts built up.
380 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
1
5
3
6
Narrow vein shrinkage stoping is not a selec- (. Fig. 5.65) is certainly the most common of
tive method provided that once initiated the these methods (. Box 5.10: Efemcukuru Gold
whole ore has to be mined. Blasting swells the ore Mine). For many years, it was probably the main
by about 50% or more, which means that a sub- mining method used in underground metal
stantial amount has to be left in the stope to keep mines, especially those in poor ground condi-
a suitable working distance between the back and tions. It is frequently applied in vein deposits
the top of the broken ore. When the stope has where the vein is moderately to steeply dipping
advanced, it is discontinued and the remaining with considerable vertical extent, although the
50% of the mineralization can be extracted, hence method is readily adaptable to almost any ore
the name of shrinkage stoping. As a general rule, body. The ore body however must be accessible at
the mineralization must be strong and resistant to both top and bottom as well as at regular intervals
crushing and degradation during draw because it throughout vertical extent. In general, the cut-
is necessary to assure that once the ore is mobi- and-fill method is preferred for vertical or subver-
lized by blasting, it remains mobile and suitable to tical mineral deposits at great depths or within
flow during its residence time in the stope. relatively weak rocks that need support. Mine
planning and supervision are concerned with the
Supported Methods geotechnical properties of the fill and their effects
on mine and stope stability.
Cut and Fill It is preferred for ore bodies with irregular
Supported methods are commonly utilized in shape and disseminated mineralization where
mines with weak rock structure and cut and fill high-grade sections can be mined separately,
382
Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
.. Fig. 5.65 Cut-and-fill
method (Illustration
courtesy of Atlas Copco)
2 3
5
1 - Ventilation tube
2 - Hydraulic sandfill
3 - Ramp
Box 5.10
ground conditions (ground sup- advancing an estimated 4 m per In the mechanized cut-and-fill
port requirements), (c) dip angle round. Two-boom jumbos are used stopes, paste backfill is used to
of the ore body, (d) achievable as required. Blastholes are 45 mm stabilize the working floor. In
production rate based on mucking diameter, drilled on a standard general, rock support includes (a)
requirements, and (g) value of in overhand heading pattern. ANFO rockbolts in the side wall up to
situ ore, mining dilution, and recov- explosives are initiated by dyna- approximately 1 m, (b) support
ery. To minimize development and mite primers with non-electric cables with anchor pins in the side
allow flexibility between mining detonators. Emulsion is required wall, (c) reinforcing with screening,
methods, all mining methods will for loading wet holes. and (d) high-strength cement (8%
utilize mining block heights of Longhole stopes are used cement content for working floor).
16 m, floor to floor. in the SOS where the ore body Conventional trackless equip-
Mechanized cut and fill is the is wider than 8 m. Mining from ment is employed to extract ore
primary stoping method used for longhole stopes easily achieve from mechanized cut-and-fill (MCF)
widths between 2 m and 8 m and the full target production rate. as well as longitudinal longhole
accounts for 45% of the total pro- The key will be maintaining bal- (LLH) and transverse longhole
duction (. Fig. 5.66). This method
ance between the longhole and (TLH) stopes. Ore from stopes is
allows selective recovery of ore mechanized cut-and-fill produc- mucked using 6700 kg capacity
within the ore body although tion to minimize operating costs LHDs with 3.7 m3 buckets. Ore is
it is more expensive, has lower and labor requirements. Ore from directly loaded into 20 ton articu-
productivity, and requires more the MOS and SOS ore bodies will lated dump trucks before being
working faces to meet production be blended to balance high- and hauled to the central ore pass and
targets. Mechanized cut-and-fill low-sulfide ore and provide a crusher system. Remote mucking is
lifts are typically the width of the consistent head grade to the mill. required for the longitudinal long-
ore body and 4 m high × 4 m deep. The transverse longhole stope hole mining and for mechanized
The block height will be 16 m access is planned in ore, limiting cut and fill when extracting the cut
floor to floor. Sublevel develop- the number of working stopes directly below a sill mat. Productiv-
ment will provide access for ore available but reducing waste ity will be reduced when remote
body drilling and blasting, ore development. Paste backfill is used mucking. Underground waste
and waste haulage, materials and as a «free standing» structure to rock is loaded into articulated haul
services supply, and ventilation. A control stability of walls, dilution, trucks by LHDs and hauled to sur-
one-boom jumbo drills the face, and safety for the longhole stopes. face via the South Ramp.
NNW
South ore
shoot (SOS)
Middle ore
shoot (MOS)
Dark blue: transverse longhole Light blue: longitudinal longhole Brown: mechanized cut- and- fill
tion of mining is relatively small and the amount ground mining method being practiced world-
of nonproductive work required is high, this wide to mine thin-bedded, soft rock deposits with
resulted in limited productivity for the stope. The uniform thickness and large horizontal extent,
production from the stope can be quite cyclical particularly coal seams (. Fig. 5.68). Not all soft
because the nonproductive work must be done on rock ores are suited for longwall mining, which
a regular basis (Waterland 1998). works best in laterally extensive, flat-lying depos-
The ore is drilled, blasted, loaded, and removed its that are primarily free of discontinuities such
from the stope, which is then backfilled with des- as faults. Coalbeds deeper than 300 m are usually
limed sand tailings from the mineral processing extracted by longwall mining because the room-
plant or waste rock carried in by LHD from devel- and-pillar method would require the use of much
opment drives. The fill serves simultaneously to larger pillars to support the roof, reducing thus
support stope walls and as a working platform for the amount of coal that can basically be extracted.
mining the next slice. In modern cut-and-fill oper- Since a long face (about 100 m or more) defines
ations, the fill is distributed by hydraulic means as the method, hence the name longwall mining.
a slurry. Cement is sometimes mixed in to provide Longwall mining requires and ore body dip of less
harder and more durable support characteristics. than 20°, with a reasonably uniform distribution
As no rib pillars are left, most of the ore can be of grade over the plane of the ore body.
recovered with a minimum of waste dilution. A variation of the classical longwall method is
In this method, the development is minimal also applied to hard-rock gold and platinum thin
before mining starts and the equipment invest- reef-type deposits in Southern Africa. There,
ment is relatively small. It is a selective mining drilling and blasting break the rock, and low-
method that can also be used to reduce dilution. production conveying systems clear broken ore
The main disadvantages of the method include from the face. Pillars of timber and concrete are
the following: (a) ore production is cyclical; (b) installed to support the roof in up to 3.5 km deep
the method is labor intensive and required skilled mines. For instance, the sequential grid mining
miners; (c) it is not as suited to mechanization as method was adopted in Mponeng Gold Mine
other methods, so there is lower productivity; and (. Box 5.11: Mponeng Gold Mine). This has been
(d) the personnel must work under freshly blasted proven as the best method suited to the deep-level
ground, which creates a safety problem. gold mining often associated with seismicity.
5.5 · Underground Mining
385 5
.. Fig. 5.67 Longwall
mining method (Illustration
courtesy of Atlas Copco)
1 5
Box 5.11
shafts. The name changed to Mpo- work has been done in refining the ring of the face and hanging wall.
neng mine in 1999. estimation model for CLR. Once the workplace is declared
Mponeng is located on the The VCR has been subjected to safe, preparation for drilling of
northwestern rim of the Witwa- faulting and is intruded by a series the face can begin. The face is
tersrand Basin. There are seven of igneous dykes and sills of vari- marked down in a specific pat-
gold-bearing conglomerates ous ages that crosscut the reefs. tern, and holes are drilled accord-
within the lease area, of which There is an inherent risk in mining ingly using rock drills. The rock
two are economically viable at through these faults and intrusives, is then scraped into box holes,
present. The Ventersdorp Contact and a key objective of mine geolo- where it is drawn off into hop-
Reef (VCR) is the reef horizon gists is to identify these geological pers, or small railway cars, hauled
mined at Mponeng mine. The VCR features ahead of the working by locomotives. The gold-bearing
forms the base of the Ventersdorp face to assist with deciding on the ore is then hoisted from the
Supergroup which caps the Witwa- best way to approach and mine lowest underground level of the
tersrand Supergroup through an through these structures. The VCR mine in skips and transported to
angular unconformity. The overly- reef that Mponeng mines dips at the gold plant by rail or conveyor
ing Ventersdorp lavas halted the 22° and has an average channel belts.
deposition of the VCR preserving it width of 78 cm. Mponeng started When mining at depths of
in its current state. The VCR consists stoping in the mid-1980s using a more than 3000 m, where rock
of a quartz-pebble conglomerate, longwall mining method. In the temperatures can reach up to 55°c,
which can be up to 3 m thick in mid-1990s, the mining method was cooling systems form a crucial part
places. The footwall consists of changed to a sequential grid min- of the operation. Mponeng mine is
series of sedimentary layers from ing method. This is because, since currently cooled by four large ice
the Central Rand Group of the the grade at the operation varies refrigeration plants. Ice is pumped
Witwatersrand Supergroup, which, considerably, a sequential grid through large pipes to help cool
due to the VCR’s erosional nature, mining method allows for selective the underground environment.
exposes the youngest sequences in mining and increased flexibility Moreover, ultradeep mines such as
the west to the oldest in the east. in dealing with changes in grade Mponeng mine use seismic moni-
The VCR conglomerates are char- ahead of the stope. Moreover, toring stations to transmit signs of
acterized by a series of channel ter- this has been proven as the best movement on the scale of several
races preserved at different relative method suited to the deep-level cm to mine managers.
5.5 · Underground Mining
387 5
Regarding the advantages of the method, it is both ore body and host-rock fracture are under
very effectively and has noticeable production monitored conditions. As the mining extracts rock
rates and low operating costs. The operation is without backfilling, the hanging wall carries on cav-
near definitely mechanized and recuperates a ing into the voids. Thus, continuous mining results
very high amount of the mineralization (Nieto in subsidence of the surface, where sinkholes can be
2011). Electronic controls and automation allow produced. Sublevel footwall drifts must be stable,
personnel to position themselves away from most requiring only occasional rockbolting.
of the recognized hazards. In contrast, it needs The ore body is usually divided into sublevels
intense capital investment to cover the highly with close spacing at approximately 8–15 m verti-
specialized equipment to create a longwall sec- cal intervals, depending on the plunge of the
tion, having little selectivity or flexibility after deposit. Each sublevel is developed with a regular
mining commences. network of parallel drifts that penetrate the com-
plete ore section. Development to prepare sub-
Sublevel Caving level caving stopes is extensive as compared to
The original application of sublevel caving other mining methods and mainly involves driv-
(. Fig. 5.70) was in ground so weak that it would
ing multiple headings to prepare sublevels. Ore is
collapse even in small headings where the support fragmented using blastholes drilled upward in
was recovered (Cokayne 1998). Sublevel caving can fans from these headings. Since the ore is blasted
be adapted to large ore bodies with steep dip and against the caved waste, explosive consumption is
continuity at depth. The hanging wall has to frac- very high. Ore is extracted selectively, with a LHD
ture and collapse, following the cave, and subsid- operating in the drill heading. This vehicle trans-
ence of the ground surface above the ore body has ports the rocks to an ore pass where they are ele-
to be tolerated. Caving needs a rock mass where vated to the surface.
388 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
.. Fig. 5.70 Sublevel
caving method (Illustration
courtesy of Atlas Copco)
5 1
7
2
3 8
4 9
10
6
(Fernberg 2007). Thus, in this method the ore normally lower than that for sublevel caving. This
must be of sufficient grade to accept the high dilu- method, sometimes called «an upside-down open-
tion arising from entrainment of barren country pit,» is applied mostly to large, massive ore bodies
rock in the mineralization. Dilution is of less in which areas of sufficient size can be removed by
influence for ore bodies with diffuse boundaries undercutting, so that the mass above will cave nat-
where the host rock contains low-grade minerals. urally. Where adequately used, this method offers a
There is always a place for the machines to work, lower mining cost per ton than any other under-
which integrates mechanization into efficient ore ground technique (Tobie and Julin 1998) (. Box
production. Consequently, the method is well 5.12: Cullinan Diamond Mine). It is applicable only
suited for a high degree of automation and remote to very large ore bodies in which the vertical
operations with corresponding high productivity. dimension exceeds about 100 m. The rather unique
The method generates important disturbances of conditions limit block caving applications to cer-
the ground surface, imposing some possible limi- tain mineral deposits such as iron mineralization,
tations on its applicability, from considerations of low-grade copper and molybdenum ores, and dia-
local topography and hydrology. mond kimberlite pipes (Fernberg 2007).
5.5 · Underground Mining
389 5
.. Fig. 5.71 Block caving
method (Illustration
courtesy of Atlas Copco)
1
2
3
5
4
6
1 - Blastholes 4 - Drawbell
2 - Undercut level 5 -Major apex
3 - Blastholes 6 - Production drift
Box 5.12
sill (varies from gabbro to norite) ing, and tramming of required ore. cave on the western side of the ore
that cuts across the occurrence at The production level is located body to access the higher-grade
approximately the 500 m elevation 15 m below the undercut level BAW and AUC south areas of the
(Chadwick 2012). and tunnels are bored into the ore ore body. The 350 m deep existing
Regarding the three major body at the level. Drawpoints are shaft 1 is deepened to 920 m. It will
kimberlite facies recognized within developed on these tunnels and lift up the ore and waste from the
the pipe, the brown kimberlite raise bored. A draw bell is built up new C-Cut phase 1 block once the
represents the first phase of intru- to receive the caved ore, which process of deepening completes.
sion and generally has the highest then flows into the drawpoint. The 60 m deep existing shaft 3 is
diamond grade of all the kimberlite Load-haul-dump trucks load also deepened to 904 m. It will
facies in the Cullinan pipe; the the ore and carry it out of the take workers and material to and
5 gray kimberlite represents the
second phase of intrusion; and the
ore body. Ore is loaded from the
drawpoints by a mixed LHD fleet.
from the new C-Cut phase block
1. The South Decline will establish
hypabyssal kimberlite represents These are dumped into a series production at 830 m and then on to
the final phase of the major facies of ore passes sited in the country the bottom of the newly deepened
of the intrusion. The pipe exhibits rock surrounding the ore body. A rock shaft at 930 m. Development
a wide range of strength charac- conventional rail system is used to of the North Decline creates further
teristics, from uniaxial compressive draw the ore from the ore passes access to the 830 m production
strengths of some 40 MPa for the and deliver it to either one of two level. For ore handling, the C-Cut
brown kimberlite to more than underground crushing stations on will not be using trains and the
150 MPa for the hypabyssal. the 805 m level. winze system (e.g., the belts from
Petra Diamonds uses the block Petra Diamonds has planned 804 m to 500 m level). Once the
cave mining method to develop for a major expansion of the rock shaft has been deepened,
the underground resources. In this diamond mine. Thus, the C-Cut LHDs will tip directly into ore passes
method, a drilling level is built up expansion plan includes the deep- that will feed into crushers. The
through which the ore body is cut ening of shafts 1 and 3, related crushed feed will discharge onto
by drilling and blasting. infrastructure to the shaft, and horizontal conveyor belts at the
Once a large area is undercut, planned level development to the ground handling level, which will
caving is started. Mining works Cullinan ore body (. Fig. 5.72). The
take discharge into the silos from
are also done at the undercut C-Cut phase 1 area is located 200 m which the skips will be loaded. This
level. The mining work includes below the existing operations and will mean a considerable increase in
longhole drilling, blasting, charg- is designed to develop a new block efficiencies and a reduction in costs.
BB1 - EAST
732 m level
747 m level
194 m
.. Fig. 5.72 Block cave method in Cullinan Diamond Mine (Illustration courtesy of Petra Diamonds)
5.5 · Underground Mining
391 5
Block caving is based on gravity combined breaking can be expected at the drawpoints. In this
with internal rock stresses to fracture and break type of underground mining, the rock size and the
the rock mass. Caving is induced by undercutting rate at which rock passes through the drawpoints
the block by blasting, destroying its ability to sup- as well as continuously controlling the stability of
port the overlying rock. Thus, gravity forces act to the mine are essential (Newman et al. 2010).
fracture the block. Continued pressure breaks the Where the ore block breaks up successfully and
rock into smaller pieces to pass the drawpoints the extraction is carried out evenly from all of the
where the ore is handled by LHD loaders or trains drawpoints, block caving becomes a low-cost, high-
(. Fig. 5.73). This method is therefore distin-
productivity method with good ore recovery and
guished from all other commented previously in moderate inflow of waste dilutions. Risks are high
that primary fragmentation of the ore is carried but the result can be extremely favorable. This
out by natural mechanical processes. Thus, the method is often used to convert an open-pit opera-
elimination of drilling and blasting has advantages tion into an underground mine where surface pro-
in terms of ore body development requirements duction can continue while the underground
and other direct costs of production. As fragmen- infrastructure is prepared. In fact, the block caving
tation without drilling and blasting is uneven, a method generates production rates that can approach
substantial amount of secondary blasting and those of an open-pit (e.g., 100,000 tons per day).
b
392 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
.. Fig. 5.74 Optimized
stopes using Mineable
Shape Optimizer (Illustra-
tion courtesy of Datamine)
5.5.6 Underground Mining lar width. In narrow and steeply dipping deposits,
Optimization the first choice is the width of ore to be extracted.
This diminishes the stope optimization issue from
As aforementioned in open-pit mining section, a 3-D to a 1-D optimization issue. Mine develop-
effective methods for modeling and optimizing ment network design and its optimization can be
the layout of open-pit mines have been under- approached representing the mine using a
stood in a long time (e.g., Lerchs-Grossman weighted network model, which is coordinated
1965). Although the underground mine design according to the coordinates of the mine. Finally,
issue is more complex and less restricted than the the decline design can also be optimized by using
open-pit problem, it has similar potential for opti- a network model. The ultimate goal of the process
mization. A meaningful issue in designing a is to cover the design of the drilling program, cut-
global framework for the optimization of an off grade objectives, stope definition, infrastruc-
underground mine is that there is a broad range of ture development, and mine scheduling in one
mining methods, so that each mineral deposit has comprehensive model (Alford et al. 2007).
a comparatively specializing solution. Thus, there Regarding mining software for underground
will never be a simple procedure similar to that mine optimization, there are several options in
which is present for open-pit mining. However, the market. For instance, Datamine offers several
by decomposing the design problem into tractable programs for the strategic planning of under-
subproblems such as infill drilling design, stope ground mining operations. For instance, Mineable
definition, topological network design, and Shape Optimizer (MSO) generates optimized
decline design, highly effective though non- stope (. Fig. 5.74) designs to maximize the value
globally optimal solutions can be found (Alford of recovered ore within the given ore body geom-
et al. 2007). etry and design constraints, being other tools
Infill drilling can be improved through opti- Mineable Reserves Optimizer (MRO) and Mine
mization of drillhole pattern and optimization of Layout Optimizer (MLO).
the physical infill drilling program development.
The latter can be managed as a network optimiza-
tion matter where the aim is to optimize the cost 5.6 Drilling and Blasting
of drilling in combination with the cost of drives
and infrastructure to support the drill stations Drilling and blasting are the most cost-effective
(Brazil et al. 2003). In stope optimization, the dif- method to mining mineral resources from the
ferent variables can be decreased to dimensional earth. They comprise the first two stages in the
restrictions on the minimum and maximum stope production cycle of a mine and the most common
size, suitable stope shape and orientation, and pil- method of rock breaking. Most surface mines,
5.6 · Drilling and Blasting
393 5
excluding those operations that extract soft rock, closeness of the separation of these determines
require the rock to be fractured using explosives the maximum block size in the pile of broken
prior to be loaded onto haul trucks. Reliable pro- material. Consequently, the effect of blasting is to
cedures for rock blasting are well established in reduce the size distribution of those «preblast»
mining engineering practice. blocks (Lusk and Worsey 2011).
Drilling and blasting outcomes cause great Knowledge of the fragmentation mechanisms
impact on different processes of a mine, being is essential to develop accurate techniques for
essential to find the right combination of drill extracting rock quickly. The major elements of the
pattern, explosives, and blast design to contrib- fragmentation process in rock blasting include
ute to the economic achievement of the global shock, gas production, extension of fractures, and
mining process. The primary objectives in rock rock mass movement. When properly initiated,
blasting are the fragmentation of rock masses commercial explosives are quickly translated into
and moving these rock masses to reduce the gases at high temperature and pressure. Following
mechanical work required. Thus, rock breakage detonation, high-pressure gases compress and
utilizing explosives implicates drilling blast- beak the material surrounding the explosives. The
holes, loading the borehole with explosives liberated energy by the explosive can be separated
(. Fig. 5.75), and then detonating the explosive
into two principal types, the shock energy and the
in each hole. heave or gas energy. The shock energy causes the
Rock breakage is taken into account as the conditioning of the rock and initiating mecha-
most essential feature of production blasting nisms that originate fractures. As for the gas
because of its immediate impacts on the cost of energy or heave energy, it is generated in the later
drilling and blasting of the rock and on the eco- expansion of the explosives into the crack pattern
nomics of loading, hauling, and crushing. In gen- of the material. Once a fracture network is devel-
eral, the discontinuities in the rock mass, which oped, the gas is able to expand into the network,
includes bedding, jointing, and partings, are the both spreading the fracture process and causing
main items that dictate how a rock fragments. The movement of the rock.
394 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
.. Fig. 5.76 High diameter rotary drills at Aitik mine (Sweden) (Image courtesy of Atlas Copco)
5.6 · Drilling and Blasting
395 5
haulage, and crushing; and (e) uneven bench Percussive Drilling
floors, resulting in higher equipment maintenance The percussive method using a top hammer is
costs. Using positioning lasers, angle indicators, mainly utilized to drill hard rock for hole diame-
and guide tubes will aid operators to control and ters up to 140 mm, being the principal advantage
manage deviation (Chinedu 2015). the high penetration rate in sound solid rock con-
According to the way of rock attack, blasthole ditions. The percussive impact is delivered by
drilling is performed by two primary methods: either pneumatic or hydraulic pressure. Percussive
percussive and/or rotary drilling. In percussive drills were originally powered by compressed air,
and rotary drilling (e.g., top hammer drilling), the but hydraulically powered drills have supplanted
rock is broken by a combination of rotation of the pneumatic ones since the mid-1970s (Rostami
bit and high-frequency percussive impacts trans- and Hambley 2011). The advantages of hydraulic
mitted by the bit to the rock. These impacts create drills over pneumatic drills are the fewer moving
shock waves that move from the bit to the rock parts and the significantly higher penetration
mass through the cutting edges or points on the rates.
bit. As a consequence, cracks are created in the In the DTH method, the hammer is located
material and produce rock chips. The primary dif- immediately behind the bit and compressed air
ference between rotary drilling and the rest of activates the hammer, which impacts directly to the
methods is the lack of percussion, being the tri- bit. This eliminates the already commented loss of
cone bit the preferred to most rotary applications. impact in joints, being a more efficient mechanism
In rotary drilling, the drill bill is rotated by apply- of percussive drilling. DTH method is a reliable way
ing torque at the end of the drill string, which to drill in hard to soft rocks and competent to bro-
results in removal of chips from the face of the ken or abrasive to nonabrasive rocks. It is also an
hole. The drill forces the bit into the material mass easy way to produce deep, straight holes with mini-
strongly, being transmitted to the rock mass by mum deviation and a very good hole wall stability,
means of the cutting points of the drill bit. In both even in fissured rocks. DTH is preferentially applied
methods, cuttings are extracted from the hole to drilling holes for different objectives on small
using a circulating fluid bottom-up. surface and underground mines. Bits for hammer
Main factors controlling the choice of drilling percussion drills come in various shapes (e.g., chisel
method are, most importantly, the continuity of or button). Button bits are preferably used in harder
operations, the diameter and depth of the hole, rocks, and the shape of the buttons is selected based
and the features of the rocks to be drilled. Selecting on the application and the type of rock to be drilled.
the correct method is essential in mining because Underground drilling is usually carried out by
the blasthole drilling commonly continues for using percussion drilling with holes up to 115 mm.
many years, and blasthole drills especially devel- According to the underground mining method
oped for a method are to be obtained before start- selected, the holes can be guided in many direc-
ing the process. tions. The holes are usually established horizontally
There are certain limitations to each method or vertically, being drilled in a symmetrical pattern.
of drilling. The effectiveness of top hammer meth- Recent significant technological advances in under-
ods decreases quickly as further drill rods are ground drilling include the use of computer-con-
attached to achieve greater depth. In surface min- trolled equipment and remote access.
ing, holes deeper than 30 m with a top hammer is Drilling rigs for underground mining applica-
complex because of the energy lost at the connec- tions can be divided into face drilling and produc-
tions of the drill rods. Rotary drilling is still the tion drilling. Face drilling is performed by mobile
main technique to drill 230 mm diameter or rigs equipped with drills mounted on one boom
greater, up to 450 mm actually (. Fig. 5.76).
or multiple booms such as two-boom jumbo
Another benefit of this type of drilling is that (. Fig. 5.77), which can work on face of the tunnel,
rotary rigs are big enough to operate a long tower roof, side, and floor. The number of booms and
that allows drilling of the complete bench height drills depends on the opening dimensions and rock
in a single operation; «at the largest open-pit mass properties, the number of holes to be drilled
mines, rotary units are drilling 20 m deep holes in per blast round, and the number of faces to be
a single pass» (Fox 2012). drilled in a shift (Rostami and Hambley 2011). For
396 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
.. Fig. 5.77 Two-boom
drilling rigs performing
face drilling (Spain) (Image
courtesy of Magnesitas de
Rubián, S.A.)
instance, penetration rate in underground blast- their respective axis producing cuttings of rock.
holes can be considered to vary inversely with the The softer the rock, the higher the rotation speed.
rock strength, other variables being equal. In hard- Most drilling functions are hydraulically driven.
rock metal mining, two-boom or three-boom jum- Once the cuttings of the rock are created, they
bos are used, whereas in soft-rock mining, for must be evacuated, commonly with compressed
example, limestone, two-boom or single-boom air. If the cuttings are not removed from the hole,
drill jumbos are common. Multiboom jumbo drills the bit will be eroded because of the abrasiveness
can be programmed to drill the desired blasthole of the rock chips. In most rotary blasthole drills,
patterns automatically, through coordination with cuttings are lifted between the wall of the hole and
an automated surveying and guidance system. The the drill rods by compressed air. The compressed
system simultaneously monitors the drilling air is also needed to dissipate the heat mainly orig-
parameters and optimizes the control parameters. inated by friction between cones and the rock.
Although drill jumbos were historically pow- Two types of drilling bits, drag bits and tricone bits
ered by compressed air, since the late 1970s, elec- (. Fig. 5.78), are utilized, but since their intended
tric/hydraulic and diesel/hydraulic units have direction introduction in the early 1900s, tricone
almost completely supplanted the older pneumatic bits have been the traditional type of bits used in
units. In underground metal mines, ring-drilling rotary drilling. They remain the most popular bits
production drills are used to drill the long inclined for blastholes ranging from 150 to 450 mm in
or vertical blastholes used in sublevel stoping, sub- diameter. Bit selection is based on hole size and
level caving, and vertical crater retreat mining. In depth, rock type, and operational requirements.
such operations, drilling can include not only long Most rotary drills are diesel powered for good
production blastholes but also ground support mobility. The most important advance in drilling
installation such as primarily cable bolts. equipment since 1990 has been the development
of computer-controlled drilling systems. These
Rotary Drilling systems automatically locate and collar the holes
It is important to bear in mind that rotary drills can based on a preprogrammed blast round design
display two methods of drilling, although the and incorporated real-time monitoring and opti-
majority of the machines work as pure rotary drills, mization of the drilling. To ensure that the blast-
driving tricone, or fixed-type bits. Tricone bits rely hole is exactly located and is drilled to the right
on crushing and spalling the rock. This is carried depth, GPS hole navigation has been developed.
out by transferring downforce to the bit while rotat- This navigation system utilizes antennas mounted
ing to drive the teeth, commonly tungsten carbide on the tower rest and radio antennas on the cab to
type, into the rock as the three cones rotate around produce a correct bit position.
5.6 · Drilling and Blasting
397 5
.. Fig. 5.78 Tricone bit
(Image courtesy of Atlas
Copco)
amount of hot gas. There are many types of explo- the contrary, deflagration is a process where the
sions: mechanical, nuclear, electrical, or chemical. In reaction takes place at much lower rates than the
this section, only chemical explosions, originated by speed of sound, so that no shock wave is produced
decomposition or very quick reaction of a substance in the explosive material. Deflagrating explosives
or a mixture, are considered. Thus, an explosive is a include black power, which burn relatively slowly
substance or mixture of substances which, when and generate comparatively low blasthole pres-
started using heat, impact, friction, or shock, sure, whereas detonating explosives such as pen-
undergo rapid chemical transformation, releasing thrite are characterized by superacoustic reaction
tremendous amounts of energy in the form of heat, rate and comparatively high blasthole pressure.
gases at high temperature, and shock. The energy The speed of propagation is based on the inten-
released by an explosive is used in mining to rock sity of heat with which the procedure initiated and
fragmentation and displacement. The majority of how quickly and how much oxygen the burning
explosives used in modern mines are manufactured process needs. Thus, explosives can be classified as
using fuels, oxidizings, sensitizers, energizers, and high explosives (e.g., nitroglycerin) and low explo-
subordinate substances behaving as stabilizers, sives (e.g., black powder): high explosives detonate
thickeners, or flame retarders. Regarding the two and require a detonator, while low explosives defla-
main components, an oxidizing is a chemical which grate and do not require a detonator. Low explosives
provides oxygen for the reaction whereas a fuel is the cause heavy push or powerful lift of the surround-
component that reacts with oxygen to produce heat. ing material but do not cause a shatter. High explo-
For a chemical to be considered an explosive, it sive substances decompose very quickly through
must produce quick expansion and liberation of detonation under particular situations to develop a
heat, fast reaction, and request to initiate the chain large volume of gases, extraordinarily high amount
of reactions. To understand the different concepts, of heat, and quickly translating shock waves in
the distinction between deflagration and detona- atmospheric gases. When the explosives detonate,
tion is required. These are the two distinct types of they mainly originate common and harmless chem-
rate of reaction. Detonation takes place when the ical compounds such as water, carbon dioxide, and
398 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
nitrogen with subordinate harmful gases such as reliably detonated by a limited amount of primary
nitrous oxide, carbon monoxide, ammonia, and explosive. Therefore, the detonation device con-
methane. This is because the majority of explosives tains a small quantity of secondary explosives.
are chemicals constituted by carbon, hydrogen, oxy- Tertiary explosives are commonly used in mining
gen, and nitrogen. It is important to note that nitro- and construction operations. The most com-
gen is presumably the most essential component of monly utilized tertiary explosive is ANFO, acro-
a chemical to achieve the explosive nature. nym of ammonium nitrate and fuel oil. Near 80%
Explosives can also be classified according to of mining blasts are carried out utilizing this
their sensitivity as primary, secondary, and explosive. Besides the above classifications, explo-
tertiary. Sensitivity of an energetic material can be sives are also ranked based on other parameters
seen as the quantity of power that the material such as their consistency, packaging (cartridge
requires to absorb to achieve a specific probability versus bulk), or their chemical nature. The latter
of making an explosive reaction (Matyas and include two groups, those classed as substances
Pachman 2013). Thus, the most sensitive ener- that are explosive and those that are explosive
getic substances are primary explosives, less sen- mixtures, for instance, black powder.
sitive are secondary explosives, and very
insensitive are tertiary explosives. Primary explo- Properties of Explosives
sives (e.g., mercury fulminate, lead styphnate, and Properties of the explosives are relevant because
lead azide) can be specified as materials that they are the ultimate reasons for their choice.
respond to stimuli-like shock, impact, friction, Obviously, the ingredients of the explosives influ-
flame, etc., and pass from the state of deflagration, ence directly on many of their properties such as
at high rate of burning, to detonation. They are resistance to water, detonation speed, or cost. The
also called initiating explosives, being used in the utility of an explosive can only be defined where
manufacturing of detonators, detonating fuses, the properties are completely understood. The
and boosters. Secondary explosives are relatively properties of explosives are summarized in
insensitive to heat, shock, or friction, and they are . Table 5.4 (Gokhale 2011), being some of them
also termed base explosives. The most typical briefly described below.
example of secondary explosives is p entaerythritol
tetranitrate (PETN or penthrite). Secondary Velocity of Detonation
explosives have a high rate of detonation and Velocity of detonation is a measure of the speed at
commonly require a small device including small which the detonation front moves, for example,
amount of primary explosive for their detonation. along an explosive column. It is the most impor-
These substances are utilized in the production of tant property of an explosive. Two explosives with
detonators and constitute their base charge. same strength but different velocity of detonation
Tertiary explosives, also called blasting agents, can perform quite differently in a blast. The veloc-
are very insensitive to shocks, and they cannot be ity of detonation depends on components of the
5.6 · Drilling and Blasting
399 5
Velocity of Velocity in m/s at which the shock front of the detonation layer travels within the
detonation column of explosive.
Detonation pressure Pressure developed by detonation of the explosive in the detonation zone. It is usually
measured in GPa.
Blasthole pressure Pressure exerted on the wall of the blasthole immediately after the detonation.
Strength Total amount of energy released by the explosion in MJ for each kg of explosive. This
includes the energy released in the form of heat as well as the pressure exerted by the
gases generated in detonation.
Heat of explosion Total amount of heat released by the detonation in kcal for each kg of explosive.
Specific gas volume Amount of gas generated by detonation of one kg of explosive under normal conditions.
Sensitivity Possibility of causing detonation by such means as friction, pressure, heat etc.
Transport and How easily the explosive can be handled and transported through different modes of
handling safety transport.
Brisance value Brisance value indicates the shattering effect of the explosive.
Charging density Weight of the explosive in kg, contained in each liter volume of the blasthole.
Toxic fumes Volume of poisonous gases generated in terms of liters per kg of explosive detonated.
Water resistance Whether the properties of explosive remain unchanged by mixing the explosive with water.
Minimum hole What is the smallest diameter of blasthole in which the explosive can be charged and
diameter detonated to get the desired explosion effect.
Storage life How long the explosive can be stored in originally packed and unpacked condition
without a change in it’s properties.
Material coexistence This is the ability of the explosive to coexist with other materials.
explosive, density accomplished when the blast- (bulk strength) of the explosive. The energy of an
hole is charged, blasthole diameter, type of con- explosive shows the ability of the explosive to do
finement, the presence of cavities in the rock work. The strength is commonly well correlated to
mass, rock mass temperature, and temperature density and detonating velocity as well as heat and
originated at the initiation element of the detona- gas volume released in the detonation of the
tors that are utilized for firing the explosive. In explosive. The global energy liberated by an explo-
general, the higher the velocity of detonation, the sion can be separated into two main components,
better will be the shattering effect and rock frag- shock energy and bubble energy. The former is
mentation process. Some military explosives have generated by the shock wave, which moves from
velocities of detonation reaching up to 10,000 m/s the place of its origination as a strain wave, and
or more, but velocities of detonation of explosives the latter is produced by the heat developed by the
used in mining rock blasting range from 2000 to chemical reactions included in the detonation
7000 m/s. process.
It is complex to estimate the strength of explo-
Strength sives in terms of absolute units. Several tests allow
Strength of an explosive means the energy released the effect of the strength of an explosive to be mon-
by unit weight (weight strength) or unit volume itored easily, offering indications of the strength of
400 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
ANFO
Dry blasting agent is a term used for components
of an explosive that they themselves are not
defined as explosives, but when mixed together
they constituted a mixture that can explode. A dry
blasting agent is a granular mixture of solid oxi-
dizer, commonly ammonium nitrate, into which a
liquid fuel or propellant is absorbed. Thus, the
ammonium nitrate serves as the oxidizer and the
fuel oil as the fuel. In surface mines, the most
commonly used dry blasting agent is ANFO .. Fig. 5.79 Cartridges of gelatine dynamite (Image
(. Box 5.13: ANFO).
courtesy of Octavio de Lera)
Box 5.13
ANFO
ANFO (ammonium nitrate and fuel large open-pit mines), ANFO is be charged by poured ANFO. In
oil) is formed by mixing ammo- supplied in separate component such cases, ANFO is premixed
nium nitrate (94%) with fuel oil containers on a truck, mechani- and packed into thick cylindrical
(6%), a mix that gives maximum cally mixed at the worksite, and plastic bags sealed at both the
energy and velocity of detonation poured into blastholes. Hence, it ends. Charging a blasthole with
(around 3660 m/s). Even after is also called bulk ANFO. Where packaged ANFO is very tedious
mixing these two components, the requirement of the mine is and time-consuming.
the final product remains fairly low, for example, in small quar- Advantages of ANFO are their
dry since the percentage of fuel ries, ANFO is usually supplied in safety, ease of loading, and low
oil in the mix is very small, and it is nylon bags. . Figure 5.80 shows
price. In the free-flowing form,
absorbed in the pores of the small the ANFO loading operation using they have a great advantage over
granules (prills) of ammonium nylon bags. Poured ANFO proves cartridge explosives because they
nitrate. Because of their insensitiv- more effective than the packaged completely fill the borehole.
ity, ANFO cannot be detonated by form as it fills the entire cross sec- Regarding disadvantages, there
a detonator, and it should be deto- tion of the blasthole, whereas the are two disturbing aspects about
nated by a primer of high explo- package leaves a gap between the use of ANFO in large surface
sive (e.g., one or two cartridges of the walls of the blasthole and mines. The first is the quick evapo-
dynamite with detonator). external diameter of the package ration of diesel oil; the second is
ANFO is supplied basically as (Gokhale 2011). If a blasthole has the high solubility of ammonium
poured or packaged. Where the a significant quantity of ground- nitrate in water. Where atmospheric
quantity of explosives is high (e.g., water seeping into it, it cannot temperature and humidity are
402 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
high, it becomes essential to add highly hygroscopic, absorbs a large contains aluminum as a sensitizer,
extra fuel in the ANFO mix to take quantity of water and becomes such mixture is called ALANFO. It is
care of the degree of evaporation less effective in the process. In this particularly useful for blasting hard-
likely up to the time of detonation. context, it is worth noting that rock masses, being 10–15% the
In respect of solubility in water, after about 9% water content, the most commonly used percentage
if humidity of the atmosphere is ANFO mix becomes insensitive of aluminum in ALANFO.
high, the ammonium nitrate, being and fails to detonate. If ANFO mix
.. Fig. 5.80 Loading operation of ANFO nylon bags (Image courtesy of Octavio de Lera)
Slurries and Water Gels and split oxidizer and fuel elements, generating a
The explosives that include more than 5% water mixture that is less sensitive than water-free
by weight are called wet blasting agents. Slurry nitroglycerin dynamites. Water gels are made up
explosives, water gels, and emulsions fall within of oxidizing salts (e.g., ammonium nitrate, cal-
this category. Slurries are made from ammonium cium nitrate, or sodium nitrate) and fuels (e.g.,
nitrate partly in aqueous solution. They are fluid, ethylene glycol, aluminum, or oil) dispersed in a
pumpable, and miscible with water. These types of continuous liquid phase. Physical sensitizers such
explosives were invented to avoid ANFO explo- as air, plastic, or glass bubbles can be also mixed
sives issues such as no water resistance, low den- with the gel. The density of most water gels ranges
sity, and limited energy options. Thus, these from 1.0 to 1.35 g/cm3. In the last years, water gels
substances are waterproof and are commonly the and emulsions have almost completely replaced
preferred selection in an environment where the dynamite.
blastholes stay wet. Slurry explosives are forth-
coming in highly viscous paste (bulk slurry) as Emulsions
well as in cartridge form. They cost more than Emulsions (. Fig. 5.81) are explosive materials that
other commercial explosives such as ANFO. Bulk contain substantial amount of oxidizers dissolved
slurries can be pumped into a blasthole through in water droplets surrounded by a fuel that is
tubes connected to a truck (. Fig. 5.75). Slurry
unable of blending or mixing. The ratio of oxidizer
density ranges commonly from 1.10 to 1.25 g/cm3. to fuel in an emulsion is typically 9:1. An emulsify-
Water gel explosives, a special form of slurry ing agent (e.g., sodium oleate) stabilizes the water-
explosive, include meaningful quantity of water in-oil emulsion against liquid separation. Dispersed
5.6 · Drilling and Blasting
403 5
.. Fig. 5.81 Emulsion
explosive
been already explained, this section is devoted It is made up of a plastic tube with 3–5 mm out-
to aspects related to detonators, including side diameter and being usually filled with pen-
blasting instruments such as testing or initiat- thrite (10–15 g/m). Thus, the velocity of
ing instruments. detonation is about 6500 m/s with very high
404
Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
shock energy. Since ANFO needs a great initiating compared to detonating cord and is hence much
effect throughout its charge column, detonating safer to use. It is also recommended in zones
cord can fulfill this requirement perfectly. where electric detonators are not desirable to be
Some similar device is igniter cords, which used.
are cord-like in appearance. Last option of initia-
tion is a signal or shock tube (. Fig. 5.83), which
Detonators
transmits a signal from the detonating cord to A detonator is commonly referred to as an initiating
the delay detonator in the hole. Signal tube can device since it begins the detonation procedure in a
be initiated by an electric detonator and transmits blasthole. They are compact devices that are manu-
a low energy signal at ±2000 m/s from one point factured to safely initiate and control the efficiency
to another. This initiation system is not violent of larger explosive charges (. Box 5.14: Detonators).
Box 5.14
Detonators stored, transported, handled, and nators by electric wires. They have
A detonator consists of a metal used according to set procedures. an outer aluminum, copper, or steel
tube (. Fig. 5.84), usually
There are three types of detonators shell that contains primary and
5.5–7.5 mm in outer diameter based on the source of energy secondary explosives, insulation
and variable length depending used for starting detonation in the material, two wires, and a delay
upon whether it is instantaneous detonator: electric, non-electric, element if applicable. The current
or delay type. It incorporates a and electronic. In turn, they can heats up a high resistance wire
primer explosive (e.g., lead azide) be instantaneous or with a delay that ignites a fusehead, similar to a
and a secondary explosive such as element built into them. The delay match. The resulting flash ignites a
penthrite or pentolite. These explo- element is in the form of a small delay element, which, in turn, burns
sives can be initiated by electrical tube filled with densely packed the primer charge that detonates
or shock energy from an external pyrotechnic material. Commonly the base charge or secondary
source. With such sensitive explo- used delays are either from short explosive. The simplest and better
sives, detonators become sensitive delay series or long delay series. way to connect electric detonators
and are more prone to accidental is in series because if one or more
detonation. These characteristics Electric Detonators detonator connections are faulty,
make them the most dangerous then the entire circuit will not fire.
Electric detonators cause the initia-
explosive products in industrial This eliminates the possibility of
tion of detonation by an electric
applications. Thus, they must be having explosive in the broken rock
current passed through the deto-
5.6 · Drilling and Blasting
405 5
.. Fig. 5.84 Detonators
(Image courtesy of
Magnesitas de Rubián, S.A.)
after blasting. In a parallel circuit, between holes or rows of holes. blast designs, it allows for much
each detonator is independent of The delay intervals also change greater accuracy in firing times.
the others. Moreover, connection in depending on the manufacturer Thus, the negligible variation in
series allows the entire circuit to be but always in milliseconds (e.g., the electronic delays means that
tested for continuity and resistance. between 15 and 700 ms or the firing pattern will consistently
The electric delay detona- between 75 and 1000 ms). The be the same for each blast, result-
tors are manufactured as two use of these delays can produce ing in uniform blast results (Banda
varieties, long/half-second delay advantages such as easy and safe and Rhodes 2005).
detonators and short/millisecond to handle, better fragmentation, Each detonator has its own
delay detonators. Long delay or and reduced ground vibration. time reference, but the final delay
period detonators are available in The system finds its applications in time is determined through the
several numbers, with a nominal surface and underground metal- interaction between the detonators
half-second time interval between liferous mines. and the computerized blasting
each delay. Short delays detona- machine before their firing. Shortest
Electronic Detonators
tors present delay intervals much delay time is 1 ms, but detonators
shorter, varying from 8 to 100 or The difference between electronic are extremely precise to the extent
more milliseconds. Anyway, delays and electric detonators is the of 0.2 ms. This electronic initiation
available can differ from manufac- replacement of the pyrotechnic system is considered the safest
turer to manufacturer. delay element by a microchip. among all the initiating systems. It
Most electronic detonators con- can be tested in the field without
Non-electric Detonators causing actual detonation. Electronic
sist of wires, a detonator shell that
Non-electric detonators are fired looks similar to electric and non- detonators cannot be initiated by a
by detonating cord instead of electric detonators, a microchip, conventional blasting unit nor can
electricity. A non-electric detona- a capacitor, and a primer charge/ they be activated without entering
tor consists of a plastic shell filled base charge similar to electric proper security codes. However,
with primary explosive, secondary and non-electric detonators. At electronic detonators are still
explosive, and a delay if applicable firing time, the blasting machine susceptible to initiation by light-
and a certain length of detonat- sends out a code to initiate the ning, fire, and impact of sufficient
ing cord. This system is frequently electronic timing devices within strength. Therefore, as all other deto-
used for blasting a large number the detonators. Since electronic nator types, they must be properly
of holes. It is able of introducing detonators utilize microchip transported, stored, and handled as
delays of millisecond intervals technology to provide delays for an explosive.
406 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
Crest
Explosive
colum
Hole length (L) height
(C) Free face Crest burden
Floor
Blasthole Diameter
.. Table 5.5 Blasthole diameters based on shovel
It corresponds to the cross-sectional width of the bucket capacities
borehole (. Fig. 5.86). The blasthole diameter is
generally chosen in accordance to the depth of the Bucket capacity of the Hole diameter range
excavation: shallow excavations commonly utilize shovel (m3) in mm
smaller diameter holes than deeper operations. The
4.5 76–127
selection of the hole diameter in the blast design
is based on the geology of the blast site, primarily 7.5 127–215
the jointing and bedding of the formation, which is 9.17 171–250
the only factor that cannot be changed. The desired
11.5 200–270
fragmentation and economics must also be consid-
ered. Large-diameter blastholes are less suitable in 15.3 229–311
strong, massive rock where minimal broken rock 20 250–349
movement is required or where it is essential to
monitor blast vibrations. Larger blasthole diameter 35 270–381
commonly reduces costs for drilling, primers, and 50 311–445
initiators. However, smaller blasthole diameter
gives better distribution of energy in the rock mass.
Since blasthole diameter is directly related to bench
height, a good rule of thumb is that bench height in Free Faces
meters is equal to blasthole diameter in millimeters A free face is a rock surface exposed to air that
divided by 15. In surface mining practice, the rate generates room for expansion upon fragmenta-
of drilling and rate of removal of the blasted rock tion. It is sometimes also termed open face.
must match; thus, the diameter of blastholes is Forward displacement of blasted rock takes place
loosely related to the capacity of the shovel bucket if a blast shoots to a free face (. Fig. 5.87). Free
Spacing and burden are related to blasthole diam- and the explosive that will be incorporated in the
eter, depth, rock type, and charge length. Spacing blast. A burden too small can result in excessive
is the distance between adjacent boreholes in a air blast and fl
yrock. On the contrary, a burden
row (. Fig. 5.86). In bench blasting, the distance
too large can result in improper fragmentation,
is measured parallel to the free face and perpen- toe problems, and excessive ground vibrations.
dicular to the burden, being burden the distance The assumption of 25–35 times the hole diameter
from the borehole and the nearest free face or the can be a good approximation for establishing the
distance between boreholes measured perpen- burden dimension.
dicular to the spacing (. Fig. 5.86). Spacing can
of from 1 to 2 times the burden is a correct starting boreholes below floor level to assure breakage of
point for establishing the spacing of a blast to be rock to working elevation. Subdrilling is also the
5.6 · Drilling and Blasting
409 5
Type of explosive Low 2200 kg/m3 Medium 2700 kg/m3 High 3200 kg/m3
ANFO 28 × D 25 × D 23 × D
Slurry dynamite 33 × D 30 × D 27 × D
length of the explosive charge that lies beneath the charges of explosive material. It is utilized for
designed bench floor level. Some operations range confining explosives or to separate charges of
from 0.2 to 0.5 times the burden or 5–8 times the explosives in the same borehole. Stemming
diameter of the hole. It is good practice to drill improves fragmentation and rock displacement
always a certain extra distance, especially in blast- by reducing premature venting of high-pressure
ing massive rocks where there is no adequate hori- explosion gases to the atmosphere. Dry granular
zontal bedding plane to maintain floor grade. The materials such as sized crushed stone or drill
subdrill part is usually backfilled with drill cuttings cuttings are used for stemming. Appropriate
or other stemming material. For its part, decking is stemming chip size lies in the range of 10% of
the separation of the explosives column in a blast- the blasthole diameter. Inadequate stemming
hole into two or more parts with stemming between creates more flyrock, surface overbreak, noise,
them. This procedure is commonly utilized to and air blast (. Fig. 5.90). Optimum stemming
decrease either the charge load per hole, the quan- length depends mainly on blasthole diameter,
tity of explosives detonated per delay or both. It stemming material, and surrounding rock prop-
should be 6 times the hole diameter for dry holes erties. Stemming column is usually 0.5–1.3 times
and 12 times the hole diameter for wet holes. the burden, being a correct approach for its
height the value of 0.7 times the burden. As a
Stemming summary of all these concepts and associated
Stemming is the inert material located in a bore- values, three examples of real data are shown in
hole on top (. Fig. 5.89) of or between separate
. Table 5.7.
410 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
5
Excessive
airblast & flyrock
Good breakage
& displacement
Poor fragmentation
.. Fig. 5.90 Effect of correct and incorrect stemming (Illustration courtesy of Atlas Copco)
.. Table 5.7 Some real blast pattern data: A, iron ore formation; B, sulfide rock; C, copper-gold porphyry ore; D,
saprolite waste; E, granodiorite waste
Parameter A B C D E
Stemming (m) 5 3 6 – 6
3) 1.28 0.85 – – –
Explosive density (g/cm
Blasthole Pattern tion. If the holes are too far apart, the energy will
If the hole diameter and the explosive type have not be sufficient to originate the desired breakage.
been elected, the next step is to establish the If the holes are too close together, energy will be
configuration of the holes, the so-called blasthole lost. Another important part of the blasthole pat-
pattern. To distribute the explosives throughout tern is the number of holes. It is largely dependent
the rock mass, holes are drilled in the rock in a upon how much material requires to be extracted
grid-like pattern (. Fig. 5.8). As a rule, blasthole
by each blast.
patterns depend on blasthole diameter, rock prop- Different patterns can be chosen, including
erties, explosive properties, bench height, and the square, rectangular, or staggered (. Fig. 5.91).
results needed. Each blasthole is intended to break Blast modeling results have shown that, in mas-
the rock beside the hole, toward the open excava- sive rocks, better rock breakage and productivity
5.6 · Drilling and Blasting
411 5
.. Fig. 5.91 Square,
rectangular, and staggered
blasthole patterns B B B
S
S
S
Square Rectangular Staggered
are generated using staggered patterns than with Blast Design to Protect Pit Walls
either square or rectangular patterns. This is If blast is not well designed, overbreak can con-
«because the hole in the row behind is blasting tribute to pit wall instability. Therefore, it is
into more solid rock rather than a weakened important to optimize but not minimize over-
pocket, and because holes tend to break at 45° to break, especially as blasts approach the designed
the free face, making a square end to a bench wall of the pit. The successful application of over-
almost impossible» (Lusk and Worsey 2011). break control blasting techniques reduces not
only the quantity of rock to be removed, but it
Delay Times and Blast Timing lessens the hazard and cost of rockfalls. It can also
Delay blasting is the method of initiating explo- reduce the need for pit wall support. Cushion
sive boreholes or rows of boreholes at predefined blasting, postsplitting, and presplitting are the
time intervals utilizing mainly delay detonators. three more important blasting methods utilized
The sequence in which blastholes are initiated and to produce stable final walls.
the time interval between successive detonations Cushion blasting is the simplest and least
play a major role on global blast efficiency. This expensive smooth wall blasting technique. It is
enables the blastholes closest to the open excava- also the most versatile and useful method of the
tion to detonate and translate rock into the open three techniques mentioned. A cushion blast is a
space first. The blastholes behind the first holes pit wall blast in which back-row blastholes con-
then can translate rock horizontally into the new tain lighter charges than the production blastholes
open space. Thus, the burden on each blasthole and are drilled in a correspondingly small pattern.
requires time to move after the detonation to gen- Cushion blastholes have generally the same diam-
erate an effective free face. Dependent blastholes eter as the production blastholes in front of them.
then fire toward this new free face developed dur- The charge weight for the cushion holes is com-
ing the blast. Therefore, the first consideration to monly reduced by about 45%. Both burden dis-
establish delay intervals is the availability of free tance and blasthole spacing are also reduced by
faces. The efficiency of production blasts can only about 25%. Cushion blastholes should detonate in
be optimized where charges detonate in a con- a delayed sequence after the more heavily charged
trolled sequence at suitable discrete but closely blastholes in front of them. This method is utilized
spaced, time intervals. without pre- or postsplitting where the rock is
There are two main types of delay in a blast strong or only minor reductions in damage are
pattern. These are the hole-to-hole delay and the needed or for forming pit walls with relatively
row-to-row delay. The optimum hole-to-hole short lives (Hagan and Bulow 2000).
delay is 4–5 ms per meter of burden for designing Postsplitting is frequently used in conjunction
delay times needed for maximum rock breakage. with cushion blasting. It consists of drilling a row
The row-to-row delay to provide good movement of parallel, closely spaced blastholes with a suitable
and fragmentation is a minimum of 3 ms per burden to spacing ratio (about 1.25:1) along the
meter of burden. Obviously, these values depend final face. These blastholes are charged with light,
on many factors such as rock mass properties, well-distributed charge, which is fired after the
blast geometry, explosive characteristics, initiat- production blastholes in front of them have deto-
ing system, environmental constraints, or the nated. This produces a sound, smooth face with
desired result (fragmentation, muck pile displace- minimal damage. Presplitting requires a row of
ment and profile, etc.). parallel, closely spaced blastholes drilled along the
412 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
design excavation limit. The blastholes are then underground openings is performed by means of
charged lightly and detonated simultaneously blasting rounds (. Fig. 5.92). The design of under-
before the blastholes in front of them. Firing of the ground blasting rounds can utilize two types of
presplit charges splits the rock along the designed rounds: those with one free face and those with
final face producing an internal surface to which more than one free face. Single-face rounds are
the later-firing blastholes in front of them can utilized in development openings (tunnels, shafts,
break. Presplitting rarely gives impressive results raises) as well as in room-and-pillar, longwall, and
in closely fissured rock. Comparatively, postsplit- shrinkage stoping methods of mining. Multiple-
ting gives considerable reduction in damage in face rounds are indispensable for open stopes,
massive rocks, but the final face is rarely as sound sublevel caving, and large in diameter tunnels that
5 as that produced by presplitting. In closely fissure use benching methods. Sometimes, the design of
rocks, however, the final face formed by postsplit- multi-face rounds is similar to that of surface
ting is sounder than that produced by presplitting. blasting (Dowding and Aimone 1992).
Because the optimum spacing of postsplit blast- Types of patterns of holes (. Fig. 5.93) mainly
holes is larger than that for presplit blastholes, the vary in the configuration of breaking in holes,
cost of postsplitting is usually lower. which are utilized to generate a first free face,
toward which the blast is further directed.
Otherwise, the rock will be projected outward
5.6.4 Underground Blasting into the openings, which can damage infrastruc-
ture. These patterns can be broadly classified as
As in surface mining, a well-designed blasting angled cuts or parallel cuts. If breaking in holes
process and right execution are crucial compo- is put at an angle to the axis of the working face,
nents for successful underground mining. Thus, the patterns of holes are known as angled cut.
bad blasting procedures can generate a very nega- Wedge cut is an example of angled cuts and it is
tive impact on the economics of underground particularly suited to large-sized drifts, which
mining (Holmberg et al. 2001). Development of have well laminated or fissured rocks. Blastholes
tunnels, shafts, raises, stopes, caving, and other are drilled at an angle to the face in a uniform
.. Fig. 5.92 Driller marking rock face (Image courtesy of North American Palladium Ltd.)
5.7 · Grade Control
413 5
11 12 Perimeter holes
9
20 20 20 3
20 20 5 7 Shoulder holes
20 20
20 20 10 1 2 10
19
20 19 19 20
19 19 8 4 6
20 18 17 18 20 >50˚
9
21 18 21 12 11
18 16 16 16 16
19 19 Easer holes
19 16 16 19
14
19 14 19 Burncut
CUT
19 13 >90˚ 19
15 13 15
19 19 Knee holes
16 14
20 14 16 20
Lifter holes
22 22
21 21 21 21 21
ore control process involves predictive delinea- on grade and stockpile control (e.g., Davis 1992;
tion of the tons and grade of ore that will be Wetherelt and Van der Wielen 2011).
recovered by mining. Modern grade control has the aim of mini-
Accurate grade control is essential to the mizing errors in the classification of material
economics of any mine. Mistakes at this step are types in a mining process, but not only ore versus
expensive and irreparable and can be quantified in waste but also the allocation of different types of
terms of cash flow losses and incremented opera- rocks based on grade, deleterious material con-
tional costs every year (Rossi and Deutsch 2014). tent, physical properties, or mineralogy. Moreover,
Thus, the correct knowledge of grade distribution the resulting ore grade misclassification is respon-
and optimizing mining selectivity through grade sible for severe reconciliation problems. It is wor-
5 control is crucial to attain the mine plan. It is thy important to remind that true block grades
essential that mill feed be kept as close as possible are never known before to mine and therefore
to that called for in the original design specifica- must be estimated. Thus, if the classification of ore
tion of the mill and concentrator. Thus, one of the type based on the true but unknown block grade
main purposes of grade control is to ensure that is different from the ore type based on the esti-
material being fed to the mill is of economic grade mated block grade, then the ore type of the block
as well as minimizing ore loss and dilution. Large is misclassified.
fluctuations in grade can be minimized by blend- Grade control is performed at the mine on a
ing ores from different benches, or parts thereof, or daily basis (. Fig. 5.94). The potential of grade
from different stopes. Therefore, a well-managed control for improved profits is large. For example,
record database is important for effective grade in a 10 million ton per year copper mine, better
control and blending. This allows for continuous grade and control procedure that generate an
feed through elimination of fluctuations resulting enhancement in average grade from 0.41% Cu to
in homogenized feed grade. 0.42% Cu increment gross annual income by
Grade control requirements and practices are about 5 millions of US$, considering copper offi-
largely dependent of the commodity. First, the cial prices at LME in January 2016.
commodity price controls the implications of ore Although grade control procedures may differ
loss, and management has to justify the extra widely, it usually consists of sampling and assaying
expenditures relating to selective extraction. to establish the amount and position of the miner-
Second, the increased mill performance due to alization to define the valuable ore areas. Grade
lower dilution must justify any additional actions control generally entails sampling and assaying of
required during the mining processes. Last, the blasthole cuttings followed by estimation of ore
style of mineralization, often commodity-specific, control block model grades. Often, blasthole sam-
dictates whether grade control is geared more ples are not as useful as samples produced from
toward ore/waste discrimination or it is focused exploration or RC drillholes, but the compara-
coming will minimize the influence of the error of according to blasting requirements. The use of
a single blasthole sample. In some cases, grade blastholes can be contentious for different causes,
control can also involve the sampling of truck or including sampling quality, and disagreements of
shovel loads to ensure that rock is assigned to the its grade distribution compared to the exploration
correct stockpile or waste dump (Annels 1991). drillhole grade distribution. Consequently, classi-
Grade control should always be seen as a com- cal blasthole sampling has gained an extraordi-
plex process in which at least three basic aspects narily poor reputation for the last five decades due
must be considered: (a) data collection and qual- to the introduction of many sources of bias in the
ity, (b) grade control model to determine ore and procedure (Pitard 2008). Some of these biases are
waste boundaries, and (c) operational procedures due to the type of drilling machine that is used and
and constraints, including mining methods and are nearly unsolvable. Others are due to the sam-
mining practices (Rossi and Deutsch 2014). Since pling tools used, often unsatisfactory. Furthermore,
grade control depends on a large number of sam- there is commonly an unsolvable time logistic
ples, the estimation data to define the grade problem in blasthole sampling: the miner wants
model can be carried out applying classical meth- that the ore grade control was carried out in 2 or 3
ods such as inverse distance or nearest point days at most, but not enough time is allowed for
methods or geostatistical techniques (kriging). samplers, preparation facilities, laboratory, and
Nowadays, grade control practices have evolved resources department to perform an accurate job.
from paper-based recording methods to comput- The amount of sampling (. Fig. 5.96) is con-
erized three-dimensional modeling and geosta- strained by both practical limitations and cost
tistical simulations. considerations, but random sampling errors can
be large if sample volume is too small. There are
different sampling methods to choose from,
5.7.1 Open-Pit Grade Control including different grid patterns and spacings,
although all sampling methods incur errors. In
In an open-pit operation, grade control involves open-pit operations, possibly the most typically
sampling of blasthole cuttings produced by drills utilized method to forecast in situ grades is the
and classification of bench reserves into ore, low- arithmetic average of the forthcoming blastholes.
grade, and waste material or into various metal- Thus, a block model is developed, commonly
lurgical types. The final and irreversible decision with the block size similar to the blasthole spac-
as to what is ore and what is waste is generally ing, and the predicted block grade is the arithme-
made on a daily basis. Blasthole samples are tic average of the blastholes that fall within the
.. Fig. 5.95 Closely
spaced blasthole samples
(Image courtesy of Octavio
de Lera)
416 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
block. Many times, «the blocks are relatively large and loading plans outlining mining perimeters in
with respect to the average distance between the open-pit are then generated.
sample points, which is unjustifiable and a major
source of inaccuracies because the data density is
generally sufficient to justify much smaller blocks; 5.7.2 Underground Grade Control
thus, smaller blocks would lead to better defini-
tions of ore and waste boundaries» (Rossi and In underground mining, mining methods are
Deutsch 2014). insufficiently flexible, and therefore there is no
As an example of the overall process, grade chance for ore and waste definition at the time of
control at Skorpion mine in Namibia, a supergene extraction. In these situations, grade control can
zinc oxide deposit, includes the following steps be based on infill drilling and completed at the
(Gnoinsky 2007). Drilling is carried out consider- time of defining the stopes to be extracted. Any
ing drill burden and spacing based on the rock failures that can take place at this situation are not
types, for example, 4 m × 4 m in ore and 6 m × only irreparable but also cannot be balanced by
6 m in waste material. Samples and drill chips are other types of errors, as it is in some cases with
collected over intervals of 2.5 m, 5 m, or 10 m. resource calculations (Rossi and Deutsch 2014).
Large samples (>5 kg) are riffle split at the drill rig. Grade control can involve mapping and sampling
For assays, routine XRF analysis of Zn, Ca, Fe, of stope faces, sampling of tramcar loads or
Mn, and Cu concentrations in pressed powder drawpoint muck piles, broken rock at a recently
pellets are then performed. The quality control blasted face, jackhammer cuttings, or diamond
procedure specifies the use of quality control drill cores. Samples are measured off along the
samples to track laboratory performance. At least stope at specified intervals and marked on the
5% of the grade control samples are submitted for face. The process is laborious and includes to
analysis and comprise quality control specimens, extract the marked sample by chipping an exact
including matrix-matched certified reference rectangle from the solid rock face and to ensure at
material, internal geology blanks, laboratory rep- the same time that all the rock fragments are col-
licates, and laboratory blank samples, among oth- lected. It is the geologist’s job to guarantee that
ers. Survey borehole collar coordinates geology mining is closely following the mineralized zone
and assay results are then captured in a database. and that overbreak during stoping is kept to a
Block modeling is undertaken over appropriate minimum (Annels 1991).
levels (selective mining unit = 5 m × 5 m × 2.5 m) At Big Gossan Mine (skarn-type deposit), an
depending on continuity of geology and grade. open stope-paste backfill underground mine in
Mining perimeters are delineated based on assay Papua Indonesia, the major objective in the grade
results, and grade and tonnage evaluation reports control drilling program is to identify the grade
5.7 · Grade Control
417 5
boundary in certain levels to guide the mine plan- reconciliation (see next section) is conducted
ning in preparing the stope shape as well as the after all material from the stope has been mined
stope access development (Haflil et al. 2013). This out. Grade and tonnage reconciliation compares
program is designed in a fanlike drilling pattern the grade and tonnage from the planned stope
so that the drilling covers the stope and also 40 m based on the short-range block model versus the
above and 40 m below the targeted stope using a grade and tonnage using the present stope shape.
diamond drilling. The drilling design is usually Determining the dilution is also a main part in the
from the footwall toward the hanging wall of the reconciliation process. By utilizing the short-
mineralization. Detailed logging is conducted to range block model, it is possible to predict the
gather better knowledge of the formation, miner- expected grades and tons to be produced in a
alization, and alteration boundary. Thus, ore/ stope. Daily grade-to-mill and stope reconcilia-
waste boundary is defined based on the chalcopy- tion are based on data produced from this model.
rite mineral content, and the ore type is classified
based on skarn mineral content. Sampling inter-
val is also determined using those boundaries as a 5.7.3 Grade Control
guide; sampling is done continuously along 3 m and Reconciliation
intervals. Prior to splitting, crushing, and assay-
ing of the core, the core is measured on its rock Predictions of grades in grade control process
mechanical properties. Geotechnical logging have a number of common characteristics across
includes specific gravity, RQD, and point load all mineralization and mining types, from small,
tests. Assay testing covers five elements (Cu, Au, low-production-rate metalliferous underground
Ag, Pb, Zn), and the assay data is systematically mines to large world-class open-pits: (a) abun-
stored in a drilling database. Standard QA/QC dant geological data that can have only minimal
sampling practices include duplicate samples, relevance or cannot be used, (b) abundant sam-
blank samples, and certified standard samples for pling data that can be of relatively poor quality
every fifteenth sample. (e.g., have significant sampling errors), and (c)
A grade control block model or short-range production pressures requiring fast interpretation
block model is constructed for short-term and of the data and rapid prediction of the ore blocks.
stope mining purposes. This block model is cre- For this reason, besides ore/waste rock discrimi-
ated on 2.5 m × 2.5 m × 2.5 m block from 5 m drill nation and assigning metallurgical grades to
core composite lengths and includes data from material, grade control provides a basis for recon-
the updated grade control drilling. This short- ciliation of mill production figures, geostatistical
range block model is used as a guide in determin- models, and pit production tonnages and grades
ing the metal tonnage a stope produced. Stope (Davis 1992) (. Box 5.15: Reconciliation).
Box 5.15
Reconciliation
Reconciliation is the process of tion will increasingly become the Reconciliation does not of itself
comparing predictions to actual benchmark by which mining com- generate errors, but it can identify
production. Regular reconcilia- pany performance is judged, based the net impact of the errors in the
tions will be required between on comparing actual production process. It is not necessarily the
the estimated mining grades, the with predictions (promises). determining test as to whether
grades indicated from stope/bench In a mining industry context, the mine is successful. A mine may
sampling, and those reported by reconciliation equates to the com- be profitable even if it is based on
the mill (. Fig. 5.97). It is essential
parison of an estimate (a mineral a poor mineral resource, a poor
that this is undertaken so that resource model, a mineral or ore ore reserve (which includes mine
modifications can be made to sam- reserve model, or grade control planning practices), or poor min-
pling practice or to the methods information) with a measurement ing or processing practices (Shaw
or parameters used to calculate (survey information or the official et al. 2006).
grade, tonnage, or contained metal production, usually from the Therefore, the most useful
(Annels 1991). In fact, reconcilia- processing or treatment plant). concept of reconciliation is that
418 Chapter 5 · Mineral Resource Extraction
Reconciliation
of ore reserve (prediction) to the accuracy of estimates, and to whether this is due to prob-
grade control (prediction) to saving capital. lems with the ore reserve (due to
mining (production) to milling In the simplest case, the data, interpretation, or estima-
(production). The basic aims of shareholders want to see a com- tion), with the grade control (due
reconciliation are (a) to measure parison between the annual net to similar errors plus ore loss and
performance of the operation revenue for the mine compared dilution), with mining (due to
against targets, (b) to confirm to the predictions made to them deviations from the plan), or with
grade and tonnage estimation at the end of the feasibility study. milling (due to sampling errors
efficiency, (c) to ensure valuation Defining this question more or losses). Similarly, it is useful to
of mineral assets is accurate, and tightly, they want to know there know that production is exceed-
(d) to provide key performance are comparisons of production ing predictions since this can
indicators, in particular for grade against predictions for ore and mean the grade control process,
control predictions (Morley and metal produced over consistent the mine plan, and the revenues
Moller 2005). Thus, reconciliation volumes and time periods. Recon- are all suboptimal.
of resource and reserve models, ciliations should be consistently In summary, a robust recon-
grade control models, mine monitored over time. A successful ciliation system enables the total
production data, and plant ton- predictive approach can deterio- mining operation to be seen in
nage and grade are one of the rate due to changes in geology, context, major problems and
most vital functions in the mining ore type, sampling procedures, sources of error to be identified,
cycle. Reconciliation can also grade control methods, mining both underestimation and over-
highlight any issues in the reserve methods, milling controls, etc. estimation to be critically moni-
to production process and in the Lack of systematic reconciliation tored, improvements to be tested
stockpiling systems. Minimizing means that there are no controls and evaluated, and reporting to
the difference between planned to monitor the predictions, and management and communication
versus actual production will this can result in wrong use of the to shareholders to be clear and
improve business performance. resource and profit objectives not consistent. Reconciling from the
Consequently, the implementa- being met (Shaw et al. 2006). It resource through to delivery of a
tion of a reconciliation system is useful to know that the mill is mineral product is the key to add-
often generates a range of receiving the predicted ore at a ing value during development of
benefits such as lowering costs, lower than expected grade, even a mining project.
improving efficiency, enhancing while there is still uncertainty as
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423 6
Mineral Processing
6.1 Introduction – 425
References – 527
6.1 · Introduction
425 6
recovering minerals or metals from ores. Under
Summary any circumstance and even at any intermediate
The run-of-mine extracted from the ground stage, mineral processing should not alter the
requires further processing in order to make chemical composition of the minerals for the sub-
a marketable product. This preparation is sequent treatment. A wider concept of mineral
called mineral processing. Thus, ores must processing includes chemical methods of treating
go through a number of different operations minerals and therefore extends across the field of
to obtain the final products: comminution or extractive metallurgy to the production of com-
size reduction, size separation, concentration mercially pure metals. Basically, only the physical
or beneficiation, and dewatering. This chap- processing of ores is considered in this chapter.
ter is devoted to explain all the processes and The treatment of the ore is carried out in pro-
equipment involved in the operations cited cess plants (. Fig. 6.1) generally located at the
above, with special emphasis in flotation mine site to reduce costs of long transportation.
method. This is certainly the most important It is important to note that the grade of valu-
and flexible mineral separation procedure. able minerals in host rocks is usually very low.
All the operations are described including up Accordingly, large tonnages of materials have
to eight different case studies of processing commonly been extracted to obtain the required
plants. At the end of the chapter, waste/tail- amount of valuable mineral to make the process
ings disposal heading provides a short review commercially viable. Other terms for a process
of the main methods of tailings disposal. It plant are concentrators, if base metal ores are
is essential to take into account the fact that treated, or mills, since grinding in mills is a typical
tailings must be disposed of in specially engi- process in the plant.
neered repositories capable of containing Haldar (2013) described mineral processing
the fine-grained and often saturated tailings «as the value-added processing of raw material
mass without the risk of geotechnical failure. (run-of-mine ore) to yield marketable intermedi-
ate products (e.g. copper concentrate) or finished
products (e.g. silica sand) containing more than
6.1 Introduction one valuable minerals and separation of gangue
(tailing).» The run-of-mine components consist
The solid value-bearing material that is gener- of the following:
ated in the mine is termed «run-of-mine,» being 1. Useful materials such as building and decora-
a material particulate in nature and consisting tive stones (e.g., granite, marble, or slate);
of a heterogeneous assemblage of different min- materials in this category are not classified as
eral species. The run-of-mine extracted from the minerals.
ground using the methods described in 7 Chap. 2. Useful minerals such as calcite, fluorite,
5 requires further processing in order to make a apatite, or barite; they are often referred to as
marketable product. A large amount of material industrial minerals.
formed by ore minerals, gangue minerals, and 3. Metalliferous minerals such as chalcopyrite,
host rock from the mine goes to the processing sphalerite, or galena; these minerals have not
plant, being transformed by selectively concen- commonly any direct use and require further
trating the valuable components and rejecting the treatment by minerallurgical or metallurgical
rest. Thus, any mineral as mined is not suitable methods.
for conversion to a final product because minerals 4. Precious metals such as gold, silver, or plati-
are needed as highest state of purity as possible num (in native form).
for their uses. Thus, ore requires preparation that
is commonly carried out by physical methods. The main goal of mineral processing is to reduce
This preparation is called mineral processing. It is the amount of ore that must be translated to
also termed mineral dressing, mineral beneficia- and processed by the smelter where the metal is
tion, mineral concentration, mineral engineering, obtained from the ore. It is carried out by u
tilizing
mineral extraction, or simply minerallurgy. relatively non-expensive, low-energy physical meth-
In a broad sense, the term mineral processing ods to split the useful minerals from the gangue.
is utilized to define the unit operations involved in This enrichment procedure notably increments
426 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
.. Fig. 6.1 Aguas Teñidas processing plant (Spain) (Image courtesy of Matsa, a Mubadala & Trafigura Company)
the value of the ore to enable further transportation three decades later, it became a highly sophisti-
and smelting. Thus, the goal in mineral processing cated science.»
is to generate maximum value from a given raw An essential clarification in mineral process-
material. The technologies to achieve this goal are ing terminology can be outlined by Kellerwessel
classical, complementary, and well defined, being (1991). He stated that «originally, the term pri-
the field of mineral processing based on many fields mary resource processing referred mainly to
of science and engineering. Nevertheless, the steps techniques for dressing raw materials obtained
involved in mineral processing have to be founded from mines; such techniques are now classified
not only on sound scientific and technological bases as mechanical processing in contrast to metal-
but on environmentally acceptable grounds as well. lurgical techniques where the value minerals are
The history of mineral processing is as old as chemically altered, such as in the reduction of iron
the history of human society. As an example, the ore (iron oxide) to extract metallic iron, and also
Egyptians understood that it would be easier to in contrast to conventional chemical processing.»
melt a material rich in gold particles than another This clarification is crucial since there is common
that is poor. Consequently, endeavors were carried confusion between mineral processing and met-
out to enhance the gold content by washing the allurgical processing. The aim of the former is to
lighter gangue minerals. In the words of Habashi recover minerals concentrating them, whereas the
(2014) «Mineral processing was an art until the objective of the latter is to extract metals from ores.
1920s when it started to become a science; about The end product of mineral processing is an ore
6.2 · Basic Concepts
427 6
.. Fig. 6.2 Ore concen-
trate (Image courtesy of
TEFSA)
Box 6.1
Penalty
These impurities are found in US $2.50–5.00/dmt (dry metric ton) penalty elements, and if some
the gangue minerals, and the per 0.1% As over 0.2% As. Bismuth elements are high enough, the
purpose of mineral processing is penalties in lead concentrates are concentrate cannot even be sale-
to reject them, as smelters often about US $2/dmt for each 100 ppm able. The most important impuri-
impose penalties according to above 300 ppm, antimony penal- ties affecting prices for iron ore
their level. Metals misplaced into ties are US $2/dm for each 0.1% products are silica, alumina, phos-
the wrong concentrate are rarely above 0.2%, and arsenic penalties phorous, sulfur, and loss on ignition
paid for by the specialist smelter are US $2/dmt for each 0.1% above impurities, which refers predomi-
and are sometimes penalized. A 0.2%. If too high, excess concentra- nantly to moisture content. This is
metal reported to the «wrong» tions of some elements will result because of the unwanted effects
concentrate can be difficult, or eco- in the concentrate being rejected, they have on the properties of iron
6 nomically impossible, to recover
and never achieves its potential
usually because they either exceed
environmental or safety limits,
and therefore steel. In addition,
alkalis such as lithium, sodium, and
valuation. For instance, lead is are unreasonably difficult (and potassium may affect prices if they
essentially irrecoverable in copper therefore expensive) to treat, or the are above trace amounts, but this
concentrates and is often penal- materials are expensive to dispose is less common. Penalties may also
ized as an impurity by the copper of (such as mercury). be applied for concentrates with
smelter (Wills and Finch 2016). Penalty elements encompass excessive moisture. . Table 6.1
The price paid by the smelter a large variety of elements based shows the main penalties and their
depends primarily on the market upon a smelter contract between a limits in lead, copper, and zinc
process of the metal, but penalties specific concentrator and its buyer, concentrates.
are introduced in the prices for the smelter. The penalty charge is For instance, a zinc penalty
constituents in the ore or concen- specific to particular elements that means that for each 1.0% units by
trate that are detrimental to the result in additional process activi- which the final zinc assay exceeds
smelting process. Thus, separation ties being necessary to remove 3.00%, the seller shall pay a penalty
of penalty elements from the final them from the final metal product charge of US $3.00 per ton of
saleable concentrate can be vital or that need to be disposed of in an concentrate. If it is assumed a gross
in order to avoid severe financial environmentally friendly manner. metal value per ton of concentrate
penalties from smelters. The agreed A penalty is usually specific for a of US $1200, the net amount pay-
price for concentrates is typically particular deleterious element, and able to the seller could be of the
based on a formula, which is the is related to the cost of its removal order of US $800, after all charges
sum of value of the contained and/or disposal, or the extent to and penalties. Thus, only 67% of the
metals («payable metals») less the which it reduces the value of final value of the metal in concentrate is
sum of deductions (treatment and metal product. Thus, penalties paid. It demonstrates that the net
refining charges) and penalties apply to those elements that are amount paid is often significantly
imposed. Thus, penalty elements toxic and expensive to dispose of lower than the original value
reduce the overall grade and/or such as mercury. As an example, it considered. Penalty clauses are
value of the concentrate for sale. is necessary to remove arsenopy- typically applied for the impurities
Charges will vary, depending on rite from tin concentrates since it is harmful to smelting and refining
the process used to smelt and difficult to remove the contained processes. Therefore, it is evident
refine the concentrate, but typically arsenic in smelting and produce that the terms agreed between
the penalty is a USD per ton for a low-quality tin metal. Sphalerite the concentrator and smelter are
incremental percentages above a rejection from copper concentrates of paramount importance in the
specified threshold. For instance, is often of major concern because economics of mining and milling
arsenic penalties in copper concen- zinc is a penalty element in copper operations. Such smelter contracts
trates are generally in the range of smelting. There are many other are usually rather complex.
6.2 · Basic Concepts
429 6
minerals are misplaced to the wrong stream. One
of the most interesting and primary concepts in
.. Table 6.1 Main penalties and their
limits in lead, copper, and zinc concen-
mineral processing to describe adequately the
trates (Data courtesy of Sander de Leeuw) extent of the separation is the efficiency, grade
and recovery being the two indicators commonly
Lead concentrate penalties used to describe it. Used simultaneously, they are
Arsenic: 0.3%
the most broadly agreed measurements of evalu-
ating metallurgical performance. These values
Antimony: 0.3% rely on the separation of meaningful minerals and
Zinc: 6% their separation from associate gangue. Since the
objective of mineral processing is to increment
Cadmium: 0.02%
the value of the mineralization, the significance
Bismuth: 0.07% of the recovery-grade relationship is in establish-
Copper concentrates penalties ing the best economic combination of recovery
and grade that will generate the greatest financial
Arsenic: 0.2%
return per ton of mineralization processed in the
Antimony: 0.1% plant.
L ead: 0.5% (some smelters recover the Pb
The grade of a concentrated stream is a mea-
and do not penalize this) sure of its quality. The ideal result would be that
the valuable product stream should be of high
Zinc: 3.5%
quality and the tailings stream of low quality.
Bismuth: 0.02% Obviously, the grade of the concentrate will be
Mercury: 20 ppm
maximum if the separation is perfect. It should be
noted that this maximum could not be 100%. For
Zinc concentrates penalties example, the copper grade of a pure chalcopyrite
Magnesium oxide: 0.4% concentrate would be 34.6%, the remaining 65.4%
consisting of the other mineral constituents, iron
Iron: 8%
and sulfur. A copper concentrate commonly
Cobalt/nickel: 0.1% includes chalcopyrite, probably another sulfide
Cadmium: 0.5% such as pyrite and other gangue minerals. Thus,
the global grade of the concentrate could range
Mercury: 300 ppm
from 20% to 30% copper.
Silica: 8% The term recovery, commonly expressed in
percentage, refers to the percentage of the valuable
mineral reporting to the concentrate with refer-
ence to the amount in percentage of this mate-
rial in the feed. For example, a recovery of 90%
6.2.2 Grade and Recovery implies that 90% of the metal in the mineraliza-
tion is retrieved in the concentrate and 10% is sent
An essential characteristic of mineral processing to the tailings. Recovery measures therefore how
separations is that they are never perfect: some of effectively the separation process has extracted the
the valuable product is always in the waste stream, valuable mineral contained in the input stream.
and some of the waste is always in the valuable Although 100% recovery is possible in principle,
stream. This is due to the combined effects of in practice it can be achieved only if all the feed is
mineral inseparability and inefficiencies in the diverted to the concentrate and no separation is
separation process. Because these inefficiencies made. Sometimes, obtaining the highest possible
cannot be avoided, a further objective of the sepa- recovery is not necessarily the best approach in
ration process is to minimize the extent to which a concentration process. High recovery without
430 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
100
90
80
Copper recovery (percent)
70
60
50 Test 1
Test 2
40
Test 3
30
Test 4
20
Test 5
6 10
Test 6
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Concentrate copper grade (percent)
acceptable grade will lead to an unsalable prod- treatment and distribution charges. NSR method
uct and is consequently unsatisfactory. Thus, is commonly used to analyze the economic impact
economic evaluation of all potential technologi- of the degree of concentration of enriched miner-
cal alternatives must be carried out to obtain the als in the light of processing costs and metal mar-
highest possible recovery with reasonable grade ket prices. It can be a criterion for optimizing the
(Fuerstenau and Han 2003). extraction and beneficiation of ore according to
Since there is roughly an inverse relationship the quality of the concentrates. More in detail, net
between recovery and grade, the goal of achiev- smelter return concerns to the incomes awaited
ing maximum recovery and maximum grade are from the mill feed considering mill recoveries,
always in conflict. Thus, the aim of mineral pro- transportation costs, processing charges, and other
cessing procedures is to keep the values of grade deductions at the smelter (. Table 6.2).
and recovery as high as possible and taking into Although not all items listed are applicable
account all factors involved. In practice, what is to each metal concentrate, the main factors
usually done in mineral separation is to pursue required for the calculation of the NSR are
maximum recovery while achieving acceptable, (a) recovery factor of the metal, to know what
not maximum, concentrate grade. In this sense, proportion of the metal sent to the mill is actu-
grade-recovery curves (. Fig. 6.3) indicating the ally sold; (b) concentrate grade, to establish the
relationship between the grade of the concentrate amount of metal contained in a ton of concen-
that will be achieved for a given recovery of a min- trate; (c) transport cost, from the mine site to
eral are commonly performed in mineral process- the smelter; (d) payable metals, to establish the
ing separation. base quantity of metal that the smelter will use
to determine payment; (e) treatment charges, to
determine the cost of processing one ton of con-
6.2.3 Net Smelter Return centrate at the smelter; (f) penalties, the added
cost of processing detrimental elements present
Net smelter return is a measure of value of the ore. in the concentrate; and (g) refining charges, to
It is equal to the revenues derived from the sale determine the cost of refining the metal recov-
of the products of the ore minus all off-property ered at the smelter.
6.3 · Steps in Mineral Processing
431 6
Payable copper % 96
Payable gold % 93
Copper deduction % 1
6.3 Steps in Mineral Processing 200 μm. This liberation step is achieved by com-
minution.
In mineral processing, ores must go through a Once a satisfactory degree of mineral lib-
number of different operations to obtain the final eration has been achieved, the material to be
products. Thus, mineral processing involves four processed consists of two types of particles dis-
major steps or stages: (1) comminution or size tinguished according to their mineralogical com-
reduction, (2) size separation, (3) concentration position: valuable mineral and gangue. Mineral
or beneficiation by taking advantage of physical separation can be therefore carried out by the
properties, and (4) dewatering. First, the solid engineering of a separation environment in which
material must be prepared in an appropriate way. particles of different physical properties undergo
The most fundamental requisite is that the min- different physical forces and so move in different
eral to be extracted should be physically liberated directions. Obviously, particles of different min-
from the gangue as discrete particles. If particles eralogical composition will almost always possess
consist of both mineral and gangue, they need to different physical properties. The stream to which
be broken into smaller fragments until the min- the bulk of the mineral reports is usually called
eral and gangue are physically liberated from the concentrate stream. The other stream (gangue
each other, usually in the range between 10 and minerals) is termed the tailings stream.
432 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
minerals. In fact, the purpose of the size reduc- Obviously, the fineness of the grinding process is a
tion or comminution process is threefold: (a) to crucial feature in mineral processing because fine
liberate valuable minerals from the ore matrix, grinding notably increment power costs and can
(b) to increase surface area for high reactivity in generate very fine untreatable slime components
the further separation process, and (c) to facilitate that can be lost into the tailings. Thus, grinding
the transport of ore particles between unit opera- therefore is a compromise between clean (high-
tions. grade) concentrates, operating expenditures, and
The degree of release is the percentage of a losses of fine components (Wills and Finch 2016).
given mineral existing as liberated particles; For this reason, a great number of test studies are
they are particles containing only that mineral. carried out in all mining projects to establish the
Particles that contain both valuable and gangue best grind size for the mineralization.
minerals are known as locked or middling par-
ticles. A large proportion of the difficulties arisen
in mineral separation are associated with the 6.3.2 Size Separation
treatment of these particles. To avoid problems
in comminution process, breaking of the parti- In the second stage of mineral processing, the
cles should be preferably carried out at the mate- valuable mineral or minerals are subjected to
rial interlocking, that is, at grain boundaries. size separation, which is the division of particles
Comminution plays a major role in mineral pro- according to their size. This process is essential for
cessing since this operation is performed starting further appropriate concentration process, and it
the treatment sequence, producing a very high can be carried out dry or wet. Separation processes
impact on the effectiveness of the downstream include screening and classification. Both meth-
processing stages. In other cases, comminution ods are distinct and differ in the size of the compo-
can also be required where a solid product must nents to be separated. Thus, the coarser elements
conform to the size specifications ruled by the are split using screening techniques, whereas the
market. particles that are considered too fine to be sorted
6.3 · Steps in Mineral Processing
433 6
efficiently by screening are separated by classifica- Since each screen usually provides two products,
tion methods. Screening, also termed mechanical it is necessary to use additional screens to obtain
classification, separates the different components more products. In this case, an intermediate prod-
utilizing the contrasts in particle size. The compo- uct refers to the material passing through one
nents are split utilizing a plastic or metallic screen screen and retained on a subsequent screen.
with a perforated surface including a certain Separation using the velocity of the grains
dimension aperture (. Fig. 6.4). Materials are sent
falling through a fluid is an essential technique
to the screen surface and the components that are because separation by screening is not effective for
smaller than the screen opening pass, while larger fine materials. This method of separation based
particles are targeted to a designated place. on the settling rates caused by the variable size of
The purpose of screening is therefore splitting the components in a fluid (commonly water) is
the feed into two or more different products in size. termed classification. Thus, particles of the same
Screening is a continuous process performed on a shape and density but of different sizes will be
large scale, while sieving is performed on sieves separated using classification. In sedimentation
on a small batch laboratory scale. Particles going classifiers, the feed is supplied from the upper part
through the screen form a product usually called of the container, and particles fall down in water
undersize, minus, or lower product, while the vertically or nearly vertically. Fine particles, those
ones not passing through the screen are known as which settle slowly, are removed from the classi-
oversize, plus, or upper product (Drzymala 2007). fier together with water as overflow. The particles
434 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
settling rapidly are removed either as an under- mechanized techniques to treat large tonnages,
flow at the bottom or with the use of appropriate but it is still utilized in countries where abundant
mechanical devices. cheap labor is available.
Since the valuable minerals are often signifi-
cantly denser than the gangue minerals, this physi-
6.3.3 Concentration of Valuable cal difference can be utilized to separate them.
Components The various available techniques fall under the
general title of gravity concentration. In one type
The third stage in mineral processing is the sepa- of gravity concentration, the separation is car-
ration between valuable mineral or minerals and ried out mainly by mechanical methods in water
waste. The term separation here is synonymous in which heavy minerals are the valuable mineral
with concentration. The methods of separation source. This separation process (a technology with
are commonly based on the difference of physi- its roots in antiquity), is based on the differential
cal properties between meaningful and gangue moves of mineral particles in water due to their
minerals. The major physical methods utilized different hydraulic features (separation of gold by
to concentrate mineralization are carried out by density difference dates back to at least 3000 BC as
(1) optical and other properties, (2) differences in depicted in writings from ancient Egypt). To define
density, (3) surface properties, and (4) magnetic the adequacy of gravity separation process to a spe-
and electrostatic properties. cific mineralization type, the separation of miner-
The most obvious physical property that als relies mainly on a particle’s settling rate in water.
is exploited in mineral beneficiation is that of If the density of the fluid medium that
appearance. Particles of different mineralogical separates the valuable and gangue minerals lies
composition can look different, so that they can be between the densities of them, the separation
separated either by hand or by an automated sys- becomes easier. Thus, in dense medium sepa-
tem using a sensor. Separation based on appear- ration particles sink or float in a dense fluid or
ance, color, texture, and radioactive properties is more commonly in a man-made dense suspen-
often called sorting. However, sorting methods are sion. This method, also called sink-float separa-
actually only of marginal importance compared tion, is extensively utilized in many cases such as
to the rest of beneficiation methods. Hand sort- coal concentration, iron ore, and diamond treat-
ing (. Fig. 6.5) from conveyor belts has reduced
ment and in the preconcentration of metal min-
in significance with the increased developing of eralization (e.g., lead and zinc ores). Obviously,
6.3 · Steps in Mineral Processing
435 6
.. Fig. 6.6 Bubbles in
froth flotation (Image
courtesy of Anglo
American plc.)
the fluid utilized for the separation process is ferromagnetic minerals such as magnetite (Fe3O4),
determined by the specific gravity of the miner- while high-intensity separators are applied to
als and can be manufactured using many differ- split paramagnetic minerals from their waste.
ent components. The most widely used medium Predictably, magnetic concentration is essential for
for metalliferous ores is ferrosilicon, an alloy of processing iron ores and has also application in the
iron and silicon, because other classical medium processing of paramagnetic nonferrous minerals.
such as heavy organic liquids are prohibited in Electrostatic separation is based on the different
industrial processes due to the toxicity. ionization features between minerals subjected to
The separation method that uses the different an electric field. Thus, high-tension concentration
electrochemical surface features of fine-grained depending on electrical conductivity character-
minerals is called froth flotation. It is certainly the istics can be utilized to separate conducting from
most important method of concentration, not only nonconducting minerals. Electrostatic separation
for metallic minerals but also to separate different is very important because in theory this method
industrial minerals. Differences in the surface prop- depicts the universal concentrating method since
erties of particles control whether or not those parti- most minerals display differences in their conduc-
cles will attach themselves to air bubbles (. Fig. 6.6)
tivity. Thus, it should be potential to concentrate
within an agitated pulp. The particles that are so almost any mineral by this process (Wills and Finch
attached will rise to the surface of the medium and 2016). However, the method has fairly limited
create a froth that can be removed as a concentrate. application, and its greatest utilization is in separat-
The rest of the particles remain in the pulp and flow ing some of the minerals found in heavy sands from
out of the separator as the tailings stream. beach or stream placers.
If the magnetic properties of the valuable min- In many cases, it is essential to combine dif-
erals are different from those of the gangue, they ferent techniques to concentrate a mineraliza-
can be separated by the application of suitable mag- tion economically. For instance, gravity methods
netic fields in a magnetic separator. Consequently, are commonly utilized to exclude most of the
magnetic concentration utilizes the different gangue because they are relatively inexpensive.
magnetic susceptibility of the minerals included However, they do not present the necessary
in the mineralization being treated. This physical selectivity to generate the final clean concentrate.
feature allows magnetic minerals to be split from Consequently, gravity methods are generally com-
nonmagnetic or less magnetic ones. Low-intensity bined with other methods (e.g., froth flotation) to
magnetic separators can be utilized to beneficiate obtain further upgrading in the concentrates.
436 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
Because deviations from the spherical shape will being defined by a different set of class boundar-
have different effects on the response to distinct ies. The distribution of particles according to their
processes, size distribution estimates obtained size can then be indicated as the proportion of
for the same material but by diverse techniques the particle population that is found in each size
cannot be expected to agree exactly, even in the class. An important feature of the concept of par-
absence of measurement error. Such discrepancies ticle classes is that it makes possible a significant
become especially important where more than simplification in the quantitative evaluation of the
one technique must be employed to span a broad behavior of particulate material. This is based on
range of sizes. the assumption that every particle in a given class
The size distribution of the particles must be behaves in the same way. Obviously, this assump-
controlled at various stages of a mineral processing tion is not absolutely the truth but becomes more
plant for a number of reasons: (a) to allow under- accurate as the range of sizes covered by the class
sized material to bypass the crushing or grinding is narrower.
system and to maintain oversized components for Despite the obvious importance of particle
further size reduction, (b) to generate an optimum size, the evaluation and even precise definition of
particle size material for effective operating in the particle size are far from simple tasks. There are
downstream concentration circuits, and (c) to pro- many ways to characterize the size of particles,
vide a product that meets particle size standards none of them being perfect. For instance, «par-
needed for the industry (Kelly and Spottiswood ticle size can be characterized by determining the
1982). Moreover, depending on the type of min- size of hole or aperture the particle will just pass
eralization, the meaningful mineral or the gangue through (sieve size), or the time the particle takes
mineral can be concentrated in particular size to settle in a fluid such as water and express the
classes. In these cases, downstream processing particle size as the size of a sphere that has the
exploits such phenomena. It is essential to note that same settling rate (Stoke’s diameter)» (Gupta and
the range of sizes in a single process stream is typi- Yan 2006). In selecting a sizing method, consid-
cally very large and can include particles that vary eration should be given to matching the method
in diameter from 1 m to 1 μm (10−6 m) (. Fig. 6.8).
to the particular application for which the size
Because of the large number of particles information is desired. Thus, if it is necessary to
involved, it is neither practical nor useful to con- characterize the particles in a liquid suspension,
sider their sizes on an individual basis. Instead, sta- it would try to use a method that evaluates the
tistical principles are employed. The best approach behavior of the particles in a liquid, for example, a
is the grouping of particles into classes based on sedimentation method.
their size. The entire population of particles can There is a broad range of methods of particle
be split into a finite number of classes, each class size analysis forthcoming in the market, being test
438 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
sieving the most widely used. It covers a very wide fluid. For these methods, the particle size should
range of particle sizes, the one of most industrial be greater than 1 μm. This technique separates the
importance. Test sieving is used so much in size particles according of the resistance to motion in
analysis that particles finer than approximately a fluid. This resistance establishes the terminal
75 μm are commonly mentioned to being in the velocity that the particle attains as it is enabled to
«subsieve» range. However, modern sieving tech- fall in a fluid under the influence of gravity. The
niques enable sizing to be carried out down to terminal velocity is derived from Stoke’s law for
about 5 μm (Wills and Finch 2016). Subsieving spherical particles. Size distributions are measur-
methods include mainly sedimentation, elutria- able with these methods, and both large and small
tion, microscopy, and laser diffraction. amounts of sized material are obtainable.
Sieve analysis is carried out by passing a Microscopy methods or, more recently, laser
known weight of sample successively through measurements have been also utilized to cal-
a set of screens whose apertures correspond to culate statistical sizes of particles. Microscopy
6 the class boundaries and weighting the quantity methods are highly attractive since they involve
of sampled retained on each sieve, thus calculat- direct observation of the particles and, through
ing the percentage weight in each size fraction. A the combination of optical and electron micro-
good degree of standardization has been estab- scopes, are virtually unlimited with respect to
lished in the industry with regard to the sieve size. Consequently, they are extremely useful for
apertures used in measuring and describing size qualitative and semiquantitative assessment of the
distributions. Test sieves are classified in accor- average size and approximate range of sizes pres-
dance with nominal aperture size, being square ent in a distribution. However, they are not rec-
apertures the most generally used. In respect to ommended for the quantitative evaluation of size
the presentation of data, there are different ways, distributions, especially for materials in which a
but the most common method to represent graph- broad range of sizes is present (Hogg 2003). It is
ically the results is plotting cumulative undersize essential to comment the measurement method
(or oversize) against particle size (. Fig. 6.9).
utilized when quoting particle size because all
Sedimentation methods of analyzing particle of these methods do not indispensably offer the
sizes are based on the estimation of the rate of same results. Regarding laser measurements, dif-
settling of the fine particles evenly dispersed in a ferent instruments relying on the diffraction of
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0.01 mm 0.1 mm 1 mm 10 mm
6.5 · Ore Handling
439 6
laser light by fine particles are available. In this equipment, the belt conveyor system is usually the
method, particle size distributions are calculated suitable method.
by measuring the angular variation in intensity Ore handling can also include ore storage
of light scattered as a laser beam passes through a and feeding. Ore storage is a continuous opera-
dispersed particulate sample. tion that runs 24 h a day and 7 days a week. The
type and location of the material storage depends
primarily on the feeding system. Grinding and
6.5 Ore Handling concentration processes are most effective when
working continuously. On the other hand, stor-
According to Wills and Finch (2016), «ore handling age has also the advantage of enabling the mixing
is a key function in mining and mineral processing, of mineralization with different grades with the
which can account for 30–60% of the total deliv- objective to generate a continuous and similar
ered price of raw materials.» It covers mainly the feed to the mill.
processes of transportation between the mine and Depending on the nature of the material
the mineral processing plant and between the vari- treated, storage is accomplished in stockpiles, bins,
ous stages of treatment in the plant. Run-of-mine or tanks, stockpile being one of the most classical
is transported from the mine to the beneficiation methods of storage. Stockpiles are usually used for
plant by different methods depending on the size of ore that has passed through the primary crushing
operation and the distance between the mine and stage and sometimes also for coarse materials (e.g.,
the plant. In case of long-distance transportation coal or iron mineralization). Several methods are
(e.g., several kilometers or more), it is done com- used to constitute a stockpile obtaining shapes
monly by trucks. If the distance is short (e.g., 100– such as conical, elongated, or radial. Reclaiming
200 m), the standard rubber belt conveyor with from stockpiles can be performed using bottom
support rollers at the bottom of belt is the most tunnels, bucket wheel machines, front-end load-
broadly utilized method of handling bulk mate- ers, etc. It is important to note that intense segre-
rial. Belts today have capacities up to 40,000 t/h, gation often occurs in stockpiles, being minimized
and advances in control technology have enhanced by the suitable selection of reclaiming equipment.
the reliability of belt systems. Regarding the trans- Regarding the feeding process, feeders (. Fig.
portation inside the mineral processing plant, 6.10) are essential if a uniform stream of mineraliza-
for example, between the different comminution tion is needed. This is because mineralization does
.. Fig. 6.10 Vibrating
feeder in an aggregate
quarry (Image courtesy of
Marcelino Martínez)
440 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
not usually flow uniformly from a storage, except r un-of-mine material containing fragments mea-
where some type of mechanism controls it. Feeding suring up to a meter or more. Comminution is
is basically a conveying process in which the travel also accomplished to make the recent excavated
distance is low and in which correct control of the material easy to handle by excavators or scrapers
rate of passage is needed. When main operations to generate a run-of-mine material transportable
are disrupted by a storage sage, it is indispensable to by haul trucks or conveyors. Mosher (2011) sug-
include a feeder in the circuit. Feeders also reduce gests that the degree of separation carried out
wear and tear, abrasion, and segregation. There are by comminution establishes the grade-recovery
many types of feeders in the market such as apron, curve for a given concentration procedure as well
belt, chain, roller, rotary, revolving disk, drum, drag as classically represents the largest type of mineral
scraper, screw, vane, reciprocating plate, table, and processing capital and operating expenditures.
vibrating feeders (Wills and Finch 2016). Factors
like type of material to be handled or the storage
6 method govern the type of feeder. 6.6.1 Mechanisms of Fracture
ore body is reduced from its natural size, which distinguished based on the rock mechanics and
can be a kilometer or more in extent, down to the type of loading. Obviously, the nature of the
Shear Attrition
6.6 · Comminution
441 6
fracture products is different in each case. In 6.6.2 Energy for Size Reduction
practice, these fracture mechanisms do not take
place in isolation, rather breakages require a com- Size reduction theory is devoted to the relation-
bination of fracture mechanisms. However, com- ship between the quantity of energy put into a
minution machines are usually constructed in rock of known size and the particle size after the
such a way that one kind of breakage prevails. The comminution process has taken place. It is very
mechanism that will predominate depends on the important to remember that the process remains
size of the components and the mechanical con- inherently inefficient because 85% of the energy
figuration of the comminution device used. used in comminution is dissipated as heat, 12% is
In breakage by compression, at least two crush- attributed to mechanical losses, and only 3% of the
ing surfaces are required to apply compressive total energy input is used in size reduction of feed
forces to a particle, either directly or indirectly material (Alvarado et al. 1998). In this sense, higher
through a bed of particles. The products of fracture use of blasting energy at its better effectiveness
are a small number of relatively large fragments can produce a significant impact at lowering the
resulting from the induced tensile fracture and comminution energy in the crushing and grinding
a large number of small fragments that originate circuit downstream (Murr et al. 2015). Moreover,
predominantly from the points of application of «mine-to-Mill optimization in various operations
the compressive forces. The amount of fines pro- over the years have shown significant benefits such
duced can be reduced by minimizing the area of as high mill throughput rates from reduced top
loading. This is often done in compressive crushing size from mining through increased powder factor
machines by using corrugated crushing surfaces. or blast energies» (Kanchibotla 2014). The coali-
In impact breakage, there is a rapid transfer of tion for Eco-Efficient Comminution (CEEC) has
energy to the particle where a particle and a rigid been lately carried out with assistance from dif-
surface or other particles undergo impact. If the ferent companies in the mining industry. The goal
energy absorbed is significantly greater than that of CEEC is to promote awareness and know-how
required for simple fracture, the particle will shatter transfer principally to decrease energy consump-
into a large number of intermediate-sized and very tions in comminution.
small fragments mainly by tensile failure. Thus, Improved methods for mineral comminu-
fracture by shatter takes place where the applied tion such as SELFRAG technology are continu-
energy is in excess of that needed for fracture. The ously being established, pursuing the objective
products of fracture in this situation are smaller of accomplishing the needed size reducing and
than in the case with compressive fracture, and the mineral liberation at a lower energy consump-
production of fine particles is more extensive. tion level than traditional technology enables.
Regarding the breakage by attrition, the SELFRAG technology permits for monitored
forces are applied to the surface of the particle crushing process without contamination due to
by a process of abrasion between a particle and a combination of pulse power technology, physi-
a breakage surface or other particles. The prod- cal (electrical) material discontinuities, and high
ucts of this mechanism are the original particle voltage and mechanical engineering skills. Typical
smoothed together with a mass of very fine par- applications of this technology are mainly situated
ticles. Attrition or abrasion is not strictly a break- in industrial minerals (e.g., quartz) or metallic
age event but rather a surface phenomenon where mineralization.
shear stress causes a material to abrade off. In The selected product size also aids importantly
general, the procedures of size reduction during to the energy intensity of comminution process.
crushing and grinding are distinct. In crush- As the material size reduces, the energy needed to
ing operations, the size reduction is carried out accomplish the product size increments greatly.
mainly by compression of the rock against a rigid This is because strength and therefore resistance
surface while grinding includes principally abra- to breakage of particles increases as the particles
sion of the rock by the grinding media. The results become smaller. On the other hand, the con-
of a single particle breakage event are not fully sumption of steel elements is another aspect of
predictable because of the extremely large number comminution that aids importantly to the energy
of variables that affect the outcome. consumption of the process.
442 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
Various theories have been developed to of Von Rittinger (1867) states that «the energy
explain the relationship between energy input consumed in the size reduction is proportional
and the particle size obtained from a given to the area of the new surface produced.» The
feed size, but none of them is completely suc- second theory (Kick 1885) stated «that the work
cessful. The greatest issue is that most of the required is proportional to the reduction in vol-
energy input to a crushing or grinding device is ume of the particles concerned.» Regarding the
absorbed by the machine itself, and only a small third and most used theory, Bond (1952) pre-
fraction of the total energy is suitable for fractur- sented an equation based on the theory showing
ing the rock (Wills and Finch 2016). Theoretical that the work input is proportional to the new
and empirical energy size reduction equations crack tip length produced in particle breakage
were proposed by Von Rittinger (1867), Kick and equals the work represented by the product
(1885), and Bond (1952), known as the three minus that represented by the feed (. Box 6.2:
Box 6.2
Bond’s Theory
Bond’s theory contains elements through which 80% of the material and faster alternative methods
of both the Von Rittinger and Kick in the product and feed will pass. have been developed (e.g.,
theories in that it assumes that the Wi is the Bond Work Index, which Gharehgheshlagh 2016).
energy actually used in crushing is a property of the material being If the breakage characteristics
and grinding is proportional to the broken. It is an expression of the of a material remain constant
length of the extension of the crack resistance that a material has to overall size ranges, then the
tips. Bond methodology is simple, undergo crushing or grinding or a calculated work index would be
and it does work for many circum- measurement of how hard the ore expected to remain constant
stances to a reasonable degree of is. Thus, each rock has a character- since it expresses the resistance
accuracy. In the design of grinding istic work index. For example, more of material to breakage. However,
circuits in a mineral processing energy is required to break quartz for most naturally occurring raw
plant, the Bond method is widely than calcite, so quartz will have a materials, differences exist in the
used for a particular material in higher work index. Numerically, breakage characteristics depend-
dimensioning mills, determin- the work index is expressed as the ing on particle size, which can
ing power/energy required, and kilowatt hours per ton (or per short result in variations in the work
evaluating performance. Its use ton in Bond’s original publication) index. Thus, calculations involving
as an industrial standard is very required to reduce the material Bond Work Index are generally
common, providing satisfactory from theoretically infinite feed size divided into steps with a different
results in all industrial applications. to 80% passing 100 μm. If the work Wi determination for each size
Despite having many advantages, index of the ore is known and the class. Laboratory tests for estimat-
this method has some drawbacks feed size and the desired product ing work index for grinding circuits
such as being tedious and time- size of the ore are also known, then are Bond Ball Mill Grindability Test,
consuming and also requiring a the power required for crushing Bond Low Energy Impact Test,
special standard mill (Saeidi et al. the ore can be estimated. and Bond Rod Mill Grindability
2013). Bond’s formula is useful Bond Work Index is determined Test. Although the Bond model
because it indicates the energy experimentally by measurement remains the most widely used, it
input required to produce a desired of the extent of size reduction and has a number of deficiencies. As a
degree of size reduction. The uni- the power absorbed in particle result, the conditions under which
versally accepted formula of Bond breakage under well-defined the index is measured are invari-
is the following: standard conditions. Determining ably not entirely applicable to the
Wi via the standard Bond method conditions that exist in operation
æ 1 1 ö needs careful grinding cycles plants. Consequently, the predic-
W = 10 ´ Wiç - ÷
ç P F ÷ and screen procedures. However, tions of the Bond formula need to
è 80 80 ø
these are tedious time-consuming be modified by a variety of empiri-
where W is the energy required procedures with potential errors cal correction factors. For this
for comminution per ton of mate- in sieving steps. Considering the reason, other tests such as drop
rial broken and P80 and F80 are, difficulties of the standard Bond weight test, SPI and SGI tests, and
respectively, the screen sizes in μm method in the course of deter- SAGDesign test are designed for
mining Wi, a number of simpler ore characterization.
6.6 · Comminution
443 6
6.6.3 Comminution Stages first stage of breakage is the only crushing step
always present in modern comminution circuits.
As aforementioned, in mineral processing terminol- The reason for two or three stages of crushing
ogy, comminution in coarse size is termed crushing, is because of the limited reduction ratio that it
whereas comminution in fine size is termed grinding. is possible to achieve with a single crusher. The
Thus, crushing is performed on large particles, while reduction ratio of a crushing stage can be usually
grinding deals with particles smaller than 50 mm. defined as «the ratio of maximum particle size
The crushing and grinding processes generate a entering to maximum particle size leaving the
group of particles with different degrees of liberation. crusher.» The nature of the crushing environment
Crushing decreases the particle size of run-of-mine changes from stage to stage, particularly from
mineralization to such a level that further grinding the primary to secondary stage. In the primary
can be performed until the valuable components crushing stage, pieces of run-of-mine mineraliza-
and gangue are significantly produced as separate tion can be as large as 1.5 m, being reduced to a
elements. Any particle that overcomes a certain range between 10 and 20 cm by using heavy-duty
size needed for mineral beneficiation is returned to machines (. Fig. 6.12). The emphasis at this stage
the crushing or grinding circuit. Accordingly, most is on the reduction of a very large material to
comminution procedures in industrial applications more manageable sizes. The feed to the crusher is
are always closed circuit excepting primary crush- often delivered at irregular intervals.
ing. A comminution circuit is termed closed circuit The crushed ore normally goes to the grinding
where it works in series including a size classifier, circuit via a belt conveyor after it leaves the primary
being recirculated to the comminution device the crusher. In other cases, it can pass through a screen
coarse fraction of the classifier. or other size classifier with oversized material cir-
culated back into the crusher(s) for further reduc-
Crushing tion. If present, secondary crushing involves all
Crushing is commonly a dry operation, and it procedures for treating the primary crusher mate-
can be carried out in several stages (e.g., primary, rials from rock storage to the disposal of the final
secondary, and tertiary crushing), although the crusher product. In this stage, the size range of the
.. Fig. 6.12 Primary crushing in an underground mine (South Africa) (Image courtesy of Petra Diamonds)
444 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
feed material is more uniform, and the feed rate is tilized to obtain a further decrease in size. These
u
more regular putting more emphasis on the optimi- secondary units are generally much lighter and
zation of the crushing efficiency. A third reduction smaller than the heavy-duty and big rugged pri-
step called tertiary crushing can be utilized if the mary units. Since they use the primary crushed
ore is extremely hard or in particular cases where rock as feed, the maximum feed size will com-
it is essential to diminish the generation of fines. monly be less than 15 cm in diameter. Secondary
However, tertiary crushing stage is often substi- crushers are much easier to handle because most
tuted by coarse grinding, especially if the ore tends of the harmful components in the mineralization
to be slippery and tough. Tertiary crushers are basi- (e.g., tramp metal, wood, clay, among others) have
cally of the same design as secondary crushers. yet been extracted from the circuit (. Fig. 6.13).
Primary crushers are commonly located adja- They work always with dry elements, and their
cent to the surface or underground mine to ensure objective is to decrease the mineralization to a
efficient transport of the ore, being jaw and gyra- size appropriate for further grinding. Examples of
6 tory type crushers the most used devices. They are secondary crushers are cone crusher and impact
defined by a wide input and a narrow discharge and crusher. Cone crushers generate reduction ratios
can operate large tonnage of material. Jaw crush- ranging from 5:1 to 8:1. Very high reduction
ers generate a reduction ratio between 4:1 and 9:1, ratios, for example, from 20:1 to 40:1, can only be
while gyratory crushers originate a somewhat larger obtained utilizing impact crushers. At the end of
range between 3:1 and 10:1. In general, gyratory the crushing stage, the ore is collected in stockpiles
crushers can generally process larger rock pieces that have openings or drawpoints at the bottom.
and more tonnage per hour than jaw crushers. Ore will be drawn out from the piles to the grind-
Once the run-of-mine mineralization is red ing circuit as needed. Stockpiling crushed ore
uced to smaller components by using the pri- ensures that grinding circuit can be continuously
mary crushing units, the secondary machines are fed, given that there can be variable operating
.. Fig. 6.13 Metal
detection (Image courtesy
of Antonio Durán)
6.6 · Comminution
445 6
.. Fig. 6.14 Different ball
sizes
times or production rates in different parts of the (e.g., balls) and the probability of some breakage
mine and plant. event occurrence after entry.
The feed particles in tumbling mills range
Grinding between 5 and 250 mm, and they are decreased
The grinding stage takes crushed ore from the in size to between 40 and 300 μm. The grinding
stockpile generated in the crushing process and medium can be steel rods, steel balls, or even
reduces it to a finer size for beneficiation process rock itself. Ball sizes (. Fig. 6.14) usually range
(e.g., froth flotation). In this step, the compo- from about 20 mm for fine grinding to 150 mm
nents are decreased in size by a combination of for coarse grinding. Although there are a lot of
impact and abrasion, either dry or in suspension improvements in these machines, the energy
in water. Most industrial grinding circuits are effectiveness of tumbling mills is the subject of
operated under wet conditions. The final ground intense debate.
size depends on the composition of the mineral- Obviously, it is essential that the ore is ground
ization and is elected to maximize the recovery of to the correct size for further separation of valu-
the valuable minerals. Excessive grinding (over- able minerals. Ore size is controlled by limiting
grinding) should be avoided because its high cost the time the ore spends in each mill and by the use
and fine grinding usually make further upgrad- of a screen or other classifier. Undersized mate-
ing difficult. rial will move to the next stage in the process, and
Grinding is carried out in rotating cylindri- oversized material will be recirculated back to the
cal steel vessels that include a charge of crushing same mill for further grinding. Although to per-
components (the grinding medium). This charge form a certain particle size related to the degree
is free to move within the vessel, decreasing the of liberation is the main objective of grinding, it
size of the particles. The mill shell rotates at a con- is occasionally utilized to increment mineral sur-
stant speed, and the ore is ground by the interac- face area. For instance, production of some indus-
tion of the ore particles with each other and/or trial minerals such as talc involves size reduction
with steel balls or rods that are added to the mill. to meet customer requirements. There are differ-
In contrast to crushing, which takes place between ent variables that can be controlled to achieving
fairly rigid surfaces, grinding is a random process this goal. Mill charge, feed rate, and pulp density,
because the level of grinding of a mineralization among others, can be controlled and set to the
particle is based on the probability of the particle needed value to assure smooth operation and
entering a zone between the grinding medium obtain output of requested specifications.
446 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
compressive or impactive forces are brought to the second surface oscillates between two extreme
bear on the material to be broken. This material, positions. As the second surface moves toward the
which can be dry or have a low moisture content, stationary surface, oversize particles are caught
is introduced through a feed opening and falls and broken. Fragments of breakage remain in the
into the crushing chamber. Then, it is broken and crushing chamber until they are sufficiently small
falls out through a discharge opening. The break- to fall through the gap between the two surfaces.
age forces are applied through crushing surfaces, The gap of the equipment determines the size of
which can be either stationary or moving in a rig- the material that can be fed to jaw crushers. The
idly constrained path. crushing action in a jaw crusher is intermittent,
Primary crushers are rugged devices that and power is drawn only during half of the crush-
operate dry run-of-mine feed rock as large as ing cycle. The faces of the plates are made of hard-
1 m or even more. There are two principal types ened steel, and the surfaces of both plates could be
of primary crushers: jaw and gyratory crushers. plain or corrugated.
Both crushers generate fracture by compression Jaw crushers are installed underground as well
since this is the easiest procedure of applying a as on the surface (. Fig. 6.16). Where utilized
breakage force to big particles. A constraint that underground, they are usually disposed in open
results from the crushing action in compres- circuit. The material obtained is then reduced in
sive crushers is a limit on the effective reduction size in crushers situated on the surface. Where the
achieved by a given device. In practice, it is not run-of-mine material is transported directly from
possible to design machines with the required the mine to the crusher, the feed to the primary
mechanical strength that will be able to grip a crusher go through a magnet to extract steel com-
particle and break it down into fragments all ponents collected during the mining operation.
6.6 · Comminution
447 6
.. Fig. 6.16 Primary jaw
crusher with a hammer on
the surface
consumed horsepower has increment enabling types of shapes of feed particles, including slabby
these devices to operate higher throughputs rock, which are not possible to incorporate in
(Gorain 2016). Gyratory crushers break mate- jaw crushers due to the shape of the feed opening
rial in a very similar way than jaw crushers. The (Gupta and Yan 2006).
crushing surfaces are curved and conical, and the In deciding whether a jaw or a gyratory
crushing bowl provides the fixed surface. Located crusher should be elected, gyratory crushers are
inside this bowl is the conical crushing head, utilized more significantly than the capacity. For
which nutates about a pivot point. This action is instance, if it is needed to crush rock of a deter-
provided by some form of eccentric drive applied mined maximum diameter, then a gyratory with
to the base of the crushing head. The eccentric the needed gape would have a capacity about
drive generates the opening and closing of the three times that of a jaw crusher of the same gape.
gap. The entire assembly can be visualized as a cir- However, if a big gape is required but capacity is
cular jaw crusher. The crushing process comprises not important, then the jaw crusher will be pos-
reduction by compression between two confining sible for the selection since it is more economical
faces and a subsequent freeing movement dur- due to its smaller size. Secondary considerations
ing which the material settles by gravity until it is in the selection process include capital and main-
caught and subjected to further compression and tenance costs and the type of rock being crushed.
again released. For the latter, jaw crushers work better with clay
The feed material (from hard and abrasive or plastic materials, while gyratory crushers are
to soft and sticky) that enters into the crush- especially appropriate for hard, abrasive rocks.
ing chamber from the top is repeatedly crushed Moreover, gyratory crushers commonly generate
between the crushing elements as it falls by a more cubic product than jaw crushers.
448 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
.. Fig. 6.17 Primary
gyratory crusher (Image
courtesy of Metso)
Cone Crushers
Secondary crushers are utilized to treat the pri-
mary crusher material, which is around 15 cm
in diameter. This material is decreased in size
up to between 0.5 and 2 cm in diameter so that
it is appropriate for further grinding. Secondary
crushers are comparatively lighter and smaller
than primary crushers, operating commonly with
dry clean feed exempted of harmful components.
Cone crushers (. Fig. 6.18) usually perform the
crush and overflow material of vibratory screen- in the early 1980s in the limestone and cement
ing. Several specialized forms of cone crusher industries as an energy-effective alternative to ball
such as Gyradisc crusher or Rhodax crusher are milling, demonstrating about 25% reduction in
developed in the market. The former is mainly energy consumption for grinding limestone and
utilized for generating finer material, which has cement clinker. It was introduced into the min-
found application in the quarrying industry due ing industry also in the 1980s to crush kimberlite
to its lower economic costs. mineralization in diamond operations, and it
was recently incorporated in different hard rock
Roll Crushers metal mineralization such as iron ore, tin, copper,
Roll crushers are designed with one or more chrome, and gold (Erickson 2014).
cylindrical rolls located parallel to each other and Comminution in an HPGR is carried out
rotating in opposite directions. The rotation of almost absolutely by compression, being the result
the rolls draws material into the breakage zone of a product with higher percentage of fines that
where particles are caught, either against the can be obtained using a semiautogenous or autog-
breaker plate or between two rolls, and so experi- enous mill. Thus, the principal use of HPGR is as a
ence compressive forces. In single-roll crushers, replacement for the classical semiautogenous mill
the crushing chamber consists of one rotating in a grinding circuit. It produces important sav-
roll and a stationary breaker plate; in double- ings in energy cost and decreased grinding media
roll crushers, two rolls rotate toward each other; consumption and operating cost.
three-roll and four-roll crushers consist of two
stages of roll crushing built into a single machine. Impact Crushers
Unlike jaw and gyratory crushers, the crushing In this class of crushers, the size reduction is
process in rolls is one single pressure. The roll performed by high-speed impact rather than
surfaces play an important role in the process of compression. Impact crushers have a broader uti-
catching an element and dragging it between the lization in the quarrying industry than in the metal
rolls. Thus, the rolls can be smoothed or toothed mining industry. Moreover, they are also encour-
with pyramidal tooth. With smooth rolls the aged in the quarry industry due to the improved
reduction ratio is about 3:1, whereas this ratio product shape. There are two main impact
can be increased up to 7:1 where toothed rolls crusher equipments: hammer mills (. Fig. 6.20)
are used. Smooth surfaces are commonly used for and impact mills. Particles in the product of an
fine crushing, while coarse crushing is generally impact crusher tend to be more cubic in form
carried out in rolls with tooth. than in a hammer mill. This factor can be signifi-
Roll crushers are mainly used in secondary cant where the crushed material is to be used for
or tertiary crushing applications. Although not construction purposes. In hammer mills, which
widely used in the minerals industry, roll crush- are falling into disuse in the last decades, a series
ers can be effective in handling friable, frozen, of hammers is mounted on the rotor and operate
and less abrasive feeds such as limestone, coal, at speeds between 2000 and 6000 rpm. Much of
gypsum, phosphate, and other soft ores (Wills and the comminution in a hammer mill is the result
Finch 2016). One of the advantages of roll crush- of attrition because the particles are given high
ers is that they exert a more positive control on velocities. This generates a much higher propor-
the top size of the crushed product than is possible tion of fines than with compressive crushers. The
with jaw and gyratory-type crushers. The main product size can be extremely fine; for example,
issue of roll crushers is that they have the highest talc can be reduced to a size of 2 μm.
capital cost of all crushers for a given throughput Regarding the impact mill or impactor
and reduction ratio. (. Fig. 6.21), this equipment is often used for
The pressure practiced on the feed particles in coarse crushing. Impact crushers change mainly
classical roll crushers ranges from 10 to 30 MPa. in the design of the impactors (they may be
If the crushing pressure increases hydraulically arranged onto a roll or as a series of hammers)
up to 150 MPa or more, the units are commonly and in the nature of the crushing chamber (plates
termed high-pressure grinding rolls (HPGR) or bars), being the bars mounted rigidly on a
450 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
.. Fig. 6.19 High-pres-
sure grinding rolls (HPGR)
(Image courtesy of Metso)
rotor. The feed material falls tangentially onto a crushers are the high wear rates of the liners or
rotor running at 250–500 rpm and is shattered impellers, especially where handling abrasive
by multiple blows from the impact bars. The par- feeds. Hence, these devices are not recommended
ticles undergo secondary breaking where they for utilization in mineralization including over
impact against the stationary breaker plates that 15% silica (Woollacott and Eric 1994).
line the crusher chamber. Large impact crushers
will decrease 1 m top size run-of-mine mineral- Tumbling Grinding Mills
ization to 20 mm; consequently high-reduction The final comminution stage is commonly car-
ratios (40:1) can be achieved. Since the impactor ried out in tumbling mills, cylindrical devices
depends on high velocities for crushing, wear is where the particle size is decreased combining
greater than for jaw or gyratory crushers. Thus, impact and abrasion forces. The first difference
major problems associated with operating impact between the mills is in the ratio diameter/length
6.6 · Comminution
451 6
of the cylinder and the features of grinding media is known as the critical speed of the mill, being an
employed: steel rods, steel (. Fig. 6.14) or ceramic
essential parameter of the mill. In general, mills
balls, hard pebbles, or particles of the ore itself; operate at a fixed speed between 60 and 92% of
thus, the mill is classified accordingly. The pro- critical speed because beyond the critical speed
cess is performed commonly in water although the particles remain centrifuged at the wall and
dry option can be also possible. In this case, it is no grinding action is performed.
employed only where the downstream process-
ing is to be conducted necessarily on dry material Rod Mills
(e.g., in cement industry). Water is added with Rod mills can be defined as fine crushers or coarse
the feed material to make a slurry with solid con- grinding units. Grinding is achieved as the rods
centration of about 50% by volume. The mill load roll over one another, nipping and crushing par-
(grinding medium and the material to be ground) ticles between them. Rod mills have the impor-
occupies between 45 and 50% of its volume. The tant property that they minimize overgrinding
6 grinding mill decreases feed particles of 5–20 mm because the rods tend to be held apart by the larg-
to components with sizes ranging from 40 to est particles so that they do not break small par-
200 μm as needed for further beneficiation. ticles efficiently. The size feed is up to 50 mm, and
The tumbling action in a mill is brought by the final product is as fine as 300 μ. Thus, reduc-
rotation of the mill on its axis, being the grind- tion ratios are commonly between 15:1 and 20:1.
ing operation continuous. The mill load is carried Rod diameters (. Fig. 6.23) vary between about
upward by the motion of the mill until the force of 50 and 125 mm, and the length of the cylindri-
gravity causes the load to fall away from the mill cal shell is between 1.5 and 2.5 times its diameter.
shell and to tumble over itself. At low rotational As in ball mills, steel grinding media are pre-
speeds, the components of the grinding medium ferred because of their high density and relatively
remain in contact with one another, and the tum- low cost; the higher the density of the grinding
bling action is referred as cascading (. Fig. 6.22).
medium, the higher the grinding capacity of the
In this case, the dominant size reduction mecha- mill. The major disadvantage in the use of steel
nism is attrition; this motion generates fines and grinding media is the cost associated with the
must be minimized as possible. At higher mill steel consumption. This forms a significant part of
speeds, the components of the grinding medium the operation costs of a rod or ball mill operation.
begin to be ejected from the main body of the load, Optimum grinding rates are obtained in rod
and the process is termed cataracting; this motion mills with about 45% charge filling. Overcharging
produces less amount of fines. At higher speeds generates ineffective grinding and augmented
still, the load in the mill begins to centrifuge. The liner and rod consumption. The rod consumption
speed at which the load just begins to centrifuge is usually between 0.1 and 1.0 kg of steel per ton of
mineralization for wet grinding, being less for dry
grinding. Rod mills commonly run at between
Cataracting 50 and 60% of the critical speed, so that the rods
cascade rather than cataract. Since rod mills give
Dead zone a product of relatively narrow size range, they are
Empty zone appropriate to prepare the material that is fed in a
gravity concentration circuit or to some flotation
systems. These devices always run in open circuit
because of their controlled size reduction.
balls (Woollacott and Eric 1994). Different factors associated with the consumption of steel grinding
influence the effectiveness of ball mill grinding. media are partially or completely avoided.
The effectiveness also is based on the surface area The breakage mechanism in AG and SAG mills
of the grinding medium. Balls must be small, and is basically similar to that found in other tumbling
the charge must be graded such that the biggest mills. In the same way that a ball mill grinds the ore
balls are just heavy enough to grind the largest using steel balls, an autogenous mill grinds due to
and hardest particles in the feed. Primary grind- self-grinding of the mineralization particles and
ing commonly requires a graded charge ranging any additional grinding medium such as balls or
from 5 to 10 cm diameter balls, while secondary rods that are present. The tumbling drum works
grinding needs 2–5 cm. with a 25–40% volume filling of ore. Thus, metal-
lic or manufactured grinding medium is not used.
Autogenous/Semiautogenous Mills Therefore, there is little wear as the mineral itself
Since the advent of autogenous (AG) and semiau- carries out the grinding. AG or SAG mills are some-
6 togenous (SAG) milling technologies in the late times classified based on the aspect ratio of the mill
1950s, they have established themselves as the shell design, which is the ratio of diameter to length.
current standard and are generally utilized in the Common aspect ratios range between 3 or high
industry up to now. Thus, the highest throughput aspect ratio mills to 0.3 or low aspect ratio mills.
grinding circuits in the mining industry use AG Bigger diameters are frequent in North America,
or SAG mills. These methods replaced the prior while longer mills are more usual in Europe. AG/
«conventional» comminution systems based on SAG mills can operate feed mineralization as big
crushing ball mill or rod mill-ball mill installations as 200 mm (the product of a primary crusher) and
at least in the precious and base metals industry obtain a product of 0.1 mm in one stage.
(Gorain 2016). Therefore, AG and SAG mills have One of the issues of AG mills (. Fig. 6.25) is
become a key element of comminution in min- that features of the mineralization as hardness and
eral processing systems. It is clear that the main abrasiveness can change generating an inconsistent
advantage of AG and SAG is that the high costs grinding behavior. This is because the hardness,
optimum load volume, although the difference in energy (Radziszewski 2015). Since shear is more
density and hardness means that the replenishment effective than the impact for fine grinding, stirred
rates are higher than for ball mills. Pebble mills have mills are more energy effective than tumbling ones
the advantage over ball mills where iron contamina- where the product is less than about 100 μm. While
tion needs to be avoided. Since the weight of pebbles early applications were in regrinding, stirred mills
per unit volume is about 35–55% of that of steel balls have drawn attention for utilization in primary
and as the power input is proportional to charge grinding circuits (Wills and Finch 2016).
content, the power draw and capacity of pebble mills Stirred mills can be broadly separated into
are consequently lower. Thus, a pebble mill would be two categories: gravity-induced mills and fluid-
much bigger than a ball mill for a certain feed rate, ized charge mills. In gravity-induced stirred mills,
generating higher capital cost. the screw rotates slowly such that the ball charge
and slurry are settled under gravity. In contrast,
Stirred Mills the fluidized mill type utilizes high-rotational
6 Starting about two decades ago, stirred milling has velocities of either impellers or disks to produce
become more prevalent in milling operations, cor- the suspension and total mixing of the grinding
responding to the increase in processing of more media and slurry particles. Thus, the fluidization
complex fine-grained ores demanding liberation compels the slurry particles and grinding media
grinds of 10 μm (Ellis and Gao 2002). Thus, the to remain in contact with each other, and the
stirred mill is a fine-grinding device capable of resulting relative motion induces size reduction
producing particle sizes less than 1 μm. Stirred of the slurry particles by abrasion and attrition
milling devices have solidly established them- grinding (Ntsele and Allen 2012).
selves in ultrafine grinding systems as energy-
efficient alternatives to tumbling ball mills. Stirred
mills differ from tumbling mills in how grinding 6.6.5 Size Reduction Circuits
energy is transferred to the material being ground.
Tumbling mills use both impact and shear (abra- Three main criteria establish the manner in which
sion/attrition) energy in roughly equal measure, a size reduction circuit is designed: (a) require-
whereas stirred mills use predominantly shear ments to maintain the desired production rate,
.. Fig. 6.26 Mill control room (Image courtesy of North American Palladium Ltd.)
6.6 · Comminution
457 6
(b) to produce a crushed or milled product of the ball mills and/or rod mills. Single-stage crush-
desired size, and (c) to minimize costs because the ing is commonly utilized where the final product
circuit configuration and selection of the equip- size of the mineralization is generally between 90
ment represents a critical cost saving. Thus, the and 200 mm. Secondary-stage crushing includes
layout of comminution installations in mining crushing the product to its required size (e.g.,
operations is an essential factor in meeting pro- 15–35 mm) utilizing two types of crushers, nor-
duction requests while maintaining capital and mally a jaw and cone crusher. Regarding tertiary
operational costs to a minimum. Obviously, all stage crushing (. Fig. 6.27), it involves crushing
processes of comminution are controlled from a the product to its needed size (e.g., 7–15 mm)
control room (. Fig. 6.26). In fact, the number of
applying two or more types of crushers. If utilizing
factors that influence the selection of comminution cone crushers for both the secondary and tertiary
circuits is extensive depending upon the nature of circuits, it is usual to operate with different head
the project, whether it is greenfield plant or an arrangements on each cone crusher.
expansion, as well as on a thorough understanding The appropriate selection of equipment in cir-
of the ore characteristics and scoping of test work cuit design is determined by feed size, ore type,
at each of the study (Barratt and Sherman 2002). tonnage, and final product size. The fact that the
Circuit design has progressed with larger crushers inherent efficiency of some devices is higher than
utilizing more horsepower and velocity to operate others causes comminution circuit designers to
higher throughputs at a deceased cost. select equipment that produces a favorable overall
Processing installations can utilize several efficiency. In this sense, a key aspect of achieving
strategies to carry out comminution largely based high overall efficiency is to remove product size
on the ore types. The most common plans involve material as soon as possible after it is created. This
the use of single-stage crushing and further autog- is because the material that it is already finished
enous (AG) or semiautogenous grinding mills takes up energy and interferes with the breakage of
(SAG) and multiple-stage crushing followed by coarse particles. Thus, effectiveness size separation
Granite
600mm
Grizzly feeder
Cone crusher
opening 64 mm
setting 32 mm Cone crusher
Jaw crusher setting 16 mm
setting
110 mm
utilizing screens, hydrocyclones, and other classifi- part of the complexity of the process and in part
ers is an essential part of the circuit design. In gen- on the nature of the disturbances. Disturbances
eral, the ideal comminution circuit must be easy to are temporal changes in ore characteristics in the
operate and maintain, is power efficient, and has a feed to a comminution process because the opera-
low or no steel media consumption. tor or control system can do nothing to modulate
Regarding the grinding circuit (. Fig. 6.28),
them. These disturbances will arise in ore hardness
since its main goal is to decrease the ore particle to (e.g., different ore types and genesis modes), feed
a level that allows effectively separation between size (e.g., blasting practices and stockpile segrega-
gangue and valuable minerals in the further pro- tion), and liberation requirements (e.g., requiring
cessing step, a perfect trade-off between quality a change in grind) (Herbst et al. 2003). Although
and quantity is crucial. As commented previously, the comminution process can well be stable to
it is also essential to develop this process at the these fluctuations without intervention, control
lowest suitable energy and grinding medium con- systems are normally required to ensure stability
sumption. The appropriate control of grinding and to enhance the overall economic performance
process must manage the ore and water feed rate of the process. Instrumentation in process control
and the mill speed. Other features that increment includes ore level detectors, oil flow sensors, power
complexity to this control issue are ore size and the measurement devices, belt scales, variable speed
quantity of circulating load. For this purpose, cir- belt drives and feeders, particle size measurement
cuit simulation is becoming increasingly critical devices, and many others (Flintoff et al. 2014).
for optimization, design, and control. It is the abil-
ity to model the behavior of individual pieces of
equipment and then to combine these models in 6.7 Size Separation
such a way that they quantitatively predict the per-
formance of circuits and ultimately entire plants. Two distinctly different types of separation tech-
Therefore, process control is an essential com- niques based on size can be recognized: screening
ponent of any comminution system. Virtually all and classification. Election between screening and
plants built today have a sophisticated digital con- classification is determined by the fact that finer
trol system that enables all basic control functions. separations require large areas of screening sur-
In addition, most new plants adopt advanced pro- face and thus can be expensive compared to the
cess control applications to deal with the multi- classification for high-throughput applications.
variate nature of process optimization in real time. Unfortunately, ideal separations are never achieved
The complexity of the control strategy depends in because some undersize particles will report to the
6.7 · Size Separation
459 6
.. Fig. 6.29 Screening
Feeding: material to
be processed
Screening surface
Oversize
Undersize
oversize stream, and some oversize particles will such as dewatering will be covered in other head-
report to the undersize stream, being this feature a ings of this chapter.
measure of inefficiency in the separation procedure. Screening uses a geometrical pattern for size
control: the screen. In its simplest version, a screen
is a perforated and rigid surface that is uniformly
6.7.1 Screening perforated with apertures, which are normally all
the same size. In screening, the material is sent
Screening, also called mechanical classification, is to the screen surface so that material finer than
one of the oldest unit operations, and it is used in the apertures falls through the screen (they are
many industries worldwide. Industrial screening called undersize, minus, or lower product) and
is widely applied to size separation from 300 mm the oversize is sent to the discharge zone (termed
down to 40 μm, but the effectiveness reduces oversize, plus, or upper product) (. Fig. 6.29). The
quickly with fineness. Separations of dry particles desired separation size is called the «cut size.» The
by using screens are commonly attempted down effectiveness of screening is established by the
to about 75 μm. As a general rule, classification is amount of separated material into size fractions
unchangingly the single choice for the separation above and/or below the aperture size. The screens
of particles smaller than about 0.1 mm. are used in all types of crushing devices at feed
According to Wills and Finch (2016), there are and discharge stages. Each screen provides two
a wide range of screening objectives in the min- products; to obtain more products, it is necessary
erals industry: (a) sizing, to separate particles by to use additional screens.
size; (b) scalping, to remove the coarsest size frac- Whether a particle passes through the aper-
tions in the feed material; (c) grading, to prepare tures of the screening surface to the undersize
a number of products within specified size ranges; product will depend mainly on its size and shape,
(d) media recovery, for washing magnetic media although other aspects such as screen dimensions
from ore in dense medium circuits; (e) dewater- and loading, the nature of the relative movement
ing, to drain free moisture from a wet sand slurry; between particles and screening surface, the per-
(f) de-slimming or de-dusting, to remove fine centage of open area or degree of perforation, and
material, generally below 0.5 mm, from a wet or the screen angle can also influence on the separa-
dry feed; and (g) trash removal, to remove coarse tion process (Woollacott and Eric 1994). Regarding
wood fibers or tramp material from a slurry the particle shape, large needlelike particles can
stream. be able to pass to the undersize if correctly orien-
In this section, the main objectives of screen- tated, even though according to their length, they
ing are the first two goals, whereas other purposes should report to the oversize. Similarly, fairly small
460 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
platelike particles can tend to bridge apertures and inclined vibrating screens are by far the most pop-
be misplaced to the oversize product. In general, ular device in mineral processing plants.
screen efficiency must always be matched with There are many types of screening surface
capacity. In this sense, it is commonly possible by available. The size and shape of the apertures, the
the utilization of a low feed rate and a very long proportion of open area, the material properties
screening time to effect a near complete concentra- of the screening surface, and the flexibility of the
tion. screen surface can be essential to the efficiency of
Screen angle or slope of screen deck also affects a screen machine. For a long time (Taggart 1945),
considerably the separation process because the screening surface can be mainly placed into one of
slope of the screening surface influences the angle three general categories: woven wire screen, perfo-
at which particles are presented to the screen rated screen plate, and profile wire or bar. Woven
apertures. Some screens apply this effect to obtain wire screen is the most used, although perforated
separations definitely finer than the screen aper- plate is often employed for very intensive use and/
6 ture. For example, banana screens incorporate or coarse sizes. Plates are more expensive, but
a variable-angle slope that allows for increased they resist wear and have a long life, less blinding,
throughput. In general, where the discharge end of higher efficiency, and a high degree of accuracy in
a screen deck is inclined down from the horizon- sizing. Choice depends on the size range involved,
tal, the material cascades more rapidly down the the nature of the application, the desired capac-
slope and either passes through an opening or over ity, and the corresponding efficiency of the screen.
the screen surface in accord with some probability. Screening surfaces are usually manufactured from
Hence, the capacity of a screen must increase as steel, rubber, or polyurethane (. Fig. 6.30).
deck slope increase. Efficiency will remain con- There are three main constraints that limit the
stant or increase up to a critical slope and then application of screening in industrial-scale size
reduce as slope increases. In crushing plants, separations; these constraints represent all prob-
screen decks are usually operated at angles ranging lems taking place in the separation of small par-
from 20° to 30° below the horizontal (Mular 2003). ticles. First, the screens tend to become blinded by
Vibrating is another factor that affects the screen particles that get stuck in the apertures, increasing
performance. Screens are commonly vibrated by this tendency rapidly as the size of the apertures
circular or elliptical motion with the objective to decreases. It becomes a major problem at an aper-
throw particles off the screening surface so that ture size below about 0.5 mm. Second, every parti-
they can again be presented to the screen and to cle must be presented to an aperture at least once to
convey the particles along the screen. In view of all achieve a reasonable separation. Near-size particles,
explained about slope of the screen and vibration, those that are only slightly smaller than the screen
a b
cal integrity of a surface demand a certain mini- ancient and comprises a cylindrical screen com-
mum amount of material between the apertures. monly rotating at between 35% and 45% critical
Therefore, as the number of apertures increases and velocity. They can operate fragments from 6 to
their size reduces, the proportion of the open sur- 55 mm, and even smaller sizes can be incorporated
face decreases as well (Woollacott and Eric 1994). under wet conditions. A trommel can separate dif-
ferent products by utilizing a series of screen with
Screening Equipment the coarsest to finest apertures. It can operate both
dry (e.g., in construction and demolition materi-
Grizzlies als) and wet feed material. Trommels are cheap
Grizzlies (. Fig. 6.31) are utilized for rough
and most useful for soil washing of coal and iron
screening of coarse to very coarse rocks. They ore industry at higher-end applications. Screening
are most commonly utilized in crushing circuits, of aggregates and road material is also one of the
being usually incorporated for sizing the feed to most classical applications of this device, but this
the primary crusher. A grizzly is basically a set of utilization is clearly diminished because of its
steel rails, bars, or rods placed in a parallel man- lower capacities and quick wear. In this case, trom-
ner at a determined separation (e.g., 10–200 mm). mels are usually replaced by vibrating screens.
famous screening devices for mineral processing Mogensen sizer is a classical vibrating screen,
applications. In these machines, the perforated sur- being a probability device useful in the separa-
face is set into a frame that is agitated vigorously. tion of particles in the size range of 5–0.1 mm. It
.. Fig. 6.33 Polyurethane
nozzles placed cross-
sectionally to the material
flow (Image courtesy of
SAMCA)
6.7 · Size Separation
463 6
exploits the principle that particles smaller than are now over 400 installations of this type around
the aperture statistically need a sufficient number the globe in grinding circuits, as an alternative to
of presentations to the screen in order to pass. On hydrocylones, for both metal and nonmetal bene-
the other hand, Banana or multislope or multiangle ficiation applications (Gorain 2016) (. Fig. 6.34).
angular particles give rise to higher drag forces the rising currents are graded from a relatively
than spherical particles of the same mass. As a high velocity in the first pocket to a relatively low
result, such particles will settle more slowly in the velocity in the last pocket. The finest particles flow
fluid. Furthermore, particle-settling rates decrease over the discharge weir. Hydraulic classifiers can
as the concentration of solids in a fluid increases be free-settling or hindered-settling types. The
because the number of inter-particle collision is free-settling methods, however, are seldom uti-
higher. In these situations, the influence of par- lized; they are easy and have high capacities but
ticle density on settling rate is accentuated. are clearly inefficient in sizing and sorting (Wills
and Finch 2016).
Classification Equipment Sedimentation classifiers include two groups:
nonmechanical classifiers and mechanical classi-
Gravitational Classifiers fiers. In nonmechanical sedimentation classifiers
Classifiers can be grouped into two categories: (. Fig. 6.36), the main goal is only to separate
6
gravitational classifiers and centrifugal classifi- the solids from the liquids. Consequently, they
ers. Two types of gravitational classifiers can be are sometimes utilized as dewatering devices in
defined according to the way in which the par- small-scale processing plants. Nonmechanical
ticles settle at different rates: hydraulic classifiers classifiers are not suitable for fine classification
and sedimentation classifiers. Hydraulic classifiers or if a high separation efficiency is required.
(. Fig. 6.35) are characterized by the utilization of
Mechanical classifiers are mainly used in closed-
additional water to that of the feed pulp, entered circuit grinding treatments and in the classifica-
so that its direction of flow opposes that of the tion of materials from ore-washing plants. Their
settling particles. In these devices, the slurried design includes a settling tank and a mechanism
particles are introduced to a separating chamber to remove the settle solids from the bottom of
that has a base consisting of several pockets. The the tank. The different classifier designs are based
particles are separated by contrast between the mainly on the mode of extracting the underflow
velocity of the particles and the velocity of water. and the overflow slurries. Immersed spiral or
Thus, each pocket collects particles that have rakes are commonly utilized for underflow slur-
settling rates greater than the rising rates of the ries, and an open launder carries the overflow. The
injected water. The arrangement and design of the rake design includes rakes actuated by an eccen-
pocket and subsequent pockets are such that they tric motion, which causes them to dip into the
recover progressively smaller particles because settled material and to move it up the incline for
.. Fig. 6.35 Hydraulic
classifier (Image courtesy
of SAMCA)
6.7 · Size Separation
465 6
.. Fig. 6.36 Nonmechani-
cal sedimentation classifier
(Image courtesy of TEFSA)
Centrifugal Classifiers
The separating mechanism in centrifugal classifi-
ers has elements of both hydraulic and sedimenta-
tion classifications. In these devices, rapid settling
and classification is carried out by incrementing
the force acting on the particles by substitut-
ing the gravitational force by centrifugal forces.
Different types of devices using this principle are
operated for the purpose, being the hydrocyclone
the simplest. This machine has grown into one of
the most interesting and broadly utilized classifi-
ers in the minerals industry. It is usually applied
in closed circuit within grinding systems and is
utilized to return coarse material back to the ball
or rod mill for further grinding. The main advan-
tages of hydrocyclone is that it has big capacities
in comparison to their size and can split at finer
sizes than most other screening and classification
devices. Hydrocyclone units can be installed on
simple supports as single units or in clusters.
A typical hydrocyclone is formed by a conically
shaped vessel, open at its apex, or underflow, joined
.. Fig. 6.37 Spiral classifier (Image courtesy of Alrosa)
to a cylindrical section, which has a tangential feed
inlet (. Fig. 6.38). Particles entrained in the fluid
High pressure
Overflow
fines
Vortex
Feed
Valuable mineral
Waste
N S
air H2SO4
The main goal of any mineral concentration pro- considered: (a) ore sorting, (b) gravity concentra-
cedure is to separate the material being treated tion, (c) dense medium separation, (d) flotation,
into principally two process streams. Thus, the (e) magnetic and electrostatic separation, and (f)
minerals of interest are conducted into one stream, hydrometallurgy. Although hydrometallurgy is
generally termed the «concentrate stream,» while a chemical, not a physical process to concentrate
the gangue components present are conducted a mineral, it is considered here because its use is
into a second stream, which is commonly termed being increased, especially for the beneficiation of
the «tailings stream.» At the same time, as little as copper ores. This is the case of the so-called solvent
possible of the minerals of interest should be lost extraction electrowinning (SX/EW).
to the tailings stream (Woollacott and Eric 1994).
The beneficiation method selected for a par-
ticular concentration separation depends on the 6.8.1 Ore Sorting
nature of the mineralization, the characteristics of
the minerals to be separated, and the differences Ore sorting exploits differences in the physical
between those properties (. Fig. 6.40). If more
appearance of particles to effect a separation. The
than one separation method is available, obviously term physical appearance is used very broadly
the selection must be based mainly on economics. here and includes optical properties such as color
A wide range of processes and equipment has been and texture as well as nonoptical properties such
developed for concentration separations. Sorting as intensity of emitted radiation. Ore sorting is
by hand and gravity concentration have been used commonly undertaken after primary or secondary
for many centuries. By the end of the nineteenth crushing where sufficient liberation is achieved.
century, these processes had been improved, Applications indicate that many mines have about
and crude magnetic and electrostatic separation 30 wt% barren waste separated in the size rang-
machines introduced. However, it was the develop- ing from 10 to 100 mm, which enables material
ment of flotation early in the twentieth century that to be diverted without meaningful loss of value.
provided a dramatic technological change; a wider Therefore, preconcentration by sorting is really a
range of minerals and lower-grade ores could be procedure of enhancing the sustainability of min-
concentrated, and higher concentrate grades could eral processing installations by decreasing specific
be obtained. On the other hand, technological materials handling requests, minimizing energy
innovations in the hydrometallurgical industry in and water consumption in grinding and concentra-
the last 50 years have consisted largely of changes tion, and obtaining more benign tailings disposal
that allowed companies to exploit lower-grade ores (Cutmore and Eberhardt 2002). Thus, the interest
and to continually reduce the cost of metal pro- of mineralization sorting in enhancing valuation
duction (Lakshmanan et al. 2016). Based on the of marginal deposits is ever more being realized by
above, the following beneficiation methods can be the mining industry (Lessard et al. 2014).
468 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
.. Fig. 6.41 X-ray
transmission diamond
sorter (Image courtesy of
De Beers Group)
Ore sorting has the longest history of all min- various properties are used in sensor-based ore
eral extraction techniques because the separa- sorting. According to Bamber (2008), different
tion of ore from waste in mined ground during methods can be outlined based on the following
the Bronze and Iron Age would have been done properties along with applications: (a) photomet-
by hand. In fact, the method is obviously the ric (coal, sulfides, phosphates, oxides), (b) radio-
simplest. This principle has long been applied metric (uranium, gold), (c) conductivity (metal
in handpicking (. Fig. 6.6), in which the mate-
sulfides, native metals), (d) fluorescence (metal
rial to be sorted is placed on slowly moving belts sulfides, limestone, iron ore), (e) X-ray lumines-
that pass between rows of pickers. The separa- cence (diamonds), (f) X-ray transmission (dia-
tion desired is carried out by visually inspecting monds and coal) (. Fig. 6.41), (g) electrostatic
each lump of material and then picking out either (salts, halite, sylvite), and (h) magnetic (iron
the ore or the waste material. Clearly, only fair- ore, andalusite, quartz, kimberlites). Nowadays,
sized fragments larger than 50 or 60 mm can be the main types of automated ore sorters, except-
processed in this way. The practice of handpick- ing those used in diamond industry, are color or
ing has declined primarily because of the cost of conductivity sorters. Matching two sensors has a
labor and a decrease in the grade of the ores being future such as optical/near infrared, optical/induc-
mined. tive, or X-ray transmission/inductive (Arvidson
The advent of high-speed electronics has made and Wotruba 2014).
possible the automation of the ore sorting process. Concentration of valuable minerals using sensor-
New technologies were developed in electronic based devices is an essential procedure for the pro-
sorters based on the physical properties of the cessing of certain minerals (e.g., diamonds) (. Box
ore. Thus, «the term sensor-based ore sorting is 6.3: Udachny Diamond (Kimberlite) Processing
introduced as an umbrella term for all applications Plant). Based on the particle size of the mineraliza-
where particles are singularly detected by a sensor tion being separated, these machines can work at
technique and ejected by an amplified mechani- throughput rates up to 200 t/h per device. Sorting
cal, hydraulic, or pneumatic process» (Wotruba machines operate most effectively if the size of the
and Harbeck 2010). The working principle for an biggest particles is no greater than two or three times
electronic sorter is to determine the value of the the size of the smallest component, including also
mineral and then eject the particles that have this the presence of several machines in the plant operat-
value lower than a given threshold value as gangue ing diverse size fractions. Sensor-based ore sorting
or concentrate. Depending upon the type of ore, devices inspect particles to determine the value of
6.8 · Mineral Beneficiation
469 6
some property using contactless and real-time mea- components as the essential requests: (a) method(s)
surements that obtain both location and material for feeding, (b) method(s) for sensing (e.g., par-
properties. Data are processed, and the information ticle examination), (c) method(s) for utilizing the
(e.g., visible light reflectance) creates a basis for ejec- information achieved from sensing zone, and (d)
tion or retention of those components that fulfill one method(s) for separating one mineral from another
criterion (e.g., light versus dark particles). In this (e.g., air jet, water jet, and mechanical separating
sense, the ejection can be selected either for valuable systems). The ultimate objective of sensor-based ore
or gangue minerals. Manouchehri (2003) affirms sorting is to minimize processing costs and decreas-
that a sensor-based device must include several ing the environmental footprint of an operation.
Box 6.3
.. Fig. 6.42 X-ray
fluorescent (XRF) separa-
tion site (Image courtesy of
Alrosa)
A typical example of sensor-based ore sorting concentrated by dense medium separation (see
is the recovery of diamonds because diamonds 7 Sect. 8.3). The method replaces grease separation
fluoresce where irradiated by X-rays (. Box 6.4: (. Fig. 6.43), which is actually applied specifically
Saxendrift Diamond (Alluvial) Processing Plant). where the diamonds luminesce weakly or to audit
In this application, X-ray sorters are utilized in the X-ray tailings. The process is commonly mul-
almost all diamond processing plants for the final tistage to assure effectively the rejection of gangue
steps of recovery after the mineralization has been components with very high diamond recoveries.
residue deposit. The oversize tail- the existing bank of twelve hand sorting of the concentrate
ings are transported via a conveyor Flowsort X-ray machines. An X-ray takes place inside a secure glove
belt to the pan tailings bin where machine uses X-rays to produce box (. Fig. 6.45). The locked box
it is combined with the separator luminescence because diamonds into which the diamonds are
cyclone underflow; this material is and a range of other minerals dropped (after final hand sorting)
then trucked to the relevant tailings exhibit this property. The final is removed, and the diamonds are
dumps. The concentrate from each reduction of pan concentrate is counted, weighed, and put into
pan is removed as a batch from down to only a few kilograms per a «ziplock» envelope (in a second
the pans using individual screw shift. Here, the concentrate is sepa- glove box). The glove boxes are
conveyors. The concentrate from rated into six fractions (5/8 mm, locked with padlocks and seals
each pan is then combined and 8/10 mm, 10/13 mm, 13/17 mm, which have to be broken to be
transported along a conveyor belt 17/21 mm, and 21/36 mm) and opened. The envelopes containing
to the final recovery. fed into the final recovery at a the diamonds are dropped into
maximum feed rate of 27,000 kg/h. another locked container before
Recovery Thereafter, the concentrate passes being stored in a high-security safe
In Saxendrift plant, final recovery through a bank of twelve single- prior to dispatch to Johannesburg
on the rotary pan plant is through pass X-ray Flowsort machines. Final for sale.
6.8 · Mineral Beneficiation
473 6
6.8.2 Gravity Concentration e ffectiveness of separation is lower as the indica-
tor values reduce. For example, gold has a density
Gravity concentration has a long history that can of 19.3 g/cm3, whereas the average waste minerals
be traced to before Roman times (e.g., Las Médulas have a density of about 3.0 g/cm3. Consequently,
Mine in Spain – see Box 1). Thus, it is one of the the comparatively very high density of gold makes
oldest concentration procedures beside the utili- it very amenable to gravity separation. Thus,
zation of jigs and sluices for the concentration of placer mining operations recover gold and other
heavy minerals at the sixteenth century. In 1556, heavy minerals using gravity concentration.
Agricola, in his book De Re Metallica, described From a theoretical viewpoint, there are three
several gravity concentration devices used in basic mechanisms used in gravity concentration:
Europe; verbatim: The practical effect of differ- 1. Density: utilizes a fluid with the density value
ences in specific gravity of the various compo- between those of the valuable minerals to
nents of an ore. Shaking tables were implemented be separated; the most common example is
in the late nineteenth century since industrializa- the heavy medium separation, which will be
tion requires a big scale production of minerals explained in the next section.
continually working. But froth flotation arrives 2. Stratification: the minerals are stratified by
in the twentieth century, and the significance of a fluidization originated by the pulsation of
gravity concentration declined, although on aver- the fluid in a vertical plane; examples of these
age the gravity separation processes are compara- machines are different types of jigs utilized
tively cheaper and environment friendlier than for separation.
froth flotation. Moreover, there are actually large 3. Flowing film: the valuable minerals are
tailings impoundment that could be «mined» in a separated by the relative movement through a
non-expensive manner and processed to generate stream of slurry that is flowing down a plane
high-value products utilizing recently improved by the action of gravity; examples of devices
technology in gravity separation (Wills and Finch achieving these mechanisms are sluice,
2016). spirals, and shaking tables.
Gravity concentration techniques find appli-
ances in the processing of many types of raw Regarding separation in water, jigs, spiral con-
materials and minerals such as coal, beach sands, centrators, and shaking tables are the most used
iron ores, gold, barite, fluorspar, tin, and tungsten devices. Other ancient devices include sluices and
mineralization, among others. cones. For example, pinched sluices of different
Gravity separation of two minerals with differ- forms have been applied for heavy mineral con-
ent density is performed by the relative movement centration for many years. In its common con-
in response mainly to the force of gravity. Besides figuration, it is a tilted launder about 1 m long,
the density, features such as size and shape of the narrowing from approximately 200 mm width at
particle also influence the separation. A quanti- the feed zone to about 25 mm at the discharge.
tative indicator commonly utilized to assess the
ease with which minerals of different density can Separation by Jigs
be separated in a gravity concentration process is Jigging is possibly the most complex process
the so-called concentration ratio, indicated in the because of its permanent varying hydrodynamics.
following equation: Jig utilizes a basically vertical expansion and con-
traction of a bed of particles using a pulse of fluid
Dh - Df generated mechanically or by air (. Fig. 6.46). A
The frequency of pulsations commonly ranges ore industries. In jig procedure, high amounts of
from 50 to 300 cycles per minute. The pulsating fine elements can interfere the right operation of
water currents in the jig are produced by a piston the device, and for this reason the fine’s amount is
having a movement that is a harmonic wave form. strongly controlled. The in-line pressure jig (IPJ)
During the pulsion part of the cycle, when the was an important device in the 1990s, which uses
water level rises, the bed dilates, and stratification a moving jig screen attached to a hydraulic ram,
by differential acceleration and hindered settling treating particles up to 30 mm (Gray 1997).
can take place. During the suction part of the Another example of this technology is the
cycle, when the water level falls, the bed consoli- centrifugal jig (e.g., Kelsey jig – . Fig. 6.48),
dates and stratification progresses. The duration which includes the classical components of a jig
of each cycle and the mean water level in the bed and, in addition, a centrifugal spinning motion
control the relative contributions of these differ- to improve the gravity concentration. This allows
ent mechanisms to the stratification that occurs sand-sized materials of relatively similar density
(Woollacott and Eric 1994). As with most con- as well as fine components to be concentrated
centration devices, jigs rarely have five sufficient more effectively. Due to the additional processes
separations in one stage; thus they are commonly applied, these devices are significantly more
built with a number of devices in series. expensive and complex to operate and maintain.
From a design point of view, the jig is basi-
cally an open tank filled with water, with a hori- Separation by Spiral Concentrators
zontal jig screen at the top, and provided with The most broadly utilized flowing film concen-
a spigot in the bottom, or hutch compartment, trator is the spiral one, based on Humphrey’s
for concentrate removal (. Fig. 6.47). The jig is
spiral introduced in 1943. Spiral concentrators
usually utilized to separate fairly coarse mate- are high-capacity, low-cost devices marketed for
rial, and if the feed is relatively closed sized (e.g., the separation of low-grade mineralization and
3–10 mm), it is easy to obtain correct concentra- industrial minerals. The most typical application
tion of a narrow density range in minerals (e.g., is possible for the concentration of sand deposits
fluorite −3.2 g/cm3– from quartz −2.7 g/cm3). including heavy minerals such as ilmenite, rutile,
For this reason, jigs are broadly utilized in min- zircon, and monazite. Materials in the size range
eral processing. Sometimes effective separations of 3 mm to 75 μm can be readily processed in
of particles down to 75 μm can be carried out. spirals. However, as in most gravity concentra-
Many large jig circuits are still operated in the tors, the more closely sized the material being
coal, cassiterite, tungsten, gold, barite, and iron processed, the more efficient the separation. The
6.8 · Mineral Beneficiation
475 6
.. Fig. 6.47 Jigs (Image
courtesy of DOVE)
new materials such as fiberglass and spray coated column. As the slurry (between 15% and 45% sol-
with polyurethane during the 1980s enabled ids by weight) travels down the spiral, high- and
important alternations to the spiral trough geom- low-density particles are stratified and separated.
etry and designed to tackle the requirements for Separation is obtained by stratification of particles
more complex separation applications (Honaker generated by a combined effect of centrifugal force,
et al. 2014). This generated higher-throughput differential settling, and heavy particle migration
spirals with a broad range of applications. The through the bed to the inner part of the device.
compound spiral was a further adjustment in the Thus, the heavy fractions flow down the inner part
1990s to enhance concentration effectiveness for and the light fractions down the outer part of the
coal and heavy mineral applications (Luttrell et al. spiral. Discharged parts for the extraction of the
2007). higher-density particles are situated at the lowest
A spiral concentrator is formed by of one or points in the cross section. Splitters at the end of
more helical profiled troughs installed on a central the spiral are often used to give three products
476 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
.. Fig. 6.50 Multiple
units of spiral concentrator
(Image courtesy of Daytal
Resources Sapin S.L.)
6.8 · Mineral Beneficiation
477 6
the table along the length and perpendicular to to wash over the riffles and to the bottom edge.
the water flow and parallel to the riffle distribu- Intermediate positions between these extremes
tion. The differential shaking action is applied to produce recovery of the middling particles. The
the table along its horizontal axis. This action not shaking movement of the table transports the
only opens the bed to allow dense particles to sink heavy minerals along the back of each riffle to the
but, by its asymmetry, provides particle transport concentrate discharge. Successive steps of concen-
along the table. The riffles in the table are distrib- tration is a characteristic of many shaking tables.
uted in such a way that heavy particles are caught The mineral is concentrated in as coarse a state as
and sent parallel to the direction of the oscillation. possible to obtain reasonably quick beneficiation
The material is fed to the table at one corner and hence high throughputs.
(. Fig. 6.51). It is acted upon by the flowing film
Shaking tables (. Fig. 6.52) are very flex-
and by the translational force imparted by the ible in their application, and a variety of table
shaking motion of the table. Thus, the heaviest and designs and riffle geometries can be employed,
coarsest particles are transported to one end of the being possibly the Wilfley table the most com-
table, while the lightest and finest particles tend mon shaking device. In operation, the table
Table
a
slope
c b
Concentrate splitter
.. Fig. 6.52 Shaking
tables (Image courtesy of
Tronox)
478 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
slope, shaking speeds, and water flowrates can be these machines are utilized together with other
manipulated to optimize the separation achieved. gravity separation equipment such as spirals, jigs,
They are used extensively to concentrate gold but and centrifugal gravity concentrators for final
are also utilized to beneficiate tin, iron, tungsten, cleaning previous to the refining or sale of prod-
tantalum, mica, barium, titanium, zirconium, uct. Shaking tables are actually being also utilized
and sometimes silver, thorium, and uranium. In in the recycling of electronic scrap to recover
all cases, the particle size must be between 7 and precious metals (. Box 6.5: Los Santos Scheelite
Box 6.5
6 Los Santos Scheelite Processing Plant (Salamanca, Spain): Courtesy of Daytal Resources Spain, S.L.
Los Santos deposit lies within the carbonate-rich sedimentary rocks pyrrhotite, and chalcopyrite as
Lower Paleozoic sediments in the has resulted in their replacement principal minerals.
Central Iberian Tectonic Zone. The by calc-silicate or siliceous miner- Los Santos scheelite process-
stratigraphy comprises a thick als, together with mineralization. ing plant is located immediately
sequence of clastic metasedi- It formed from impure Fe-rich car- to the south of the Los Santos
ments, ortho-, and para-gneisses, bonates and contains pyroxene, Sur pit, close to the existing mine
with volcanic and carbonate scheelite, plagioclase, and locally workings, the main waste dump,
formations. This stratigraphy was magnetite. The scheelite is gener- and other infrastructure. It is
intruded by Hercynian granitoids ally fine grained (<1 mm), but indi- processing 500 ktpa (thousand
in a series of plutons with numer- vidual crystals may exceed 1 cm. In tons per annum) of ore. The plant
ous granite and aplite dykes, particular areas, sulfide-rich skarns is primarily based on gravimetric
sills, and irregular pods intruding also occur. They are up to 5 m separation, aimed at recovering
the metasediments up to 0.5 km thick and several meters in strike scheelite, to provide a concentrate
from the regional granite contact. length and comprise massive or containing greater than 65%
Los Santos deposit is a typical semi-massive sulfide horizons with WO3. The overall mill flow sheet is
skarn-hosted scheelite deposit scheelite mineralization. Sulfides shown in . Fig. 6.53.
ROM Stockpile
Sulphides
CONTINUOUS FINAL
CRUSHING SPIRALS
FLOTATION FLOTATION
Sulphides
Gangue
Fine
Middlings
DRYING AND
TAILINGS SHAKING
GRINDING MAGNETIC
HANDLING TABLES Middlings SEPARATION
Coarse
Middlings Tailings FINAL
Stockpile CONCENTRATES
Crushing at 1000 μm. The stack sizer over- 48 starts. The concentrate from
Run-of-mine is dumped in various size (>1000 μm) is fed to a regrind these fine rougher spirals goes to
locations on the ROM pad accord- mill, which is a 2.1 m diameter × a bank of fine cleaner spirals (12
ing to grade-range categories 3.7 m long ball mill. The re-milled starts), and the middlings, from
and for weathered material. This product from the ball mill is sent both banks, recirculate back to the
material is blended by feeding into to the gravity circuit. rougher bank. The tails from both
a primary jaw crusher using a front- banks of spirals go to the new fine
end loader at a nominal 100 t/h Spiral Separation scavenging circuit. The new fine
rate. Then, a conveyor delivers the The ore is first classified into sepa- scavenging circuit comprises a
jaw crusher product to a primary rate coarse (<1000 μm, nominally bank of rougher spirals (36 starts)
cone crusher, and the product >150 μm) and fine (nominally and a bank of cleaner spirals (12
from this crusher is dry-screened <150 μm, >30 μm) fractions using starts). The middlings from each
on a double-deck vibrating screen. banks of hydrocyclones. The final bank recirculate over the respec-
The top deck oversize (>27 mm) <30 μm overflow is not processed in tive feed, and the tailings are
is returned to the primary cone the gravity circuits and goes directly discarded as final tailings. The con-
crusher, while the bottom deck to the tailings thickener. The first centrate from the cleaner spirals is
oversize (>12.5 mm) is passed to a separation step in the coarse circuit sent to the hydraulic classifier. The
secondary cone crusher. The sec- is the removal of strongly magnetic overflow from the hydrocyclones
ondary cone crusher product joins particles, mainly mill steel and pyr- that control the pulp dilution in
the primary cone crusher product rhotite, using a low-intensity, wet the rougher bank is thickened
and recycles back to the screen, magnetic drum separator in each in a second group of hydrocy-
while the bottom deck undersize of the two gravity circuits. The non- clones, being the underflow fed
at <12.5 mm size is discharged to magnetics pass to a bank of coarse to another set of fine spirals (12
a stack-out conveyor that forms a rougher spirals (36 starts), the starts). The middlings from these
conical open stockpile ahead of the concentrate from these spirals go to spirals recirculate over the feed,
main process plant (. Fig. 6.54).
a bank of cleaner spirals (12 starts), and the tailings are discarded as
and the middlings go to a bank of final tailings. The concentrate is
Grinding middlings-cleaner spirals (12 starts). sent directly to the ultrafine group
The tailings from the rougher and of shaking tables.
Crushed ore from the stockpile is
delivered via variable-speed belt middlings-cleaner spirals go to final
tailings, as do the middlings from Continuous Flotation
feeders and conveyors at 65 t/h to
a 2.9 m diameter × 4.8 m long rod the last bank, while the tails from The concentrate from the coarse
mill that wet grinds the ore in an the cleaner bank go back to the and fine cleaner spirals, from the
open circuit to approximately 50% regrind ball mill, and the middlings middlings-cleaner spirals, and
passing 250 μm. From the rod mill, are recycled back to the feed. from the fine scavenging spirals
the ground ore passes to a Derrick In the fine circuit, the rougher are collected and pumped to the
stack sizer where it is wet-screened spirals comprise one bank of continuous flotation circuit. This
.. Fig. 6.54 Intermediate
crushed stockpile (Image
courtesy of Daytal
Resources Spain, S.L.)
480 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
circuit comprises one bank of four classifier. Finally, the concentrate Final Flotation
Denver flotation cells of 1.4 m3 from all the cleaner tables and from The combined concentrates from
each. The sulfides are recovered the ultrafine rougher tables forms the gravity circuits (the so-called
in the froth, which are discarded the gravity preconcentrate. preconcentrate) is fed into a
as final tailings. The flotation is round screen (via a dewatering
performed at a neutral pH, and Tailings and Fines cyclone). The oversize (>500 μm)
potassium amyl xanthate (PAX) is Tailings from the spirals and shak- is reground in a 900 × 1200 mm
used as a collector. Copper sulfate ing tables as well as magnetic rod mill in close circuit with the
is used to help in the activation of fractions from the low-intensity screen. The undersize is stored
the sulfides, and pine oil is used as drum magnets are pumped to and semidewatered in a settling
a frother. The product that remains a bank of dewatering cyclones, cone, which feeds a 3 m3 batch
in the pulp is collected and with the underflow reporting flotation cell where flotation of
pumped to the hydraulic classifier. to a high-frequency dewatering the sulfides takes place. Flotation
screen, from where the undersize spend about 120 min at pH < 4.3
6 Table Separation is recycled back to the sump of the to remove sulfides as a froth con-
The hydraulic classifier comprises pump that feeds the dewatering centrate. These sulfides recirculate
nine chambers and feeds four sepa- cyclones. Fine solids, mainly from to the continuous flotation circuit.
rate shaking table circuits. All the the overflow of the second group The non-floating material, which
circuits are structured in rougher of fines classifying cyclones of the is principally scheelite and calc-
and cleaner steps with the excep- scavenging circuit, go directly to a silicates, is discharged from the
tion of the fine and ultrafine circuit, 12 m diameter thickener. Thickener batch cell into a dewatering/set-
which only has rougher tables. The underflow is batched to a 2.25 m2 tling cone and hence transferred
tailings from the rougher step of × 136-plate filter press, which to drying and final processing.
the coarse and intermediate tabling produces a cake suitable for con-
circuits are sent to regrinding. veyor discharge onto a fines waste Magnetic Separation
The tailings from the rougher fine stockpile. Overflow from the thick- The dry material is subjected
tables are sent to the fine rougher ener is recycled as process water. to high-intensity, dry magnetic
spirals, while the tailings from the There is no tailings discharge from separation in a three-stage rare
ultrafine tables are considered the process and no tailings dam: earth roll (RER) magnetic sepa-
final tailings. The tailings from the all plant waste is dewatered and rator (. Fig. 6.55). More than
cleaner step of all tabling circuits transported back to the mine 90% of the material collected
are recycled back to the hydraulic waste dumps for disposal. by the separator comes out in
.. Fig. 6.55 Magnetic
separator (Image courtesy
of Daytal Resources Spain,
S.L.)
6.8 · Mineral Beneficiation
481 6
the first roll. The mineralogical out in the second and third rolls is possible to obtain a low-grade
composition of this product is progressively less rich in mag- concentrate, of about 45% WO3.
is mainly magnetic pyroxene netic pyroxene and with a higher It is important to notice that in
(hedenbergite). Due to the pres- content in WO3. The intermediate this way, it is possible not only
ence of scheelite and wolframite, products from the magnetic to recover scheelite but also
the WO3 content can be as high separator are now dressed on a wolframite. Finally, the product is
as 3%. The product that comes double-deck table, from which it packaged in big bags.
last 20 years in the operation of centrifugal gravity the most important preconcentration techniques
concentrators have converted them the prevailing utilized for firstly waste rejection from run-of-
technique for gravity concentration of gold par- mine mineralization at comparatively coarse
ticles and expanded the utilization of this method particle sizes previous to further milling and ben-
for other heavy minerals. eficiation. A good example of this application is
Centrifugal gravity concentrators are formed in Pering zinc open-pit mine (South Africa), with
by a riffled cone or bowl that spins at a high speed 50 mt reserves at 1.4% in situ Zn + Pb equivalent
to generate forces in excess of 60 times that of grade; simplified DMS procedure decrease the
gravity. Slurry is incorporated into the cone, and run-of-mine volume by a preconcentrate mass
the centrifugal force produced by rotation drives pull of 22% at 5.2 Zn + Pb (Haldar 2013). Heavy
the solids toward the walls of the cone. The flu- media separation has also been used industrially
idization procedure anticipates compaction of the to produce finished concentrate and rejectable
concentrated bed and enables for effective concen-
tration of heavy minerals. Thus, the main applica-
tions of these devices are (a) recovery of ultrafine
Feed
slimes (tin, tantalum, tungsten, etc.) ranging from
38 to 5 μm, (b) scavenging from deslime cyclone
overflow, and (c) high recovery upgrade of fine
flotation concentrates. Sink product
waste in one operation or to produce two finished barite, and galena had also been used in the past.
products of differing composition (Aplan 2003). Obviously, the density can change by varying
DMS is probably the simplest of all the gravity water/powder ratio in the blend. Ferrosilicon is an
procedures and has long been a standard labora- alloy of iron and silicon that contains not less than
tory technique to separate minerals of diverse 82% Fe and 15–16% Si (Collins et al. 1974). It is
density. It is utilized on minerals where there is a most widely used for metalliferous ores, whereas
distinctive density difference between the mean- magnetite is applied in coal preparation because
ingful minerals and the gangue minerals. If an separation densities are not as high as needed
ore is introduced into a dense medium, which is for metalliferous ores. The cause of the utiliza-
much higher in density than that of water, some tion of ferrosilicon and magnetite is due to their
particles are denser (heavier) than the dense magnetic properties, which make them easy to
medium and sink, while other particles are less remove from the medium by magnetic separation
dense (lighter) than the medium and float on (see 7 Sect. 8.5) and recirculate within the plant.
6
top of the medium. The bigger the density differ- Since ferrosilicon has a higher specific density
ence between the valuable mineral and the waste (6.8 g/cm3) than magnetite (4.5 g/cm3), it can pro-
mineral is, the easier the DMS separation should duce a higher range of relative medium densities.
be. The process has the possibility to generate However, ferrosilicon is more expensive. With the
sharp separations at any needed density, with a objective of achieving a very good recovery and
high degree of effectiveness even in the appear- grades, the density of these heavy liquids can be
ance of high percentages of near-density material changed, and many densities can be utilized to
(material close to the desired density of concen- establish the most suitable density separation cut
tration). The density of separation can be closely points.
controlled and/or changed as required, although Preconcentration using DMS (. Fig. 6.57) is
these changes are commonly very expensive. This most commonly carried out on metal mineraliza-
is mainly due to the additional equipment needed tion that is related to relatively light country rocks
to clean and recycle the medium and the proper such as silicates and carbonates. Thus, DMS has
cost of the medium. been widely utilized in iron, lead/zinc, chromite,
Since most of heavy liquids such as tetrabro- and tin ores. Other examples of DMS are in the
moethane or bromoform are expensive and toxic, coal, manganese, fluorspar, and diamond indus-
their use on a commercial scale is impossible. tries. For example, the diamond-bearing gravels
Thus, the dense medium utilized in industrial found along the coast of South Africa are being
applications is a suspension of some dense solid beneficiated by means of dense medium separa-
in water, which acts as a heavy liquid. Below con- tion to reclaim the alluvial diamonds (Waanders
centrations of about 15% by volume, finely ground and Rabatho 2005). The process is carried out by
suspensions in water perform basically as simple using granular ferrosilicon as the DMS material.
fluids. In these procedures, agitation is essential to Dense media separators can be categorized
maintain the suspension and to lower the appar- into two main groups: gravitational (static baths)
ent viscosity. According to Gupta and Yan (2006), and centrifugal (dynamic) vessels. In gravitational
any substance utilized for this purpose must have units, the feed and medium are introduced into
the following characteristics: (a) hardness, it must the vessel, and the mixture is gently agitated to
not easily break down or abrade into a slime maintain a fluidized bed. The less dense minerals
under working conditions; (b) chemical stability, are removed by overflow or a paddle, while sink
it must not be chemically corrosive or liable to removal varies depending on the vessel. They are
react with the ore minerals undergoing treatment; largely restricted to treat feeds coarser than 5 mm
and (c) slow settlement at reasonable viscosity, it in diameter. Regarding cyclonic dense medium
must form a fairly stable pulp without having to separators, they are essentially a modified ver-
be ground very fine, otherwise the medium will sion of hydrocyclones used with a heavy medium
be too viscous. as the separating fluid instead of water, being
The two most common dense powders used broadly utilized in the processing of ores and
for creating dense medium slurries are ferrosili- coal. This equipment provides high centrifugal
con (FeSi) and magnetite (Fe3O4), although silica, force and low viscosity in the medium, allowing
6.8 · Mineral Beneficiation
483 6
.. Fig. 6.57 Dense
medium separator (Image
courtesy of Sepro Mineral
Systems Corp.)
Box 6.6
Principles of Flotation
6
Mineral separation in froth flotation factor (such as feed rate) will that do not become attached to
is achieved by the exploitation of automatically cause or demand bubbles. The particles with attached
differences in the surface proper- changes in other parts of the sys- air bubbles are then removed,
ties of the minerals to be separated. tem (such as flotation rate, particle whereas the particles that remain
Surface properties are very specific size recovery, air flow, pulp density, completely wetted stay in the liquid
to a particular type of mineral etc.). Thus, froth flotation efficiency phase. Consequently, the steps
because they are determined by is determined by a series of prob- involved in the flotation process are
its chemical composition and abilities: those of particle-bubble (a) grinding the ore fine enough so
the type of chemical bonding. As contact, particle-bubble attach- valuable mineral particles become
these are unique for each mineral, ment, transport between the pulp liberated from the waste rock and
flotation offers a very selective and the froth, froth collection into to a size range suitable to be floated
separation capability. The flotation the product launder, and others. (10–200 μm) – sometimes sizes
system includes many interrelated Very briefly, mineral separa- smaller than 8–10 μm are required;
components, and changes in one tions by the process of flotation are (b) creating a rising current of air
area will produce compensating achieved in an agitated slurry into bubbles in the pulp; (c) making
effects in other areas (Klimpel which a great amount of air bubbles conditions favorable for the desired
1995) (. Fig. 6.58). Thus, flotation
has been introduced (. Fig. 6.59).
mineral particles to adhere to air
is a good example of an engineer- The system is set up with the aim bubbles; (d) forming a mineralized
ing system, in which the various of achieving the attachment of a froth on the surface of the ore pulp;
important parameters are highly selected class of mineral particles and (e) removing the froth from the
interrelated. It is essential to take to the air bubbles. Particles that flotation cell or vessel.
all of these factors into account in are attached to the bubbles will be Although the process can
froth flotation operations because climbed to the surface of the slurry, sound relatively simple, many
changes in the settings of one thus separating them from particles simultaneous subprocesses occur
Flotation
system
Equipment components Operation components
Cell design Feed rate
Agitation Mineralogy
Air flow Particle size
Cell bank configuration Pulp density
Cell bank control Temperature
6.8 · Mineral Beneficiation
485 6
Air bubble
Collector
Particles
Water
repelling
Particle
surface
such as entrainment of gangue layer that forms on the surface will (Bulatovic 2007). Thus, chemical
into the froth phase, coalescence then be heavily loaded with the treatments to render a surface
of bubbles, detachment of valu- hydrophobic mineral and can be hydrophobic are essential methods
able particles from bubbles as they removed as a separated product. for selectively coating a particle
impact the froth phase, etc. (e.g., The hydrophilic particles will have surface with a monolayer of non-
Shean and Cilliers 2011). In reality, much less tendency to attach to air polar oil.
froth flotation is highly complex, bubbles, and so they will remain in Once the particles are ren-
and there are approximately 100 suspension and be flushed away. dered hydrophobic, they must
variables that affect to varying Particles can either be naturally be brought in contact with gas
degrees of the flotation process hydrophobic, or the hydrophobic- bubbles so that the bubbles can
(Arbiter and Harris 1962). ity can be induced by chemical attach to the surface. The attach-
treatments. Naturally hydrophobic ment of valuable minerals to air
Particle-Bubble Attachment materials include hydrocarbons bubbles is the most important
The success of a flotation operation and nonpolar solids such as mechanism and represents the
depends on the selectivity of the elemental sulfur. Since the bubbles majority of particles that are
particle attachment to air bubbles. can only be differentiated between recovered to the concentrate (Wills
It is therefore essential to under- hydrophobic and hydrophilic and Finch 2016). No flotation can
stand the factors that influence particles, the selective separation occur if the bubbles and surfaces
particle-bubble adhesion, although depends very much upon differ- never come in contact. Particle/
the overall process is very complex. ences in hydrophobicity between bubble collision is affected by the
The basis of froth flotation is the separated mineral particles. relative sizes of the particles. If
difference in wettabilities of dif- Hydrophobicity can be defined the bubbles are large relative to
ferent minerals. Thus, flotation as the process of selectively con- the particles, then fluid flowing
exploits natural and induced dif- verting the surfaces of particular around the bubbles can sweep the
ferences in surface properties of minerals from a hydrophilic condi- particles past without coming in
the minerals, whether the surface tion (provided that the mineral contact. It is therefore best if the
is readily wetted by water, that is, is is not naturally hydrophobic) to bubble diameter is comparable
hydrophilic, or repeals water, that a hydrophobic (water-repellant) to the particle diameter in order
is, is hydrophobic. If a mixture of one, which creates a condition for to ensure good particle/bubble
hydrophobic and hydrophilic parti- attachment to air bubbles. The contact. Contact between particles
cles are suspended in water and air conversion of the mineral surface and bubbles can be accomplished
is bubbled through the suspension, from hydrophilic to hydrophobic in a flotation cell.
the hydrophobic particles will tend is variable according to the differ- Where a particle and a bubble
to attach to the air bubbles and ent nature of the mineral groups have come in contact, the bubble
float to the surface. Thus, the froth (e.g., silicates, oxides, sulfides, etc.) must be large enough for its
486 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
buoyancy to lift the particle to particles back into the slurry rate of particles. At the same time,
the surface. The particle and the prematurely. However, the froth increased surface area also carries
bubble must remain attached should not be so stable as to more water into the froth as the
while they move up into the become a persistent foam, as foam film between the bubbles. Since
froth layer at the top of the cell. is difficult to convey and pump fine particles that are not attached
The froth layer must persist long through the plant. The surface to air bubbles will be unselectively
enough to either flow over the area of the bubbles in the froth is carried into the froth along with
discharge lip of the cell by gravity also important. Since particles are the water (entrainment), excessive
or to be removed by mechanical carried into the froth by attach- amount of water in the froth can
froth scrapers. If the froth is insuf- ment to bubble surfaces, increas- result in significant contamina-
ficiently stable, the bubbles will ing the amount of bubble surface tion of the product with gangue
break and drop the hydrophobic area allows a more rapid flotation minerals.
6
Flotation Reagents chemical features and function, being probably
Reagents are the most important component of the most critical of the flotation reagents. They
the flotation process since chemicals are required are polar molecules that attach to the mineral
both to control the relative hydrophobicities of fragments and render them hydrophobic so that
the particles and to keep the froth’s character- they are carried upward with the gas bubbles.
istics. In mineral processing installation, the These reagents are attached to the pulp in the
management of reagent dosages is essential in conditioner tank and ball mill. It is important to
flotation strategy (Bulatovic 2007). Accordingly, remember that most minerals do not easily float
reagents are divided into collectors, frothers, in froth flotation, as they are hydrophilic, so the
and regulators (. Table 6.4). The type of reagent
use of chemical reagents known as collectors is
and its dosage can be very varied based on the required to make them float. For example, sulfide
type of ore. However, the efficient separations minerals are hydrophilic under the usual condi-
by flotation, at least one collector and usually tions encountered in processing because they
one or more of a variety of flotation reagents, are readily oxidized when exposed to air. In the
depressants, activators, and pH control reagents, case of oxide and silicate minerals, all but two are
are needed. In addition, it is generally neces- hydrophilic (Fuerstenau 2007).
sary to add one frother, although some circuits Based on the capability of collectors to dissoci-
have adequate frothing characteristics and do ate in water, collectors can be classified into two
not require a separate addition of this type of principal groups: ionizing collectors and nonion-
reagent. It is important to note that froth flota- izing collectors. The first consist of heteropolar
tion is a very complex beneficiation method. For organic molecules. They are soluble and have
this reason, a flotation collector that works in one wide applications, being also classified according
processing plant may not work correctly at all in their major application: non-sulfide minerals or
another plan, even though both are floating the sulfide minerals. Nonionizing collectors, which
same minerals. For this reason, it is common to are practically insoluble and strongly hydropho-
develop ore-specific and site-specific testing of bic, are again separated into two groups. The
products needed in the process. xanthate family is the most widely used collector
Among the main areas of progress and inno- compound. It is applied to about three-quarters
vation in special chemical compounds for min- of global mining applications (Goodbody 2011).
eral processing are (a) an increased focus on Xanthate and other standard collectors only float
reagents that can improve mineral recovery and sulfides rather than oxide mineral species. Thus,
plant throughput; (b) the introduction of more if a mine has a mixed ore containing sulfides and
specialized products to assist with environmental, oxides, the oxides would be lost to the tailings
health, and safety compliance; and (c) reagents dam if another type of collector was not included
that are developed utilizing renewable feed stocks as well.
(Goodbody 2011). Frothers are heteropolar surface-active com-
Collectors (. Table 6.4) are a big group of
pounds that increase the surface tension of the
organic chemical compounds that differ in bubbles so that they are stable and can carry the
6.8 · Mineral Beneficiation
487 6
mineral particles upward (. Table 6.4). They
PR
PR - Primary Roughers
FC MC FC - Fast Cleaners
SC SCS MC - Medium
Cleaners
SC - Slow Cleaners
MRC
SCS - Slow Cleaner
SRC
FC Conc Scavenger
MRC - Medium
6 SR
Recleaners
SS
SRC - Slow Reclean
SR - Secondary Roughers
SS - Secondary Scavengers
FC Conc
bank, being commonly to use 4–12 cells in operation of large cells (Gorain 2016). By early
series (. Fig. 6.61). The disposition of several
2000, the cell sizes had increased up to 200 m3.
flotation cells in series enables extraction of dif- Cells as large as 700 m3 are actually manufactured
ferent products from the various cells (rougher, by some flotation cell companies. As a general
scavenger, and cleaner). This increases the float- rule, flotation cells for utilization in an installation
ing time, enabling the opportunity for particle- must be elected in accordance to laboratory and
bubble attachment to carry out. The residence pilot-scale data.
time of components in the bank of cells usually The most complex flotation circuit is to select
is in the range between 5 and 15 min (Gupta flotation of a mixing of different mineral, that is,
and Yan 2006). In general, separated particles the extraction in a sequential manner of two or
float more quickly than composite particles. more meaningful minerals from each other by
Thus, a high-grade concentrate can be delivered flotation (e.g., separation of each copper, lead,
from the early some cells in a bank and froth and zinc sulfides from a single mineralization)
from the rest cells can only generate a middling (. Box 6.7: Aguas Teñidas Polymetallic Sulphide
Box 6.7
Aguas Teñidas Polymetallic Sulfide Processing Plant (Huelva, Spain): Courtesy of Matsa,
a Mubadala & Trafigura Company
The Aguas Teñidas mine is based main haulage ramp (Santa Barbara ball mill discharge sump where it
on one of the east-west striking ramp) to the ROM ore stockpile. It is combined with the ball mill dis-
chains of volcanogenic massive has the capacity to store approxi- charge and pumped to a two-stage
sulfide (VMS) deposits on the mately 10,000 t of ore (. Fig. 6.63)
hydrocyclone classification system.
northernmost limb of the Iberian in an 8000 m2 surface. Ore is fed The target overflow density and
Pyrite Belt. The mine geology is by a front-end loader to an open P80 grind size from the SAG/ball
comprised of heavily tectonised feed bin with an approximate mill circuit is 35% w/w and 100 μm,
volcano-sedimentary sequences, capacity of 50 t of ore. This ore feed respectively, and shall feed three
with cross-cutting thrust faults and bin flows directly to a vibrating SMD mills. The ball mill is 3.6 m in
shear zones. The main lithological grizzly feeder which scalps fines diameter, and the ball charge varies
6 units at the mine comprise a foot-
wall rhyodacitic unit, massive sul-
(<150 mm) with coarse ore from
the vibrating grizzly flowing into
between 40% and 45% of the ball
mill volume using grinding media
fide mineralization, and a hanging a 1.1 m × 1.2 m crusher which (steel balls) of 40–25 mm in diame-
wall volcano-sedimentary unit. The produces a <150 mm crushed ter. The first-stage cyclone (500 mm
deposit includes four mineraliza- product. Crushing rate is nominally in diameter) underflow is returned
tion types: polymetallic lead/zinc rated at 300 tons per hour (tph). to the ball mill feed, and the
rock, massive cupriferous, barren The crushed ore is then conveyed first-stage hydrocyclone overflow
pyrite, and a cupriferous stockwork. to a covered stockpile, being the flows to a pump box feeding the
The principal ore minerals are conveyors covered for dust control second-stage hydrocyclone cluster.
sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and galena. and to avoid contamination of the The second-stage hydrocyclone
Pyrite generally forms 50–80% of environment. The stockpile has underflow flows to the three SMDs,
the massive sulfide. Both massive a nominal live capacity of 6600 t, and the cyclone overflow at a pulp
sulfide ores (polymetallic and equivalent to 3 days production. density of 35% w/w solids and with
cupriferous) are hosted in a massive a P80 of 18–22 μm will gravitate to
pyrite structure and are identified Grinding the bulk rougher flotation circuit.
from the pyrite host rock by grade Ore is delivered to the copper ore The second-stage hydrocyclone
rather than any physical differences. grinding circuit at a rate of 106 tph overflow flows by gravity to the
The polymetallic ore and via a variable speed conveyor that polymetallic bulk flotation circuit.
copper ore are treated in separate is fed by up to four vibrating feed- The zinc minerals (sphalerite)
process circuits. This is due to the ers located under each covered require a fine grind in order to
differing mineralogical properties stockpile. The grinding circuit is achieve a metallurgical recovery
and consequent differences in a three-stage grinding process in excess of 75% at the rougher
target grind size for the two miner- that consists of a semiautogenous flotation stage and a minimum zinc
alization types as well as the logisti- grinding (SAG) mill followed concentrate grade of 50% Zn.
cal difficulties that would arise in by a ball mill operating with
maintaining a consistent feed blend hydrocylones. Finally, a tertiary Flotation
and grade from the respective ore grinding stage uses stirred mill Polymetallic ore is processed by
types to the plant. The polymetallic detritors (SMD). The P80 transfer sequentially floating (. Fig. 6.64)
mineralization is best defined as size between the SAG mill and a bulk copper and lead concen-
massive sulfide with minor non-sul- the ball mill will be approximately trate (bulk concentrate) followed
fide minerals consisting of silicates 1000 and 100 μm between the sequentially by zinc flotation prior
mainly quartz, muscovite, and chlo- ball mill and the SMD. The target to discarding the final polymetallic
rite. The main sulfide minerals are P80 grind size from the grinding tailings. The bulk concentrate is
pyrite, sphalerite (zinc), and galena circuit to the copper flotation cleaned and will be processed in
(lead) with lower levels of chalco- circuit is 18–22 μm. The SAG mill is a copper/lead separation circuit
pyrite (copper), arsenopyrite, tet- 5.5 m in diameter, and an average where two concentrates are pro-
rahedrite (copper-antimony), and ball charge of between 4% and duced: a lead concentrate and a
tennantite (copper-arsenic). The 8% is expected with 90–125 mm copper concentrate. The bulk, cop-
following description is devoted grinding media (steel balls). The per and lead separation, and zinc
to the polymetallic ore processing SAG mill discharges through a flotation circuits use a three-stage
(. Fig. 6.62).
rotating trommel screen with cleaning process. The purpose
oversize material recirculated via of the bulk flotation circuit is to
Crushing a conveyor arrangement over a separate copper and lead minerals
Run-of-mine (ROM) ore is trans- weightometer and back to the mill producing a high-grade copper
ferred from underground via the feed. The undersize reports to the and lead concentrate that can be
6.8 · Mineral Beneficiation
491 6
Polymetallic circuit
SMD mills
Bulk copper
Zinc and lead
Deep cone flotation flotation
paste circuit
thickener circuit
Zinc Bulk
SMD SMD
flotation flotation
Paste mill mill
3 stage 3 stage
fill
plant
Zinc
concentrate
dewatering Copper Copper and
and lead flotation
lead 3 stage
flotation conditioning
Paste Zinc
deposit concentrate
Lead Copper
concentrate concentrate
further processed by a copper and mineral depressant), and lime as concentrate rejects (middlings or
lead flotation separation circuit. required for pH control. Sodium tailings) returns from the separa-
Reagents used in the bulk metabisulfite is used to depress tion circuit to the bulk flotation
concentrate flotation process pyrite at this time. Once a final bulk circuit. The bulk flotation circuit
include potassium amyl and ethyl flotation concentrate is produced, maximizes copper and lead recov-
xanthate, Aero 3418 flotation col- this product will be processed for ery from the polymetallic ore and
lector/promoter, zinc sulfate (zinc separation, and no recirculation of minimizes contamination of these
492 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
.. Fig. 6.63 Covered stockpile (Image courtesy of Matsa, a Mubadala & Trafigura Company)
.. Fig. 6.64 Froth flotation of polymetallic ore (Image courtesy of Matsa, a Mubadala & Trafigura Company)
6.8 · Mineral Beneficiation
493 6
same elements in the zinc flotation Combined bulk flotation circuit their respective overflow collec-
circuit. Ideally, the ratio of lead to rougher scavenger and cleaner tion tanks for return to the main
copper in the feed of polymetallic scavenger tailings discharge into process water tank.
ore to the bulk rougher flotation cir- twin-stage zinc rougher condition- The concentrate thickener
cuit is greater than 2:1 to optimize ing tanks where the slurry is condi- underflow pumps transfer the
the concentrate grades required to tioned with flotation reagents and copper and lead concentrate into
produce saleable copper and lead lime. The first-stage conditioning is the stock tank ahead of filtra-
concentrates after separation. with copper sulfate to activate the tion. The mechanically agitated
Meanwhile, the purpose of zinc minerals, and the second stage tanks are sized to hold 18 h of
the copper and lead separation will be with zinc collector and pro- slurry storage at the design plant
flotation circuit is to separate the moter reagents. The zinc flotation concentrate production rate. The
copper and lead from the bulk circuit is operated at a pH of 10.5, filters produce a cake within the
flotation concentrate to produce as compared to pH 8–8.5 in the required transportable moisture
saleable copper and lead concen- bulk flotation circuit. The elevated limit (TML) for shipment. This is as
trates. The copper and lead flota- pH is required to depress pyrite. low as possible to reduce transport
tion separation is accomplished costs and will be approximately
by depressing the lead mineral Dewatering Systems 7–8% w/w. The filter cake dis-
(galena) using a mixture of sodium The polymetallic copper and charges from the plate, and frame
dichromate or sodium bisulfite lead thickeners are center-driven filter presses (pressure filter) fall
mixed with the cellulose and phos- and 6 m in diameter. Flocculant through chutes into the concen-
phate compounds to produce a is added to the copper, and lead trate storage area, which is a fully
reagent called RPB that is added at concentrate slurries as it feeds enclosed area. The copper and lead
the conditioning stage to depress the thickeners to improve set- concentrate storage capacities are
galena and pyrite minerals. Prior to tling rates and maintain a clear approximately 1000 t, equivalent
the addition of RPB depressant, the overflow. The concentrate thick- to 7 days production at the design
bulk concentrate is contacted with ener underflows are transferred plant production rate. An FEL will
fine activated carbon to remove all by variable speed centrifugal move the concentrate if it is to be
prior reagents used to produce the pump into the respective cop- stacked away from the immediate
bulk concentrate, which ensures per and lead concentrate stock filter discharge zone and will load
the best possible separation using tanks which feed their respective the haulage trucks when required.
the RPB depressant. No regrinding pressure filters (. Fig. 6.65).
The loaded haulage trucks pass
of concentrates is done in the cop- Concentrate thickener overflow through a wheel wash system to
per and lead flotation separation are collected in a circumferential avoid concentrate dust polluting
circuit. launder and flow by gravity into the outside environment. The
.. Fig. 6.65 Pressure filters (Image courtesy of Matsa, a Mubadala & Trafigura Company)
494 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
trucks are weighed, both empty in a circumferential launder and Paste Processing
and loaded, on the site weigh- flows by gravity into the overflow Combined flotation tailings with a
bridge to determine the tonnage of collection tank for return to the pulp density of 28–30% w/w solids
concentrate hauled. Samples from main process water tank. The is pumped directly to a deep cone
each truck are taken for the assay concentrate thickener underflow thickener feed box. An 18 m in diam-
of the moisture and metal content. pumps transfer the zinc concen- eter deep cone thickener produces
In turn, the zinc concentrate trate into the zinc concentrate a thickened underflow of 70–75%
slurry from the third-stage cleaner stock tank ahead of filtration. w/w solids that is pumped to a
flotation cells is pumped to the The mechanically agitated tank is cemented paste fill plant located
concentrate thickener feed box. sized to hold 300 t (approximately approximately 2 km from the pro-
The thickener is center-driven 18 h of production) of concentrate cess plant. Alternatively, where the
and has been sized at 10 m in slurry storage at the design plant cemented paste fill plant is not in
diameter. Flocculant is also added concentrate production rate. production, the thickened tailings
to the concentrate slurry as it The filters produce a cake with are pumped to an HDPE geomem-
6 feeds the thickener to improve
settling rates and maintain a
7–9% w/w of moisture. The filter
cake discharges from the presses
brane lined paste deposit located
within 1 km of the process plant
clear overflow. The concentrate and falls through chutes into the where the paste tailings is stored
thickener underflow is transferred concentrate storage area, which is permanently on surface. The thick-
by variable speed centrifugal also a fully enclosed area. The zinc ener overflow solution gravitates to
pump into the zinc concentrate concentrate storage capacity is a hopper where it is pumped to a
stock tank that feeds the pressure approximately 3000 t, equivalent process water pond prior to being
plate and frame filter. Concentrate to 7 days production at the design returned to the process water tank
thickener overflow is collected plant production rate. located at the process plant.
to maintain the particles in suspension, disperse satisfactorily utilized in the market during the
the air bubbles, and bring about particle-bubble early 1980s. It is essentially a pneumatic device
contact. The design of the agitator and gas disper- in which the slurry is deliberately not agitated,
sion mechanism has an effect on the efficiency being the bubbles generated in specially designed
of the kinetic processes that control the rate of bubblers. Moreover, the maintenance of particle
flotation. As a rule, mechanical cells are easier suspension by different methods is not necessary.
to operate than, for instance, flotation columns. Thus, a column basically works as if it was a mul-
Thus, they are the selected option by many design tistage flotation system designed vertically with
engineers and operators. slurry flowing downward while the air bubbles
Nonmechanical cells are evermore accepted move upward (Degner and Sabey 1988). Under
by the minerals industry principally in situations normal operating conditions, the column vol-
where the classical mechanical devices do not ume is split into two distinct regions according
achieve the objectives. Some examples of these to their air content (volume fraction): a collection
applications are flotations of ultrafine particles or pulp zone (less than 20% of air) and a cleaning
6.8 · Mineral Beneficiation
495 6
.. Fig. 6.66 Flotation cell
impeller (Image courtesy of
Daytal Resources Spain S.L.)
Moreover, magnetic separation is usually a low- these particles are termed magnetic. There are two
cost technique of retrieval unless high-intensity types of magnetic particles, strongly magnetic par-
separators are required. ticles or ferromagnetic particles such as iron and
6.8 · Mineral Beneficiation
497 6
report to the magnetic product of a magnetic sepa-
.. Table 6.5 Susceptibilities of some minerals
rator due to the attractive magnetic forces.
Mineral Magnetic susceptibility The second option includes the particle’s
(Xm × 106 emu/g) repulsion by the magnetic field (diamagnetic
materials) or very weak separating forces in a
Magnetite 20,000–80,000 Ferromagnetic strong magnetic field. Diamagnetic minerals will
(strong magnetic)
report to the nonmagnetic product of a magnetic
Pyrrhotite 1500–6100 separator as they do not experience a magnetic
Hematite 172–290 Paramagnetic attractive force. The third possibility is that no
(weakly magnetic) noticeable reaction to the magnetic field occurs.
Nonmagnetic particles such as gold or quartz are
Ilmenite 113–271
not susceptible to magnetic separation, but some
Siderite 56–64 magnetic material can be removed from the feed.
Chromite 53–125 For example, in installation utilizing gravity sepa-
ration to concentrate gold, magnetic devices are
Biotite 23–80
used to extract the high amounts of magnetite
Goethite 21–25 that were recovered with the gold, prior to further
Monazite 18.9
processing.
uniform field. Thus, they can be easily separated and thousands of high-intensity magnetic sepa-
with a device displaying a low-intensity magnetic rators (HIMS) utilized in mineral processing
field of 400–600 gauss. However, it is not possible (Gorain 2016). The continuous wet high-intensity
to separate between different ferromagnetic miner- magnetic separators (WHIMS) were developed
als because they all experience the same separating later in the 1960s to remove moderately magnetic
force. In turn, weakly magnetic particles or para- particles from slurries. The high-gradient mag-
magnetic particles need a higher intensity mag- netic separators (HGMS) were also introduced
netic field to concentrate them, commonly ranging in that time principally for treating kaolin clay.
from 6000 to 20,000 gauss. Paramagnetic minerals This device allowed to process mineralization
498 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
with a high content (>10%) of weakly magnetic and low-grade magnetite ores for providing high-
material since weakly paramagnetic minerals can grade concentrates and also for direct reduction
only be effectively recovered using high-intensity iron processes (Arvidson and Norrgran 2014).
magnetic separators. The development of HGMS In general, this machine commonly produces
and superconducting separators capable of con- extremely clean magnetic concentrates. The rare
centrating very fine or very weakly magnetic earth drums (RED) are also actually being prevail-
mineral particles has prompted the application ing for the separation of some paramagnetic min-
of magnetic separation techniques to treat many erals such as hematite and ilmenite at a relatively
waste streams from mineral processing opera- high capacity (Gover et al. 2011). During the 1980s,
tions (Wills and Finch 2016). For example, fine the rare earth roll (RER) magnetic devices were
(<10 μm), weakly magnetic hematite and limonite introduced in the industry with quick acceptance.
have been recovered by a combination of selec- These machines are generally the best option for
tive flocculation followed by HGMS (Song et al. high-intensity separation for new operations now
2002). HGMS has also been used to recover fine (Gorain 2016).
gold-bearing leach residues from uranium pro-
cessing. Currently, superconducting magnets are
the only economically and technically viable way 6.8.6 Electrostatic Separation
to achieve field strengths as high as 5 teslas.
An important magnetic separation improve- In electrostatic separation (ESS), also called electri-
ment that generates major impact in the minerals cal separation, particles come under the influence
industry was the drum separator for magnetite of an electrical field. They gather a charge that relies
mineralization. It principally treats fine-grained on the maximum attainable charge intensity and
6.8 · Mineral Beneficiation
499 6
on the surface area of the particle. These charged Electrostatic separation is principally utilized
components can be split by differential attraction in mineral sands separation. Thus, conductive
or repulsion. Therefore, the important early stage minerals such as ilmenite, monazite, and rutile
in electrostatic separation is to impart electrostatic are concentrated from nonconductive silica and
charge to the particles. The three principal manner zircon existing in mineral sands. Thus, the elec-
of charging actions are contact electrification or trostatic separator is still the most reliable and
triboelectrification, conductive induction, and ion economic unit operation for processing beach
bombardment. Where the particles are charged, sand deposits rich in minerals such as ilmenite,
the split can be carried out by devices with different rutile, leucoxene, zircon, and garnet (. Box 6.8:
electrode configuration. Due to nearly all minerals Chandala Heavy Mineral Sands Processing Plant).
displaying some contrast in conductivity, this tech- The two main types of electrostatic separators in
nique would represent the universal beneficiating mineral sands have been a combination of high-
technique. However, the method has limited appli- tension rolls (HTR) and electrostatic plate separa-
cations due to the required processing conditions, tors (ESP), being principally utilized in Australia
notably a perfectly dry feed (Wills and Finch 2016). and South Africa (Gorain 2016). The stream
Minerals must be definitely dry, and the humidity particles are wanted between 75 and 250 μm, dry,
of the surrounding air must be controlled, since closed-size distribution, and similar for effective
the electron moving in dielectrics carries out on separation to carry out (Haldar 2013). As another
the surface and a film of moisture can change the application of these devices, increased environ-
behavior absolutely. Moreover, the main disadvan- mental awareness has promoted the demand for
tage of this technique is that the capacity of valu- unit operations that process secondary materials
able sized units is low. (e.g., to remove plastics from metals) (Lyer 2011).
Box 6.8
Chandala Heavy Mineral Sands Processing Plant (Perth, Australia): Courtesy of Tronox Ltd.
The Chandala complex includes east in the interior of Western is able to separate very magneti-
three major plants: a dry mill, Australia, concentrated in near- cally susceptible minerals from
which separates the heavy mineral shore sediments through multiple slightly magnetically susceptible
sands; a synthetic rutile plant, phases of weathering, erosion, minerals. In turn, minerals that
which upgrades ilmenite into and deposition. Most of the high- can discharge an electrical charge
high-quality synthetic rutile; and grade heavy mineral deposits easily (conductors) can be sepa-
a residue management plant. at Cooljarloo occur as shoreline rated in special equipment from
Chandala produces approximately accumulations comprising detrital minerals that cannot discharge an
450,000 tons of ilmenite, 80,000 ilmenite, rutile, leucoxene, and electrical charge easily (noncon-
tons of zircon, 37,000 tons of zircon with subordinate monazite ductors). Like the magnetic sepa-
rutile, and 20,000 tons of leucox- and a gangue of aluminosilicates ration equipment, the electrostatic
ene per year. Zircon, rutile, and like kyanite, staurolite, andalusite, separation equipment can dif-
leucoxene are either bagged or and tourmaline. ferentiate between minerals with
sold in bulk. Ilmenite is further The different magnetic and different levels of electrostatic
processed into synthetic rutile electrostatic properties of the properties with different specific
using reduction, aeration, and acid mineral sands as well as their dif- gravities, and grain sizes can be
leaching. ferent specific gravities are used to separated easily in special equip-
Chandala dry separation separate the minerals from each ment designed for these purposes.
processing plant beneficiates the other and from the waste. Minerals Using all these separation meth-
Cooljarloo heavy mineral deposits that are magnetically susceptible ods, the desired minerals can be
that lie within the Perth Basin in (magnetics) can be separated in separated from each other and the
Western Australia. The detrital special equipment from miner- waste. . Figure 6.70 shows a flow
heavy minerals of the Perth Basin als that are not magnetically sheet of the process.
include ilmenite, rutile, and zircon, susceptible (nonmagnetics). This The mineral sands are deliv-
which were derived from igneous equipment can also differentiate ered by road train, are stored until
and metamorphic rocks in the between minerals with different required, and fed into the plant.
adjacent Archaean shield to the levels of magnetic properties and For processing, the mineral sands
500 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
Rejected
Cooljarloo
sand
ore
6 Leucoxene
.. Fig. 6.70 General flow sheet of heavy mineral dry mill separation
.. Fig. 6.71 UltraStat
separator (Image courtesy
of Tronox Ltd.)
are first cleaned to remove any of electrostatic separation is carried and conductor fractions. UltraStat
surface contamination from the out using electrostatic plate sepa- separators use a very different
particles. To do this, the mineral rators (ESP) and UltraStat separa- mineral charging mechanism to
sands are formed into a slurry by tors (. Fig. 6.71). The former utilize
ionized field separators. Thus, a
mixing them with water before a stationary grounded, sloped, strong static electric field is used to
they are attritioned, a process of or curved surface onto which a selectively induce charge onto the
agitating the particles to make monolayer of mineral is fed. The conductive mineral particles (con-
them rub together. mineral passes beneath a charged ductive induction charging).
The cleaned mineral sands electrode which induces a polar The conductor’s stream is
are then dried on filter belts and opposite charge on the conductor separated further into magnetics
in dryers before undergoing particles; as a result, these charged and nonmagnetics. The magnetics
electrostatic and magnetic separa- particles are electrostatically contain ilmenite, and the nonmag-
tion. In electrostatic separation, attracted to the electrode and are netics contain rutile. Leucoxene is
the mineral sands are separated drawn away from the grounded also separated at this stage, as it
into two streams: conductors and surface. A splitter located further in has magnetic properties between
nonconductors. The conductors the separation zone separates the those of ilmenite and rutile. The
contain the ilmenite, leucoxene, conductor particle and nonconduc- oversize conductors are separated
and rutile, while the nonconduc- tor particle trajectories dividing and rejected as waste as it does
tors contain the zircon. The process the feed into mainly nonconductor not contain significant amounts
6.8 · Mineral Beneficiation
501 6
of leucoxene or ilmenite. The chute. Another form of machine nonmagnetics before being sorted
magnetic separation is carried out for separating magnetic from into different specific gravities.
using rare earth drum magnets nonmagnetic is an induced roll Shaking tables, spirals, and jigs are
(. Fig. 6.72) and induced roll
magnetic separator, commonly used for wet gravity separation.
magnets. In the rare earth drum referred to as an IRM. Magnetic The oversize magnetics contain no
magnets, the drums have a high- and nonmagnetic particles are significant zircon and are rejected
intensity magnetic field and will separated as they pass through a as trash. The middlings are fed to
affect particles of low magnetic magnetic field between a rotating the coarse zircon wet circuit. The
susceptibility carrying them roll and a pole piece. undersize low magnetics is a fine
around the drum to discharge Using wet gravity separation, nonconductor and is fed to the
into the magnetic product chutes. the nonconductors are divided fine zircon wet circuit. Most of the
Nonmagnetic particles follow a into three streams: oversize, mid- remainder of the separation pro-
trajectory over both splitter blades dlings, and undersize. They are cess is sorted by specific gravity-
and fall into the nonmagnetics then separated into magnetics and producing zircon and waste.
Conventionally, some metals are removed to have their own smelter, and most smelters are
by a pyrometallurgical process termed smelting. situated away from mine sites but near transporta-
For example, copper mineralization is mined, tion routes and sources of power (Stevens 2010).
crushed, ground, concentrated, and smelted, and A typical by-product of many smelters is sulfuric
the resulted copper is finally refined. In the smelt- acid that is produced by scrubbing and capturing
ing operation, where heat is used to treat metal of sulfur dioxide gas during the smelting process.
concentrates to obtain a raw material, the concen- Because of environmental constraints (e.g.,
trate is fed to a smelter together with oxygen, and harmful gaseous emissions, dust production,
the copper and iron sulfides are oxidized at a high among others) of pyrometallurgy, one of the
temperature resulting in impure molten metallic most notable changes in the mineral processing
copper (97–99%), molten iron oxide, and gaseous technology has been the change from this tech-
sulfur dioxide. The impure copper is then purified nique to hydrometallurgy in nonferrous process-
by electrolytic purification to 99.99% pure copper, ing (Randolph 2011). Thus, hydrometallurgical
6 while the iron oxide is disposed of as slag. Smelting techniques to recuperation of metals were intro-
is generally followed by a refining process where duced with the aim of improving environmental
the crude metal is refined into pure metal such requests and reducing capital and operating costs
as copper, zinc, or nickel. There are many pro- (Lakshmanan et al. 2016). Hydrometallurgy is
cesses in smelting depending on the metal to be commonly separated into three main areas: leach-
recovered, and the treatment can become quite ing, solution concentration and purification, and
complex. Smelters are large and costly plants that metal recovery. . Figure 6.73 shows different
often concentrate from several mines. Only very examples of metals obtained by pyrometallurgy/
large base metal mining operations can afford hydrometallurgy.
a b
c d
.. Fig. 6.73 Different examples of metals obtained tesy of New Mining Corporation), c smelting iron (Image
by pyrometallurgy/hydrometallurgy. a Copper smelter courtesy of Rio Tinto), d gold doré (Image courtesy of
(Image courtesy of Glencore), b gold pour (Image cour- Polymetal International plc)
6.8 · Mineral Beneficiation
503 6
Leaching while other configurations apply recovery in
Leaching is a physicochemical process in which situ or by placing the raw material in a heap.
the minerals present in ores go through dis- Atmospheric leaching includes reaction vessels
solution under percolating water and anion/ working at atmospheric pressure incorporating
cation exchange reactions to originate metal the leaching solution and ground feed material.
salts that travel and accumulate under hydro- The pressure leaching has been utilized for min-
logical forces. A good example of natural leach- eralization including metals such as uranium,
ing processes in the earth is the existing laterite zinc-lead, copper, nickel-cobalt, gold-silver, and
ore deposits. The prime features to elect correct platinum group metals (PGM). Responding to
leaching method and lixiviant chemicals are (a) the growing prices of base metals such as copper,
composition and texture of the mineralization nickel, cobalt, and precious metals, heap leach-
and (b) economic viability based on grade and ing is converted to a major extraction method
reserve of the mineral deposit, calculated envi- utilized for large-tonnage and low-grade min-
ronmental costs, forecasted commodity market eralization that cannot be economically sepa-
prices, and capital investment required for the rated into a concentrate or operated through
project. atmospheric or pressure leaching (Lakshmanan
In hydrometallurgical processes, leaching of et al. 2016). A classical processing plant using
mineralization is carried out utilizing s everal pro- ore leaching technologies has the general activi-
cedure patterns. Some of them include leaching ties illustrated in . Fig. 6.74. . Box 6.9: Ranger
Waste
rock
Ore stockpile
Open pit mine
Heap leaching
Pressure
leaching
Chemical treatment
Bars
Plates
Box 6.9
Ranger Uranium Processing Plant (Jabiru, Australia): Courtesy of Energy Resources of Australia Ltd.
Ranger Uranium Mine is one of ore from stockpiles (. Fig. 6.75).
separation, lime is added to the
the largest uranium mines in the The ore comes actually from both depleted ore slurry (tailings) to neu-
world and is located in Australia’s Pit 1, which was depleted in 1994, tralize tailings acidity before being
Northern Territory, approximately and Pit 3. The process for extracting pumped to the Ranger tailings stor-
260 km east of Darwin. Bordered uranium ore from the stockpiles to age facility. The dissolved uranium
by the Kakadu National Park, the producing drums of uranium oxide solution is then passed through a
mine was discovered in 1969 involves a number of complex clarifier and a set of sand filters to
and began operations in 1980. operations (. Fig. 6.76). It includes
remove any fine solid particles.
The geology is dominated by the following six steps. Step 4: The uranium solution is
Paleoproterozoic volcanic, carbon- Step 1: Uranium ore is crushed in pumped to the solvent extraction
ate, and sedimentary sequences a crushing (and screening) circuit circuit to remove the many other
6 that unconformably overlie the
Archaean granitic gneiss. These
to less than 19 mm. This fine ore
is then mixed with water and
dissolved elements carried with
the uranium solution. During sol-
sequences are folded, faulted, ground in the milling circuit to less vent extraction, a type of kerosene
sheared, and crosscut by east- than 0.30 mm in a slurry of ore and as well as an amine is added to
trending granite dykes and water. purify and concentrate the ura-
pegmatite veins. Regional meta- Step 2: The ore slurry is thickened nium solution.
morphism is to greenschist facies, and then pumped to leaching Step 5: After solvent extrac-
and contact metamorphism is to tanks. In these tanks, sulfuric acid tion, the pure, but quite weak,
hornblende-hornfels facies. Due and pyrolusite (a manganese- uranium solution is pumped to
to different theories, the absolute based oxidant) are added to the the precipitation tanks. More
age of uranium mineralization at ore slurry and dissolve more than ammonia is added, causing a
the Ranger Mine is open. 90% of the uranium in the ore over uranium compound (ammo-
Energy Resources of Australia about 24 h. nium diuranate – ADU) to form
mines and processes uranium ore Step 3: The dissolved uranium is and precipitate from the clean
at Ranger mine. Since mining of separated from the ore slurry in a uranium solution. ADU is bright
Pit 3 ended in November 2012, washing circuit known as counter- yellow and commonly called
Ranger Mine has been processing current decantation (CCD). After «yellowcake.»
.. Fig. 6.75 Uranium ore stockpiles (Image courtesy of Energy Resources of Australia Ltd)
6.8 · Mineral Beneficiation
505 6
Step 6: In the final stage of diesel-oil-fired, industrial oven). This is then packed into specially
the process, the yellowcake is «cooking» process produces the approved 200 liters steel drums that
heated to approximately 800 °C final product uranium oxide (U3O8), are sealed and loaded into shipping
in a multi-hearth calciner (a large a dark green powder. The product containers ready for transportation.
Crushing
Neutralization
of tailings
H2SO4
Wash
tanks
Grinding
Leach tanks
Clarifier and
sand filters
Solvent
extraction Precipitation Calciner
ERA
ERA ERA
ERA
Shipping Packaging
Heap leaching is a method where materials periods (weeks to months, even several years in
or crushed mineralization are piled over an engi- bioprocesses) for each pad collection sequence in
neered impermeable pad and wetted with lixiviant comparison with tank leaching (hours to days).
chemical components under atmospheric status, In some case, operation is carried out on a lined
being the leachate gathered for metal recovery surface that is covered with stabilized surface (on/
procedures. Due to percolation of the lixivi- off pad) to enable extraction of the processed min-
ant solution through the mineralization carried eralization generally by loaders or mechanized
out under gravity and atmospheric conditions, devices. The treated mineralization is translated
completion of metal extraction needs longer to a lined facility (spent ore repository) for further
506 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
closure and reclamation, with the stabilized/lined tank leaching procedures where activated carbon
leach pad area being reutilized (Zanbak 2012). is utilized for adsorption of cyanided gold: carbon
This technique is a comparatively inexpensive in pulp (CIP) and carbon in leach (CIL). Another
method to dissolve some metals into a cyanide adsorption procedure, carbon in column (CIC), is
solution, being especially interesting in treating commonly applied to gold extraction from heap
low-grade gold ores. leach solutions. Currently, between 60% and 65%
On the other hand, a singular heap leaching of the world production of mined gold is processed
method (bio-heap leaching) is applied to deter- utilizing tank leaching. In CIP process, the pulp
mine types of sulfide copper mineralization where from the grinding step is thickened up to about
insoluble copper, nickel, zinc and cobalt sulfides, 55% solids and leached in a cyanide solution with
and uranium oxides are changed into water- the objective to dissolve the gold. The gold is then
soluble sulfates in a two-step leaching procedure absorbed into activated carbon and sent to a new
with the assistance of natural iron-oxidizing bac- clean cyanide solution for further precipitation in
6 teria in an acidic environment improved with sul- steel wood. Finally, the gold recovery process is
furic acid. based onto melt the previous product in a furnace
Tank leaching is a method in which crushed and generated doré bars, which can be further
mineralization or flotation concentrates are refined up to 99.99% purity.
chemically operated in open tanks under atmo- Pressure leaching is a method where ground
spheric pressure to recover metal salts from the mineralization or flotation concentrates are
mineralization at a quick rate. This method, also chemically operated in reactors (autoclaves)
termed «semi-closed system,» needs grinding under high pressure and temperature conditions
of all materials and disposal of processed com- to recover metal salts from the mineralization
ponents in tailings impoundments, or if a heap also in a quick rate. This method is generally
leaching installation is developed, the dewatered termed «closed system» (. Box 6.10: Albazino-
tailings may be submitted to the leach pad for a Amursk Gold Processing Plant). Considering
second leaching process. Tank leaching methods intrinsic early high investment and operational
are broadly utilized in mining for the extraction cost, this method cannot be utilized in low-grade
of metals such as gold and silver. There are two mineralization.
Box 6.10
.. Fig. 6.77 Albazino-Amursk processing flow sheet (Illustration courtesy of Polymetal International plc.)
taker. First concentrate sales were processing ore from two high- goal to destroy sulfide particles
made to China in 2011. grade refractory gold deposits enveloping gold particles and
Albazino on-site concentrator (Albazino and Mayskoye). The make the slurry amenable to
has a capacity of 1600 ktpa and Amursk hydrometallurgical plant cyanide leaching. The process is
is now operating at full design uses POX and cyanidation tech- particularly well suited for treat-
capacity. The design flotation nologies to process refractory ing refractory gold ores, which
recovery is estimated at 87.5% concentrates that require pretreat- give low recovery rates when
and was achieved in April 2012. ment oxidation before conven- directly leached with cyanide.
The concentrator is located 3 km tional cyanidation to extract the Despite higher initial capital costs
away from the Anfisa pit. The run- sulfur component. Construction of and high technical expertise, POX
of-mine ore will be fed to the pri- the Amursk POX plant was com- offers several advantages over
mary jaw crusher and reduced to pleted in December 2011, and the alternative processes including
250 mm. Crushed ore is subject to first gold was poured in April 2012. (a) more flexible and more stable
three-stage milling (one SAG mill Amursk hub design capacity is 225 in terms of feed variability, (b)
and two ball mills) and two-stage Ktpa of concentrate depending higher recoveries due to high
conventional flotation in two on sulfur grade in concentrates. It levels of oxidation (>98% S), (c)
parallel circuits. The concentrate results in approximately 400 koz lower operating costs (less energy
is filtered, dried, and then shipped of gold produced per annum with intensive and lower neutralization
508 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
.. Fig. 6.78 Autoclave in Amursk processing plant (Image courtesy of Polymetal International plc.)
costs), and (d) more environment 5. The slurry is pumped by two the addition of lime; lime-
friendly (dry stacking possible, positive-displacement pumps stone and lime are crushed,
lower cyanide consumption). into a five-compartment milled, and diluted with
The POX circuit comprises the autoclave; oxygen is pro- water in separate two-stage
following steps: duced on-site at the oxygen crushing and milling sec-
1. Incoming concentrates plant and injected in the tions.
are unloaded from 14 tons autoclave to achieve at least 8. pH-adjusted slurry is sent
big bags in source-specific 98% sulfur oxidation; high- to the carbon-in-leach (CIL)
batches into a bin. temperature steam from a circuit where it undergoes
2. Concentrates are fed from the special boiler is injected to carbon desorption, carbon
bin by a high-angle conveyor initiate the chemical reaction regeneration, electrowinning,
into a ball mill, where the during start-ups, and freshwa- and doré smelting; gold is
material is diluted with water ter is injected to control the absorbed onto activated car-
and stored in source-specific temperature. bon in parallel with leaching.
agitated tanks. 6. Oxidized slurry is discharged 9. Chemically inert tailings are
3. The slurry from various tanks through a flash vessel where filtered and dry-stacked in
is carefully blended in the both temperature and pres- a fully lined tailings storage
feed tank to achieve stable sure drop; off-gas from the facility.
sulfur grade in the autoclave autoclave is scrubbed from 10. Filtrate water is washed in a
feed. sulfur oxides. clarifier and sent to a reverse
4. The slurry is acidified to 7. Autoclave discharge is neu- osmosis facility where delete-
destroy carbonates in the tralized by the addition of rious elements are removed
feed and preheated with limestone, and the slurry’s with clean water recirculated
recirculated process water. pH is further increased by to the process.
6.8 · Mineral Beneficiation
509 6
Solvent Extraction/Electrowinning reverted to its original acidity and recycled to the
Beginning in the mid-1980s, a new technology, leaching stage of the procedure. In the meantime,
generally termed the leach-solvent extraction- the copper-bearing organic phase is deprived of
electrowinning process (SX/EW), was broadly its copper by contacting it with a strongly acidi-
applied. The idea of selectively recovering cop- fied aqueous solution at which time the copper
per from a low-grade solution and further strip- is translated to the aqueous phase, while the
ping the copper into an acid solution from which organic phase is reconstructed in its hydrogen
electrowon copper cathodes could be generated form. Industrial electrowinning requires pure
was developed by the Minerals Group of General copper-rich electrolytes, and SX process provides
Mills in the early 1960s (Kordosky 2002). This the means for generating this class of electrolyte
simple concept has converted into a method by from dilute, impure leach liquours; it is a crucial
which refined copper production from SX/EW stage in SX/EW process. In the strip step, copper
covered nearly 17% of the global copper-refined is deprived from the loaded organic solvent into
production (ICSG 2015). The SX/EW procedure the advance electrolyte from which the copper
is really a hydrometallurgical process because it is electrowon, being the stripper organic solvent
is performed at atmospheric temperatures, being recycled to the extraction step (Schlesinger et al.
the copper in an aqueous or organic environment 2011).
during its treatment until it is reduced to the In copper electrowinning, Cu2+ in the purified
metal. The SX/EW process has very little environ- advance electrolyte from SX is reduced to copper
mental issues since its liquid streams are very eas- metal at the cathode by the use of a DC electrical
ily entrapped. Other advantages of the procedure current. Sulfuric acid generated at the anode of the
is its low capital investment need relative to the electrowinning cell is restored to the SX system
smelting process and its capacity to operate eco- in the copper-depleted spent electrolyte to strip
nomically in a small scale. more copper from the loaded organic solvent. The
In summary, SX/EW procedure includes leach- copper in solution electrically plates over several
ing the material in a weakly acid medium. This hours to a day until the copper is approximately
solution, called «pregnant leach solution» (PLS), 12 mm thick. These copper plates are termed
is extracted and then contacted with an organic «copper cathodes» and generally are formed by
solvent, known as the «extractant,» in the solvent 99.99% copper. They are usually named as cop-
recovery stage (SX). Thus, copper is recovered per grade «A» brand in London Metal Exchange
from the aqueous phase. Because the copper ion is (. Box 6.11: Cobre Las Cruces Copper Processing
Box 6.11
obre Las Cruces Copper Processing Plant (Sevilla, Spain): Courtesy of Cobre Las Cruces –
C
First Quantum Minerals Ltd.
The Cobre Las Cruces deposit submarine setting within a narrow deposit. The copper in the ore is
occurs in the eastern end of the and relatively shallow intraconti- primarily found in chalcocite with
Iberian Pyrite Belt, a 300 km long nental sea and characterized by some minor amounts found in chal-
and 80 km wide geologic belt that bimodal volcanism and sedimenta- copyrite, tennantite-tetrahedrite
extends eastward from southern tion. Post depositional secondary complex, and enargite. The ore from
Portugal into southern Spain. copper enrichment occurred in the the open-pit mine ranges in grade
Mineralization consists of synge- upper part of the massive sulfide from 5% to 10% copper, and the
netic massive sulfides containing deposit, forming the secondary design grade is 6.02% Cu.
polymetallic mineralization, similar mineralization of interest. The The metallurgical plant
to most other Iberian Pyrite Belt deposit was subsequently buried (. Fig. 6.79) relies on an atmo-
deposits. The massive sulfide under 100–150 m of sandstone and spheric leaching process to
mineralization on the property is calcareous mudstone. Thus, Cobre recover copper from the rich sec-
hosted by late Devonian to early Las Cruces is a blind deposit with no ondary sulfide chalcocite miner-
Carboniferous Period volcanic and outcrop because of the 100–150 m alization. A unique feature of the
sedimentary rocks deposited in a of sedimentary rocks overlying the plant is the use of eight agitated
510 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
.. Fig. 6.79 Cobre Las Cruces processing plant (Image courtesy of Cobre Las Cruces – First Quantum Minerals Ltd.)
reactor tanks to dissolve the copper with conventional SX/EW a second crushing circuit with
copper under conditions of high technology. The copper produced cone crushers. As a result, the ore
temperature and high acidity. is ready for sale directly from the is <15 mm in size. The ore is then
Oxygen is also added into the plant. The final product is 99.999% moved onto the grinding circuit
reactors to complete the reac- pure copper classed as grade «A.» where a wet ball mill, loaded with
tion. The feed to the leaching This modern process technology 80 mm balls, further reduces the
reactor tanks is mined ore that for hydrometallurgical copper ore to a fine pulp. Hydrocyclones
has passed through three stages production has several benefits: it control the oversize material in
of crushing, a single stage of offers high yields, low operating a closed circuit. The output ore
grinding and has then been costs, and flexible operation. This of the ball mill is <150 μm in size
thickened to eliminate as much copper is also called «Five Nines» with a grinding P80 of 75 μm. Clas-
process water as possible and copper, which refers to the high- sification and thickening provide
three mixing tanks where reac- est quality of cathodes produced a final product at desired size and
tions start (pre-reactors). The ore by the company, one of the very minimum water.
processing facility is designed to few copper producers in the
operate 365 days per year, 24 h world that certifies its cathodes as
Leaching
per day, and 1.5 Mtpa of ore to 99.999% pure, compared to the Ferric-leach or SX/EW technol-
produce 72,000 tpa of cathode usual 99.99%. The London Metal ogy is common at copper heap
copper. A simplified process Exchange establishes that «four leach operations that treat
flow diagram for the plant is nines» is a requirement to obtain chalcocite-rich ores. However,
presented in . Fig. 6.80.
grade «A» quality, the highest in the agitated atmospheric ferric-
The Cobre Las Cruces plant existence. leach technology that is used for
uses a hydrometallurgical plant to treating the Las Cruces ore is a
recover cathode copper using a Crushing and Grinding relatively new technique in the
process consisting of conventional Crushing and grinding of the copper industry. The reactors or
crushing and grinding, agitated ore brings it down to a fine pulp. leaching tanks, an essential part
ferric sulfate leach in atmospheric Primary crushing is carried out of processing the ore, enable the
leach reactors, and recovery of by a jaw crusher and then onto copper to be extracted using a
6.8 · Mineral Beneficiation
511 6
Atmospheric
leaching
Mine
Crushing
Milling
Solvent
+ extraction
Electrowinning
Cu Grade A Filtration
To dry
disposal
pyrometallurgical processing. residual ultrafine gangue mate- copper metal (cathode copper),
Thus, the pulp obtained in the rial prior to passing the pregnant which is the final product, ready
grinding process is leached in an liquor through to solvent extrac- for sale and further processing
acid aqueous solution at 90 °C in tion. This is because the rapid for- into copper rod or wire. The elec-
the presence of oxygen and ferric mation of gypsum scales within trowinning section is equipped
iron to dissolve more than 90% the filters means that the filters with an acid mist capturing
of the copper minerals in the ore. failed within a very short space system in order to meet the strict
The 350 m3 atmospheric leachers of time. For this reason, following environmental demands. The elec-
(agitated tanks) convert the pulp effective coagulation and floccu- trowinning cells produce London
to a concentrate. The distribution lation, a set of clarifiers effect effi- Metal Exchange grade «A» copper
of mixing energy favors reaction cient separation so that the total cathodes weighing approximately
kinetics. The process provides high residual suspended solids going 50 kg each. An automated crane
recovery rates, high oxygen utili- through to subsequent process- and stripping machine then har-
zation, and full suspended mate- ing are measured consistently at vests and packages the cathodes
rial at low mixing energy levels. less than 50 mg/l. Thus, the objec- for shipment. Leach residues are
tive is to treat the overflow from filtered, stacked, and encapsu-
olven Extraction and
S the gypsum thickener supplying lated in a mine waste dump. The
Electrowinning acidified pregnant liquor to the disposal design exceeds regula-
Once leached, the liquid is solvent extraction process. tory requirements. A process
separated from the ground solids Once the concentrate is dissolved bleed stream will be treated to
to become a pregnant leach in the aqueous solution, the remove heavy metals and then
solution, the feed for the solvent resulting electrolyte is introduced discharged. The effluent quality
extraction (SX) area. Thus, the to the cell tank house that holds meets discharge standards as
concentrate is then ready for SX/ 138 operating cells and 22 scaven- evidenced by sampling of the
EW processing. In the copper ger cells, and copper is deposited discharge.
512 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
2 TON
of solid particles in a liquid generates a clarified erately shallow tanks from which the clear liq-
liquid that can be decanted, leaving a thickened uid is removed from the top and the thickened
slurry that need additional dewatering using fil- suspension at the bottom. Thus, the thickener
tration. Gravity sedimentation is most effective is utilized to increment the concentration of the
where there is a large density difference between suspension by sedimentation, accompanied by
liquid and solid. This is constantly the situation the origination of a clear liquid. Obviously, the
in mineral processing where the carrier liquid solid concentration in a thickener changes from
is water. Very fine particles (only some microns that of the clear overflow to that of the thickened
diameter) decant very slowly using gravity pro- underflow being extracted. Because the procedure
cess exclusively, and centrifugal sedimentation is constant, there are no areas of steady composi-
can be carried out. tion in the thickener. As a consequence, several
Alternately, the components can be coagulated zones are present within the thickener than cor-
and/or flocculated into moderately large lumps respond broadly to the diverse steps of settlement
that decant more quickly; coagulation occurs (. Fig. 6.84).
where two or more fine particles collide and The design of a continuous thickener includes
remain in contact, whereas flocculation involves a large, shallow cylindrical tank with a conical
the attachment of particles to long-chain poly- bottom sloping toward the center, the diameter
mers (Woollacot and Eric 1994). It should not be ranging from about 2 to 200 m, and of depth
forgotten that thickener applications usually need 1–7 m. Thickeners of various design are avail-
particles finer than 0.1 μm, and these particles are able, including differences in geometry and in
hard to decant due to electrostatic charge causing the way in which the feed slurry is introduced to
them to repel each other and hinder gravity set- the thickener. Because capital investment is the
tling. Regarding the flocculants, the new presence principal cost of thickening, election of the appro-
of synthetic polymers is a huge progress in physi- priate size of thickener for a certain appliance is
cal concentration during the last five decades, essential. The two early roles of the thickener are
514 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
.. Fig. 6.83 Thickener
(Image courtesy of Anglo
American plc)
Feed
Sedimented pulp
Pulp discharge
the generation of a clarified overflow and a thick- Conventional thickeners have the disadvan-
ened underflow of the needed concentration. tage that large floor areas are needed since the
For a given throughput, the clarifying capability throughput is based only in the size of the area,
is established by the thickener diameter. This is while depth of the tank is less important. In the
because the surface area must be large enough so last years, devices known as high-capacity thick-
that the upward speed of liquid is always lower eners have been incorporated in the market by
than the settling speed of the slowest-settling various manufacturers. The key to high-capacity
component which is to be removed. The degree production in thickeners has been the develop-
of thickening produced is controlled by the resi- ment in flocculants technology, which enabled
dence time of the particles and hence by the thick- incremented tonnage in a smaller footprint. Thus,
ener depth. high-capacity thickeners are actually the norm in
6.9 · Dewatering
515 6
minerals industry. Other innovations incorporate In general, there are five steps in the cake fil-
diminishing surface area in high-scale utilizations tration process: cake formation, moisture reduc-
such as alumina refining and including spikes on tion, cake washing, cake discharge, and medium
blades to resuspend heavily thickened compo- washing. The filtering procedure is finished where
nents like magnetite (Gorain 2016). almost all the liquid has been removed from the
pulp and the filter cake is extracted from the filter-
ing medium. Prior to extracting the cake, it can be
6.9.2 Filtration washed to remove the attached fluid, that is, the
fluid maintained in the pore spaces in the cake
Filtration is the procedure of concentrating sol- and any solute in the feed that is entrapped within
ids from liquid utilizing a porous medium (the the cake. Regarding the factors affecting filtration,
filter) that entraps the solid but enables the liquid a variety of options are available in order to maxi-
to pass. Filtration in mineral processing applica- mize the capacity of a given filtration device. The
tions commonly follows thickening by means more important are (a) increased filtration pres-
of a porous medium; the thickened pulp can be sure, (b) increased pore size, (c) manipulation of
sent to storing agitators from where the pulp is the cake formation, (d) use of flocculants or filter
drawn off at uniform rate to the filters. For par- aids, and (e) washing of the filter cloth.
ticles coarse enough that capillary pressures are The design of the supporting base of the filter-
negligible (e.g., natural sand and gravel for aggre- ing medium is a guidance to the names of filters in
gates), gravimetric dewatering can be employed the market. Thus, if the filtering medium is between
using devices such as spiral dewaterer, dewatering grooved plates, the filter press is called plate filter;
screen, or dewatering wheel (. Fig. 6.85). This is
when it is in the form of disk, the filter press is
not usually the case in mineral processing concen- termed disk filter; and when in the form of a drum,
trates, and cake filters are the type most frequently it is known as drum filter (Gupta and Yan 2006). On
used. The requirements under which filtration is the other hand, the technique of pressure appliance
performed are numerous, and the selection of the also plays a part in the nomenclature. Thus, cake
most adequate machine will be based on a large filters can be pressure or vacuum types. In pressure
number of features. Whatever device is utilized, a filters (e.g., plate filter), positive pressure is applied
filter cake progressively builds up on the medium, at the feed end. In vacuum filters (e.g., disk and
and the resistance to flow gradually increments drum filter), there is a vacuum at the far side of the
throughout the process. filter, the feed side being at atmospheric pressure.
.. Fig. 6.85 Dewatering
wheel (Image courtesy of
CEMEX)
516 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
the medium is to maintain solids, other features the slurry is situated between two plates captured
such as to have a low resistance to filtrate flow, together by an exteriorly driven screw system or
to resist chemical attack, or to enable efficient hydraulic ram. The filtering medium is located
discharge of the cake are also significant (Kelly against the sides of the plates, and the slurry
and Spottiswood 1982). Relatively coarse materi- is pumped between them. The slurry pressure
als are commonly utilized, and clear filtrate is not presses the pulp against the medium obliging the
produced until the initial layers of cake are con- liquid to pass across the cloth and leaving the sol-
stituted, the early cloudy filtrate being recycled ids as a cake on both surfaces of the frame. The
(Wills and Finch 2016). plates are usually squared shaped, although cir-
Filter media are manufactured from different cular plates are also forthcoming in the market.
materials such as cotton, wool, silk, glass fiber, The plate sizes range from 450 mm × 450 mm
paper, metals, etc. Cotton designs are among the to 2000 mm × 2000 mm and frames from 10 to
most usual type of medium because of their low 200 mm in thickness (Gupta and Yan 2006). The
initial price and accessibility in a broad range of common number of plates in the industry ranges
weaves. However, the trend of incrementing utili- between 25 and 50, but up to 100 plate filters are
zation of synthetic fibers since the 1940s is keep- sometimes utilized.
ing, with components such as nylon, polyester,
polypropylene, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), Vacuum Filters
and polyether ether ketone (PEEK). Advances The most broadly utilized type of filtration in
in weaving and finishing during the 1990s have mineral processing of ores is vacuum filtration.
enabled enhanced filtration process of finer par- The principle in this type of filter process is to gen-
ticles utilizing the synthetic fibers. They offer erate an efficiently differential pressure through
significant advantages over the natural fibers. the filter cloth and cake by the application of a
This is because they have the best wear features, vacuum. There are three different types of devices
enhanced strengths, and greater stability along usually utilized: drums, disks, and horizontal fil-
with enhanced filter cake liberation and decreased ters. They commonly provide the most economi-
blinding depending on the fibers utilized (Gorain cal continuous operation. All vacuum filters work
2016). Synthetic fibers also generate longer life- in a similar manner. Although the design can be
time, which leads to decreased downtime and very varied, vacuum filters are characterized by
lower operating costs. The quality of finishing a filtration surface that moves by different means
substantially enhances the filter media’s efficiency from a point of slurry deposition under vacuum
(Hoijer and Grimm 2011). In summary, media to a point of filter cake extraction. The liquid
technology has progressed to offer a broad scope (filtrate) exits the filter using an internal piping
of materials and construction to provide the nec- and the vacuum head. These filters operate with
essary cycle life and performance to ensure eco- an endless groups of batch cases that approach
nomic operation. a continuous pattern. The manner in which the
6.9 · Dewatering
517 6
.. Fig. 6.86 Vacuum
drum filter working in a
processing plant
Drum Filter
Vacuum drum filter (. Fig. 6.86) has an extended
is discharged with a scraper against the cake along quate for simple dewatering applications where
the width of the drum and is transported away high capacity is the main request. Thus, it has
(. Fig. 6.86). In general, a number of smaller
a very important role as the cheapest filtration
vacuum drum filters in parallel are preferred to a option for slurries that are easy to filter. The disk
single filter to provide the best operation. design permits a greater filtration zone per unit
518 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
.. Fig. 6.88 Horizontal
belt filter and discharge
area (Image courtesy of
Compositech Filters)
of floor space compared to other types of designs. 6.9.3 Thermal Dewatering (Drying)
Another advantage is the low initial invest-
ment cost, whereas disadvantages include that The level of dewatering that can be achieved
the washing of the filter medium for cloth-type through the methods considered previously
systems is difficult and effective cake washing is is limited. If further upgrading is required, it
not possible (Cox and Traczyk 2002). Another must be attained through thermal process-
disadvantage is that both the cake formation and ing. These methods are comparatively costly
the cake discharge are inferior to those in a drum because the solid must be not only heated but
filter. The disk filter is similar in concept to the also the water needs to be evaporated so that it
drum filter, but disks are used instead of a drum can be carried away in a gas stream. Thermal
in order to increase the surface area to filtration. processing is commonly classified in accordance
However, the filtration process follows the same with operating temperature: (a) thermal low
sequence as described from a drum filter. (100–200 °C): utilized for drying-evaporating of
liquids from solids; devices incorporate direct
Horizontal Belt Filter or indirect heat rotary dryers, steam tube dry-
Horizontal belt filter (. Fig. 6.88) is generally
ers, and fluid bed dryers. (b) thermal medium
used for handling coarse solids and/or where (850–950 °C): applied for different calcining,
high washing efficiency is needed. They also clay swelling, limestone burning, and foundry
can achieve lower cake moistures compared to sand burn out; equipment includes direct and
vacuum disk or drum types. Belt filter equipment indirect heat rotary kilns (. Fig. 6.89), verti-
size ranges from 1 m2 up to as large as 154 m2 cal kilns, and fluid bed calciners. (c) thermal
(Cox and Traczyk 2002). In this device, the fil- high (1300–1400 °C): used for various calcining
ter cloth is formed into a continuous belt that is operations and obtained mainly with direct heat
passed over an arrangement of pulleys. Below this rotary kiln (Metso 2015). In mineral processing,
drainage belt, a series of suction boxes is installed the equipment of thermal low group is the most
along the length of the filter. The slurry to be fil- commonly used. For thermal processing systems,
tered flows into a feed box at one end of the belt. fuel consumption is one of the most important
Cake formation begins immediately, and as the operational costs. Therefore, it is essential that
belt moves toward the discharge end, it draws procedures are engineered in a manner that opti-
the formed cake with it. To discharge the cake, the mizes the fuel effectiveness and the overall heat
belt is passed over a small-diameter roll. balance.
6.10 · Waste/Tailings Disposal
519 6
.. Fig. 6.89 Rotary kiln
form thermal dewatering
(Image courtesy of SAMCA)
6.10 Waste/Tailings Disposal not recovered along with process water and any
reagents that were added during the milling and
Mining and mineral processing generate large beneficiation processes. If the mineral waste is also
volumes of mineral waste. At large mines, the chemically reactive, the potential environmental
mass of mineral waste generated can commonly impacts and the complexity of waste management
be measured in the tens of millions to billions of increase dramatically (see 7 Chap. 7). Moreover,
tons. Similarly, the surface area that must be dis- this environmental issue is becoming more impor-
turbed for mineral waste disposal is often mea- tant since the increasing exploration for metals and
sured in the tens to thousands of hectares and can the working of lower-grade deposits. It is clear that
account for the majority of disturbance (Borden the problem is serious because the quantity of tail-
2011). The mineral waste generally includes waste ings needing storage can commonly exceed the
rock and tailings. Because waste rock is unminer- total amount of the mineralization being extracted
alized or weakly mineralized rock and unconsoli- and processed. Over the last century, the amounts
dated sediments that must be removed to access of tailings being generated have increased dramati-
the underlying ore, it is typically a poorly sorted cally due mainly to the increment in demand for
mixture of clay, silt, sand, gravel, and boulder-size raw materials and the treatment of mineralization
material. The most common disposal method with very low grades. Moreover, the more extensive
for these materials is placement within dumps grinding required to liberate valuable elements in
(. Fig. 6.90) and stockpiles, although in-pit dis-
this low-grade mineral deposits, fine grained ores
posal is frequent in strip mines. Consequently, results in a tailings material that is less satisfactory
the disposal of tailings from mineral processing for both backfilling and tailings dam construction.
operations is a major issue in the mining cycle, In the 1960s tens of thousands of tons of tailings
although the problems involved in the disposal were generated each day, and by 2000 this approxi-
can be very varied according to the features of the mation had incremented to hundreds of thousands
material to be placed in the dump. (Jakubick et al. 2003).
Tailings are the fine-grained waste than remains In addition to the visual effect on the landscape
after the minerals or elements of economic inter- of tailings dumps, the main ecological effect is com-
est have been removed from the ore. They are monly water contamination. It takes place from the
composed of the gangue minerals in the ore and discharge of water polluted with solids, heavy met-
residual minerals of economic interest that were als, mill reagents, and sulfur compounds, among
520 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
others. The waste must therefore be place in both an drying time, and densification behavior after depo-
environmentally suitable and, if possible, economi- sition; and (g) hardpan behavior (e.g., crust forma-
cally feasible manner. In many countries, disposal tion on top of the tailings). Fortunately, significant
is governed by the legislation and can commonly advances in mineral waste characterization and
include rehabilitation of the site for a long time. For management have been made over the past several
instance, the European Commission establishes the decades. Proactive mineral waste management can
following features of the tailings to help determine significantly reduce the intensity, footprint, and
the design requirements of a tailings storage facility: duration of environmental impacts.
(a) chemical composition, including the change of The nature of tailings varies widely and can
chemistry through mineral processing and weath- be formed by very coarse dry material such as the
ering; (b) leaching behavior; (c) physical composi- rejected components from dense medium instal-
tion and stability (static and seismic loading); (d) lations. They are generally translated and disposed
behavior under pressure and consolidation rates; of as slurries of high-water content. Tailings
(e) erosion stability (wind and water); (f) settling, features can change greatly, depending on the
6.10 · Waste/Tailings Disposal
521 6
composition of the mineralization together with the long-term costs of tailings disposal depend in
the physical and chemical procedures utilized to part on mechanical stability and environmental
recover the valuable product. Tailings of the same integrity, such that stable and environmentally
type can commonly include different mineral- acceptable structures promote cost effectiveness».
ogy and therefore will have diverse physical and The management of tailings is of severe impor-
chemical features (Ritcey 1989). In this sense, it tance to the achievement of any mining project
is crucial to determine tailings features for estab- because many failures of tailings facilities have
lishing the behavior of the tailings after deposition originated loss of life, devastating environmen-
in their final storage location and the potential tal issues, closure of mining operations, dramatic
short- and long-term liabilities and environmen- decreases in share value, and in some countries,
tal issues. the personal liability of the mine management. The
Tailings are usually disposed of in specially first step in the development of tailings facility is
engineered repositories capable of containing the to determine all regulatory requirements and laws
fine-grained and often saturated tailings mass that are applicable. In cases in which there are
without the risk of geotechnical failure. It is impor- no such regulations or the regulations that exist
tant to note that tailings are waste products with- are not enforced, the guidelines and standards of
out economic interest to a mineral operator at that the lending agencies that finance the project are
particular point in time. Thus, it is usually stored often applied (Equator Principles – see 7 Chap. 7).
in the most non-expensive manner possible to Notwithstanding the existence of the lack of regu-
meet regulations and site-specific characteristics. lations in a given jurisdiction, responsible mining
Historically, tailings were often disposed in flow- companies apply appropriate measures to the inter-
ing water or directly into drainages, being com- national standards. Some developed countries have
mon this practice in some countries until recent laws that require companies to apply as a minimum
times. Tailings and waste rock repositories change the standards and regulations of the home country
vastly in size, from tailings ponds with a size of a when mining in other countries (Brown 2002).
swimming pool to places of over 1000 hectares,
and from small tailings or waste rock piles to waste
rock zones of several hundred hectares or tailings 6.10.1 Methods of Tailings Disposal
heaps over 200 m high. Since the disposal of tail-
ings is one of the greatest environmental problems The methods utilized to the location of tailings
of mining, it is the only item covered in this sec- have improved due to environmental pressures,
tion devoted to mining waste disposal. changing milling operations, and realization of
The ultimate objective of tailings disposal is to profitable applications. Due to the damage caused
include fine-grained tailings, usually with a sec- by early disposal methods in rivers and streams
ondary purpose of conserving water for further and the much finer grinding necessary on actual
utilization in the mine and mill. Liberation of mineralization, other methods have been devel-
water from the tailings once discharged in a facil- oped. In general, there are the following options
ity and the amount available for return pumping for managing tailings and waste rock: (a) discard-
to the processing installation are a crucial opera- ing slurried tailings into ponds (. Fig. 6.91), (b)
tion parameter that influences the water balance backfilling waste rock into underground mines or
of the mining project. The process of tailings open-pits or utilizing them for the construction
disposal has to be carried out in a cost-effective of tailings dams, (c) dumping nearly dry tailings
manner that provides for long-term stability of or waste rock onto heaps or hillsides, (d) utilizing
the embankment structure and the impounded the tailings and waste rock as a material for land
tailings and the long-term protection of the use (e.g., as aggregates or for mining reclama-
environment. According to the Environmental tion), (e) dry stacking of thickened tailings, and
Protection Agency of USA (EPA 1994): «In the (f) discarding tailings into surface water (e.g., sea,
process of designing any tailings disposal, three lake, river) or groundwater. The most typical tech-
interests, cost, stability, and environmental per- niques applied nowadays are those commented
formance, must be balanced, with situation- below, although the tailings dam continues to
specific conditions establishing the balance at be the classical chosen method for many mining
each stage of the process; it is worth noting that companies.
522
Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
Tailings Dams
The design, construction, and operation of tail-
ings dams are a major concern for new mining Upstream
projects as well as for many existing operations.
Development features in tailings dam design
include aspects such as site selection, site charac-
terization (climate and hydrology, regional geol- Downstream
ogy, terrain analysis, hazard classification), waste
characterization, geotechnical design, and legisla-
tion requirements (Brown 2002; MMSD 2002). In
this sense, two principal features are essential in
tailings dam design: safety and economic viability. Centerline
Regarding the safety area, the dam structure must
be designed and constructed in such a way that
it will not fail during construction and utilization
or later where it is no longer in use. On the other
.. Fig. 6.92 Methods to design a tailings dam
hand, contamination of lakes and rivers must be
avoided. But it is also essential that design and
construction of dams must be carried out at the high slurry density, to a suitable location. However,
lowest possible cost, obviously compatible with it is economically advantageous to site the impound-
safety items. This always implies the location of ment close to the mine, although this imposes limits
the dam in close proximity to the mine operation. on site selection. Tailings dams can be built across
The type of tailings embankment is gener- river valleys or as curved or multi-sided dam walls
ally determined by the local seismic activity, water on valley sides, this latter design facilitating drain-
clarification, tailings properties and stability, tailings age. On flat or gently sloping ground lagoons are
distribution, foundation and hydrological condi- built with walls on all sides of the impoundment
tions, and environmental conditions (Azizli et al. (Wills and Finch 2016). Since the disposal of tailings
1995). The ground underlying the dam must be adds to the production costs, it is essential to make
structurally sound and able to bear the weight of the disposal as cheap as possible. There are three main
impoundment. If such a site cannot be found close to methods to design a tailings dam: upstream, down-
the mine, it can be necessary to pump the tailings, at stream, and center line (. Fig. 6.92).
6.10 · Waste/Tailings Disposal
523 6
.. Fig. 6.93 Upstream
tailings dam (Image
courtesy of Alrosa)
.. Fig. 6.94 Tailings
discharge by spigot
utilizing some form of the downstream method. the dam is needed, material is placed on both the
The downstream design is versatile for a varied tailings and the existing embankment. By using
range of site-specific design features and behaves this method, the forthcoming surface area and
similarly to water retention dams. Their main therefore the storage capability do not reduce with
advantage is that the downstream design can have each dam increment. A fourth design method is
unrestricted heights since each increment is struc- the so-called modified center line. This method
turally independent of the tailings. The main dis- allows the embankment crest center line to move
advantage is the cost of raising the embankment slightly upstream optimizing the quantity of con-
as large volumes of fill are needed, which incre- struction materials required in the downstream
ment largely as embankment height increases. shell zone of the embankment.
Moreover, a large area around the dam itself is
required as the toe of the dam moves out as more In-pit Disposal
increments are added (Vick 1990). In-pit tailings disposal is merely the procedure of
backfilling abandoned open-pit mines with tail-
The Center Line Method ings. This technique is very appealing to a mine
The center line method is in fact an intermediate operator as worked out voids can be filled at
situation between the upstream and downstream lower cost than other possibilities such as design-
methods of design (Benckert and Eurenius 2001). ing, constructing, and operating a conventional,
The embankment crest is being incremented ver- thickened, paste, or dry-stack facility. Another
tically and does not move related to the upstream advantage to in-pit storage is that the tailings do
and downstream positions of further raises, hence not need retaining walls, being on this manner
the term center line design. It is more difficult to the risks associated with embankment instability
fail than the upstream method but does not need eliminated (EPA 1994). Thus, the disposal of tail-
as much construction product as the downstream ings in mined-out open-pits can be an alternative
method. Thus, the dam can be increased more rap- to constructing a new tailings storage facility, pro-
idly, and there is less problem maintaining it ahead vided that the open-pit and the tailings have the
of the tailing pod in the first steps of construc- appropriate characteristics. The main risk associ-
tion. Like the upstream method, the tailings are ated with this method of disposal is the contami-
commonly discharged by spigoting (. Fig. 6.94)
nation of the groundwater network by leachates
from the embankment crest to constitute a beach from the tailings. This risk is minimized for open-
behind the dam wall. Where further increment of pits that act as water sinks, that is, groundwater
6.10 · Waste/Tailings Disposal
525 6
.. Fig. 6.95 Underground
mine hydraulic backfilling
(Spain) (Image courtesy of
Matsa, a Mubadala &
Trafigura Company)
flows toward the pit, and/or where the bedrock slurry concentration commonly about 55% by
is mostly impermeable (Wills and Finch 2016). weight (1:1.2 water/cement ratio) (European
Other disadvantages include the possibility that Commission 2009).
the stability of underground mines near the in-pit
storage can be jeopardized or the poor consolida- Densified Tailings
tion that can produce long durations of surface In some cases, tailings are thickened to 60% pulp
deformation once a pit has been filled. density or more or dried to a moisture content of
Another possibility related to the disposal of 25% or below prior to disposal. Collectively, these
tailings in mines (abandoned or active) is back- techniques are known as densified tailings. The
filling. It is the reinstatement of products into effectiveness and feasibility of utilizing thickened
the mined-out part(s) of the mining site. These or dry tailings is based on the mineralization
materials are commonly overburden, waste rock, grind as well as the helpfulness of other meth-
and tailings, either alone or combined with other ods of disposal. Excepting certain circumstances,
products (e.g., cement). Slurried and dry tail- these techniques can be extremely expensive due
ings are sometimes used in underground mines to further equipment required and energy expen-
(. Fig. 6.95), abandoned pits, or portions of active
ditures. However, the advantages include dimin-
pits as a backfill. There are different types of mine ishing seepage volumes and land required for an
backfilling such as dry backfill, cemented backfill, impoundment and simultaneous tailings deposi-
hydraulic backfill, and paste backfill. For example, tion and rehabilitation (Vick 1990). The densified
cemented backfill commonly is constituted by tailings methods include thickened tailings, paste
waste rock or coarse tailings materials mixed tailings, and dry stacking, which depends on
with a cement or fly ash slurry to enhance the the percentage of solids in the tailings. It usually
bond strength between the rock fragments. The ranges between 50% and 70% in thickened tail-
techniques of location all include mixing the rock ings and up to above 85% in dry stacking.
and cement slurry in a hopper before positioning These are all procedures that enhance water
it in voids (e.g., stopes or mined-out longwall) or and reagent recovery and reduce tailings amounts
percolating a slurry over the rock once it has been and footprint, which clearly assist site rehabilita-
located. The waste rock or tailings can be classi- tion. Densified tailings are expected to become
fied or unclassified. Cemented backfill contains a more common in operating mines, particularly
mixture of coarse aggregate (<150 mm) and fine those with low ore grade and high throughput,
aggregate (<10 mm fraction), being the cement which produce large volumes of tailings and require
526 Chapter 6 · Mineral Processing
.. Fig. 6.96 Densified
(dry stacking) tailings dam
(Spain) (Image courtesy of
Matsa, a Mubadala
&Trafigura Company)
large impoundment areas. For those high tonnage or land accesibility (Coumans 2002). In this sense,
operations, reduction in tailings volume has signifi- submarine tailings disposal is probably the most
cant impact on dam size and the area of disturbed common subaqueous disposal technique, espe-
land (Wills and Finch 2016). Regarding the most cially for operations that are close to the sea. It
densified tailings disposal method, dewatering to includes the deepwater unloading of tailings to the
higher degrees than paste generates a filtered wet sea. Sometimes, river tailings disposal is used for
(saturated) and dry (unsaturated) cake that can no water-soluble materials such as salt. Thus, some
longer be translated by the pipeline because this potash operations unload saline waters into rivers.
product has a low moisture content. These types of One of the main objectives of subaqueous tail-
tailings are usually moved by a conveyor or truck, ings disposal is to minimize the contact between
located, spread, and compacted to constitute an atmospheric oxygen and the tailings. It under-
unsaturated tailings deposit (Davies and Rice, 2001) states the oxidation of reactive materials (e.g., oxi-
(. Fig. 6.96). Thus, this tailings storage originates a
dation of sulfides), inhibiting acid generation. The
stable structure commonly needing no retention objective is commonly to keep a constant water
bunding, being termed dry stack. A typical mois- cover on the tailings during operation as well as
ture content of less than 15–20% is obtained by after closure. Underwater deposition is a little bit
utilizing a combination of belt, drum, horizontal, more expensive in comparison with conventional
and vertical stacked pressure plates and vacuum discharging above the water level, but final decom-
filtration systems (Martin et al. 2002). On the other missioning expenditures are drastically lower.
hand, dry-stack structures are also easier to close The major disadvantages of this storage
and rehabilitate, need a smaller footprint in com- method is that submarine tailings management
is often considered risky due to the unpredictable
parison with other surface tailings storage facilities,
and originate better regulator and public percep- characteristics of the tailings flows as they leave
tions of tailings storage (Davies and Rice 2001). a discharge outlet and the potential for pollution
migration. The tailings cover large zones on the
Subaqueous Disposal ocean or lake floor and produce turbidity issues
Subaqueous disposal is also a possible disposal if the disposal technique is not designed prop-
method, being an alternative to conventional tail- erly (Ripley et al. 1978). Another concern is that
ings disposal. In general, subaqueous tailings dis- many features of the subaqueous environment are
posal is the discharge of tailings to rivers, lakes, unknown, and hence an impact study is almost
and seas. Subaqueous disposal can be utilized if impossible to undertake.
onshore methods are not suitable due to high- The tailings need to be preferentially located
seismic activity of the terrain, high rainfall, and/ under the euphotic zone (normally >100 m deep),
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531 7
Environment
and Sustainability
7.1 Mining and the Environment – 533
7.1.1 Introduction – 533
7.1.2 Closure and Reclamation: The Final Stage – 534
7.1.3 Environmental Management System – 541
References – 612
7.1 · Mining and the Environment
533 7
many mining companies work actively to remediate
Summary environmental damage caused by historic mining
This chapter draws attention to all topics operations in areas where they developed operations
related to environment and sustainable and/or have current activities. Thus, environmental
development in the mining world. In this considerations are an important part of the modern
sense, financial aspects (e.g., the Equator mining industry. They must be included in all project
Principles) are essential to meet the sustain- plannings, and feasibility studies must account for
able development objectives. The description the influence of environmental considerations on
starts with some comments about the final project schedules and costs (Nelson 2011). It is clear
stage of the mining cycle: closure and today that a zero-harm environment is achievable
reclamation, and the concept of an and that all fatalities, occupational diseases, and inju-
Environmental Management System. The ries are preventable.
«social license to operate,» which is the The mining industry has followed the same
acceptance of a mining operation by trend as our society. Big mines affect surrounding
stakeholder communities, is featured below. environment similar to other industrial operations.
The potential environmental and social In the second half of the twentieth century, the min-
impacts and their management are then ing industry developed a better understanding of its
discussed. Environmental and social impact impact on the environment. Today, mines are
assessments are also emphasized because designed, developed, operated, and closed in an
the integration of environment into develop- environmentally sound manner, and considerably
ment scheduling is the essential tool in effort is put into continually improving environ-
achieving sustainable development. Finally, mental standards (Stevens 2010). Consequently, the
eight reclamation case studies are developed mining industry has changed in the last decades. It
at the end of the chapter. is not the industry it was 100, 50, or even 30 years
ago. Modern mines operate under modern laws that
place far greater importance on environmental pro-
7.1 Mining and the Environment tection and use knowledge and technologies that
limit the impact of a mine on the environment.
7.1.1 Introduction Moreover, the modern mining industry also con-
siders the environment in a broader context than in
Society needs mining industry since products the past. Today, it is not just about the physical envi-
derived of this activity improve our wealth and ronment but also the social and economic environ-
quality of life and allow society to growth. In par- ment in which a mine operates. Therefore, the
allel, new technologies that help to minimize policy makers and organization conducting the
human impact on the Earth’s environment require mineral development must foster the social well-
metals and other mineral products (Stevens 2010). being of the people living in the mining areas. Mines
However, the environmental impacts of mining must have the support of the communities and
are perhaps part of the price that humankind has countries in which they operate in order to be suc-
to pay for the benefits of mineral consumption cessful. This support is garnered ensuring high stan-
because some environmental degradation due to dards of environmental stewardship (Haldar 2013).
mining is unavoidable. Large mining operations affect surrounding
In the recent past, mining was carried out with communities, flora and fauna, land and water,
little concern for its effects on the environment, similar to other major industrial operations. The
resulting often in significant environmental damage. extent to which mining becomes an environmen-
As political and cultural norms evolved and new legal tal impact depends largely upon the number of
requirements were enacted, almost all major mining people that a mine affects. High quantities of
companies adopted rigorous policies and procedures waste are a consequence of most mining and
for sustainability, community engagement, and envi- quarrying operations. Although the major part of
ronmental risk assessment and mitigation. These this waste is inert and nonhazardous, disposal is
companies apply such policies throughout their often a space problem, at least in densely popu-
operations, many of which are worldwide. Up to date, lated areas. Since economic growth cannot take
534 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
place without mineral raw materials, the rational 7.1.2 Closure and Reclamation:
conclusion is that the exploitation of mineral The Final Stage
resources is not the problem, but it must be devel-
oped in a green and modern execution (Pohl All mines have a finite life, and, once the ore is
2011). Obviously, the larger the size of a mining extracted, the mine will close, and the mine site
operation, the larger the impact is likely to be will be reclaimed to a productive natural state.
because it will produce more waste, occupy more Thus, generally the final step in the operation of
land, and have a greater number of buildings. mine works is closure and reclamation, the proce-
Old mining works commonly dumped wastes dure of closing a mine and recontouring
without interest for their physical or chemical sta- (. Fig. 7.1), revegetating, and restoring the water
bility and the disposal of waste has led to the pollu- and land features to the previous configuration.
tion of surface streams and groundwater. Moreover, Closure and reclamation plans are part of mine
urban areas have suffered subsidence damage by planning and environmental assessment and
underground mining. Thus, although the mining must be in place prior to mine development
companies generally showed a lack of concern for (Stevens 2010).
7 the environment, this does not indispensably mean Before the incorporation in the 1970s of mine
that society was not aware of the environmental closure requests and best practices in the laws,
issues that could be generated with mining. For mines were commonly abandoned (. Fig. 7.2).
example, in 1306 a Royal proclamation prohibited Thus, mine land reclamation and closure plan-
the use of coal in London for domestic and indus- ning are actually needed by regulatory agencies
trial purposes because of the nuisance caused by worldwide, and they are frequently a part of the
smoke, but it proved impossible to enforce. In environmental impact assessment procedure car-
addition, Agricola (1556) commented the environ- ried out in many countries. Regarding the finan-
mental issues generated by mining such as the dev- cial assurance requirements of a closure and
astation of fields and the contamination of streams. reclamation plan, it is the responsibility of the
The greater awareness of the importance of the mining company to pay for closure and reclama-
surrounding environment has led to tighter regula- tion costs. To avoid mine abandonment, mining
tions being implemented by many countries to companies are ever more requested to supply
lessen the impact of mining operations. The con- financial warranty in the form of a deposit or
cept of reclamation of a site after mining works has bond to governments and communities as a guar-
entered definitely in the country laws. Thus, in antee that the resources to meet closure needs will
most developed countries, mining is closely regu- be available.
lated now, and environmental impacts are increas-
ingly being controlled. Modern mines are bound by
present environmental legislations that are becom- Closure
ing strict in the developed world. In this sense, it is In a perfect world, mine works only finish their
important to remember that there is legacy of older activity if the mineral resources are exhausted and
operations in most countries worldwide, many of a mine closure planning is gradually imple-
which have been abandoned. Therefore, there is a mented. However, in the real world, mines extract
combination of modern impacts (the impact of reserves not resources, and the grade and tonnage
current mining in developing countries is still more of reserves change daily based on the commodity
marked) matched with ancient legacies. price, mineralization grades, geotechnical issues,
Due to the above, mining companies are car- and other features that can produce the closure
rying out considerable efforts to decrease the before the calculated reserves have been wholly
environmental impact of mine works and dimin- mined. In these cases, the reputation of the min-
ish the footprint of their operations throughout eral industry is dependent on the legacy it leaves.
the mining cycle, including working to reclaim The reasons why mine works close preterm are
ecosystems post-mining. To achieve this objec- numerous, including low commodity prices or
tive, many mining companies have developed high expenditures, reducing grade of the
their own codes of practice to assure that mining mineralization, unfavorable geotechnical condi-
operations do not so significant harm to their sur- tions, policy changes, social or community influ-
roundings. ences, and many others. This closure position
7.1 · Mining and the Environment
535 7
.. Fig. 7.2 Abandoned facilities without reclamation (Image courtesy of Miguel Cabal)
536 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
previous the entire extraction of the mineraliza- risk, it is necessary to assure that closure planning
tion can generate important issues for the mining is wholly integrated in the core business of the
enterprise, the community, and the regulator asset (Bingham 2011). Additionally, the detail and
(Commonwealth of Australia 2006a). The con- accuracy of closure plans must change through
cept of «community» is usually used in the miner- the life cycle of the asset, starting out as concep-
als industry to describe those who live in the tual and progressively becoming more detailed
geographic region of an operation, either in over time.
defined settlements or dispersed settings.
A mine closure plan including physical rehabili- Closure Objectives
tation and socioeconomic aspects must be an inte- Closure objectives establish the closure results for
gral portion of the project life cycle and should be the mining project and must be realistic and attain-
determined so that (a) the future public health and able. They can form the requirement to restore a
safety are not compromised, (b) the after-use of the site to its original state and rehabilitating the site to
site is beneficial and sustainable to the affected com- a condition compatible with the surrounding ter-
munities in the long term, and (c) the adverse socio- rain. These goals are designed in accordance with
7 economic impacts are minimized and socioeconomic the suggested post-mining land use(s) and are as
benefits are maximized (IFC 2007). Moreover, the precise as possible to afford a specific indication to
closure plan is a dynamic document that must be the government and the community on what the
constantly updated to express variations in mine proponent commits to attain at closure. Timing
development and operational planning as well as the and the methods to achieve these objectives are
environmental and social conditions. Closure and through the life of the asset; life cycle is commonly
post-closure planning should incorporate adequate very specific. For example, some of mines may not
aftertreatment and continuous monitoring of the enable for any concurrent or progressive reclama-
mine site. The duration of post-closure monitoring tion during the operating stage since the disturbed
can be organized on a risk basis; however, site fea- areas are in constant utilization during the mining
tures commonly need a minimum period of 5 years works, while other mining operations (e.g., several
following closure or longer. types of coal mines) display generally the possibil-
Whether an operation has 10 or 50 years of ity to carry out reclamation activities during the
operational life remaining, implementing closure life of the asset.
plan into the mining business originates a great The Environmental Protection Authority of
value for both the company and the wider com- Western Australia summarizes the main closure
munity. For this reason, mining companies must objectives of a mining project:
involve governments, communities of which they 1. Landforms: constructed waste landforms will
are part, and other stakeholders in closure plan- be stable and consistent with local topogra-
ning to achieve a successful closure outcome. phy; constructed tailings storage facilities will
External mining stakeholders such as local com- be nonpolluting and non-contaminating, and
munities, conservation groups, and biodiversity toxic or other deleterious materials will be
advocates are becoming more and more sophisti- permanently encapsulated to prevent
cated about the outcomes of good and bad closure environmental impacts; surface water bodies
planning practices (Bingham 2011). shall not be left in mining voids unless the
Planning for a successful closure is a complex, operator demonstrates there will be no
multidisciplinary task that is essential to mini- significant environmental impact (e.g.,
mizing long-term risk for the mining company, salinization, reduction in water availability,
the environment, and the affected stakeholders. toxicity, algal problems, attraction to pest
Assessing closure risk requires a systematic, struc- species, or a local safety hazard) (. Fig. 7.3).
tured evaluation. Thus, the risk assessment forms 2. Revegetation: vegetation in rehabilitated areas
the basis of the closure plan and cost estimates. will have equivalent environmental values as
The focus of the closure risk assessment will be to surrounding natural ecosystems; soil proper-
establish an acceptable risk profile for the com- ties will be appropriate to support target
pany and all other stakeholders upon completion ecosystem.
of the closure project. To address closure planning 3. Fauna: rehabilitated areas will provide
issues and meet business objectives to manage appropriate habitat for fauna; abundance and
7.1 · Mining and the Environment
537 7
.. Fig. 7.3 Water sam-
pling (Image courtesy of
Kinross Gold Corporation)
diversity of fauna must be present in appro- Minimum considerations about this item must
priate proportions given the specified incorporate the accessibility of all funds to cover
post-mining land use. the costs associated to mine closure at any stage in
4. Water: surface and groundwater hydrological the mine life, including provision for early or tem-
patterns/flows will not be adversely affected; any porary closure. In the case of a financial guaran-
water runoff or leaching from tailings dams, tee, an acceptable manner of financial guarantee
overburden dumps, and residual infrastructure must be presented by a renowned financial insti-
shall have quality compatible with maintenance tution (IFC 2007).
of local land and water values. Governments should apply the financial
5. Infrastructure and waste: during decommis- assurance requirements for contributing to the
sioning and through closure, wastes will be goal of environmental protection but do not put
managed consistent with the waste minimiza- pressure to existing operators and result in pre-
tion principles; no infrastructure left on-site mature closure. The timing and nature of new
unless agreed to by regulators and post- requirements as well as transition provisions
mining land managers/owners; disturbed should be set accordingly (ICMM 2005). In this
surfaces must be rehabilitated to facilitate sense, it is important to note that efficient envi-
future specified land use; the location and ronmental financial assurance policies reduce the
details of any buried hazards will be clearly scope for public criticism of mineral industry
defined, and robust markers will be installed practices (ICMM 2005). Since predictive mine
and maintained (EPA 2015). works’ reclamation costs are very difficult since
they are usually inexact, especially where long-
Financial Assurance term care is needed, governments commonly
In recent years, numerous specialty documents include a «safety factor» into the amounts of EFA
and guidelines have been prepared by govern- environmental financial assurance applied.
ments, industry associations, and nongovernmen-
tal organizations (NGOs) on the subject of Closure Plan Stages
financial assurance for the closure activities, In general, there are three basic stages to develop-
including those available through the International ing an effective closure plan. The first stage is the
Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM). Although development of a target closure outcome and
these documents and guidelines vary greatly goals, which are manifested in a conceptual clo-
country to country, it is essential that the closure sure plan. This plan is developed and used during
team properly reviews the site-specific regulatory exploration, pre-feasibility, feasibility/design, and
requirements for estimating financial assurance. construction to guide the direction of activities.
538 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
.. Fig. 7.4 Restoration of the land surface (Spain) (Image courtesy of Carlos García)
Its active life can be 3–5 years. If well defined and In planning for the reclamation of a given
based on effective community and stakeholder mine, there are many issues that must be consid-
engagement, it cannot change much during this ered. The first of these is the safety of the mine
time. The second stage involves the ongoing site, especially if the area is open to the general
development and implementation of a detailed public. The second major issue is rehabilitation of
closure plan, which increases the understanding the land surface (. Fig. 7.4), the water quality, and
of specific goals and milestones as well as the the waste disposal zones so that long-term water
actions and outcomes of activities to meet these. contamination, soil erosion, dust production, or
This plan is used continuously during operations vegetation issues do not occur. The final concern
and has an active life that could range from 5 to is the subsequent use of the land after mining is
30 years or more; obviously, during this time it completed. The last stage in reclamation is moni-
must be updated. The final stage is the effective toring. In this process, all reclaimed areas are
transition to closure, which can be manifest as a monitored and assessed for vegetation survival
decommissioning and post-closure plan. Its active and growth rates. Plants in areas that are to be
life can be as little as a year or two, although it can used for grazing will be tested to ensure that they
extend many years past that time depending on contain acceptable levels of metals and other pos-
post-closure responsibilities (ICMM 2008). sible contaminants (Stevens 2010).
Reclamation has been used in a general way
Reclamation simply to mean returning a mine site to some other
Mine reclamation is the procedure of taking land land use whether it be the same as before mining
after utilized by mining operations and changing began or different. It includes the physical stabili-
it into land with alternative uses. Reclamation zation of the land (e.g., waste rock piles), landscap-
includes aspects related to surface and groundwa- ing, rehabilitating topsoil, and return of the land to
ter and air purity, erosion issues generated from a helpful finality. The art of mine reclamation has
storm water and sometimes wind, revegetation of progressed from straightforward revegetation
appropriate plant species, and wildlife habitats. operations to a more complex discipline that
The best time to start the reclamation procedure includes utilization of native plants to mimic natu-
of mine works and associated installations is just ral ecosystem. In most cases, entire reclamation is
before the first excavations are undertaken. almost impossible, but sound remediation and
7.1 · Mining and the Environment
539 7
rehabilitation can result in the opportune setting of turbed land and help to change it to a utilization
a functional ecosystem. that the public will consider clearly positive. Thus,
By planning the mine for a subsequent develop- old mine sites can be converted to wildlife habitat
ment, it is possible to improve the value of the dis- and refuge (. Box 7.1: Cabárceno Natural Park)
Box 7.1
community’s animals: jaguars, world. The Park welcomes different collaborates with zoos and
giraffes, lions, Siberian and Bengal animal species from five continents partnerships in the conservation of
tigers, leopards, hyenas, bisons, in a semi-free environment, which endangered species like tigers,
elephants, hippos, rhinos, have been distributed in boxes of lions, bobcats, rhinos, etc. For
dromedaries, camels, llamas, large areas where one or more instance, the park has pioneered, in
zebras, ostriches, and many others species can coexist. The Nature collaboration with the Deutsches
as well as Cantabria’s fauna Park’s life develops in the most Primatenzentrum and the
including wolves, deer, wild boars, natural environment for these University of Göttingen (Germany),
and the most important Hispanic animals. Besides the food provided in the development of techniques
reserve of brown bears. them, the rest of the activities are that have allowed the knowledge
The facilities that host animals marked, almost, by their complete of the sexual cycle in female
are internationally recognized as freedom and instinct as wild as in African elephant by noninvasive
one of the best existing in the their natural habitat. The park methods.
.. Fig. 7.6 Aggregate quarry reclaimed to recreational area (Las Madres, Madrid, Spain)
7.1 · Mining and the Environment
541 7
is concerned, it commonly refers to returning a profits of an Environmental Management System
mined area to its previous condition and land use are the following: (a) diminishes the environmen-
such as where a surface mine is filled and the tal responsibilities applying well-defined mitiga-
restored land returned to agriculture. tion techniques, (b) increases the effective
The meaning of rehabilitation and reclamation utilization of resources, (c) decreases waste pro-
in the context of mining is not as widely accepted as duction by appropriate planning, (d) proves a
the meaning of restoration. Nevertheless, rehabilita- well-accepted corporate image, (e) motivates
tion (also referred to as regeneration) can be awareness of environmental concern, (f) incre-
regarded as the establishment of a stable and self- ments better knowledge of environmental impacts
sustaining ecosystem, but not indispensably the one of business activities, and (g) increments the skill
that existed previous mining works started. and effectiveness generating higher productivity
Therefore, rehabilitation is the procedure utilized to at lesser costs and higher benefits.
remedy the impacts caused for the mining activities Applying an EMS, the company can prove to all
on the environment. The long-term aims of rehabili- people that they take environmental impacts actively.
tation procedure can change from merely convert- Moreover, an efficient EMS can also enhance com-
ing an area to a safe and stable condition to restoring pany operations and generating economic profits.
the pre-mining conditions as closely as possible to The bigger organizations decide certification is more
support the future sustainability of the site. meaningful when taking into account the potential
trade and market benefits of an internationally iden-
tified and certified EMS. For this reason, ISO 14000
7.1.3 Environmental Management families of certifications assure diminishing the
System negative effect of operations on environmental
aspects and comply with applicable laws, regula-
An Environmental Management System (EMS) is tions, and other environmentally oriented mitiga-
an essential part of a larger management system tions. All these standards are periodically reviewed
or an organization. The EMS is utilized to define by ISO to assure that they still meet market needs.
an environmental policy and to control the envi- It is important to note that Environmental
ronmental aspects of the organization activities, Management Systems do not by themselves define
products, and services. This control includes environmental objectives. Rather, they only lead
interrelated components such as responsibilities, the management procedure of a company to assure
authorities, relationships, functions, processes, that environmental programs can be efficiently
procedures, practices, and resources. A manage- developed. Setting of policies and goals is one of
ment system utilizes these components to define the important functions defined within such a
policies and goals and to develop ways of using management system. ISO 14001, issued in 2004,
these policies and achieving these objectives. offers standards by which an organization may put
Thus, EMS is a group set of procedures and in place and implement a series of practices and
practices that allow an organization to decrease its procedures that, when taken together, result in an
environmental impacts and increment its operat- Environmental Management System (EMS)
ing effectiveness, being a powerful tool for man- (. Box 7.2: Environmental Management – ISO
aging the unfavorable impacts of activities of an 14001). Other relevant families of certification
organization on the environment aspects. The used in an EMS are ISO 9000 and ISO 18000. For
Box 7.2
of waste, and energy consumption. known as a generic management determines which aspects are
Thus, the standard requires the system standard, meaning that it is significant by choosing criteria
company has a procedure for relevant to any organization considered most important by
monitoring that regulatory seeking to improve and manage the organization.
requirements are being met. resources more effectively. Today, 3. Implementation: an organiza-
International standard ISO many large-scale mines operating tion follows through with the
14001:2004 from the International worldwide have already attained action plan using the necessary
Organization for Standardization ISO 14001 certification. The ISO resources (human, financial,
(ISO) defines an Environmental 14001 EMS standard requires every etc.); an important component
Management System (EMS) as mining company the highest, most is employee training and
«Organization structure, responsibili- acceptable level of efficiency in awareness for all employees.
ties, practices, procedures, processes, terms of extracting minerals while 4. Evaluation: a company monitors
and resources for implementing and at the same time ensuring that the its operations to evaluate
maintaining environmental environment is not compromise. whether targets are being met.
management.» It is a flexible, The five main stages of an EMS, 5. Review: top management
risk-based, plan-do-check-act as defined by the ISO 14001 reviews the results of the
continual improvement approach standard, are (. Fig. 7.7):
evaluation to see if the EMS is
7 that requires formal documented 1. Commitment and policy: top working; management
processes for many of its elements. management commits to determines whether the original
Most mining companies are environmental improvement environmental policy is
committed to managing its and establishes the organiza- consistent with the organiza-
environmental aspects, impacts, tion’s environmental policy. tion’s values; the plan is then
and risks through adherence to the 2. Planning: an organization first revised to optimize the
internationally recognized ISO identifies environmental aspects effectiveness of the EMS.
14001: 2015 EMS standard. It is of its operations and then
Checking Implementation
and Operation
5 Resources, Roles, Responsibility, and Authority
12 Monitoring and Measurement
6 Competence, Training, and Awareness
13 Evaluation of Compliance
7 Communication
14 Non-Conformance, Corrective
8 Documentation
and Preventive Action
9 Control of Documents
15 Control of Records
10 Operational Control
16 Internal Audit
11 Emergency Planning and Response
example, the former ensures quality system man- worldwide. It is commonly agreed that sustain-
agement, and it is established to help organizations able development was early defined in 1987 by
that they satisfy the requirements of customers. the Brundtland Commission (Our Common
Future, World Commission on Environment
and Development, United Nations) as «a sys-
7.2 Mining and Sustainable tem of development that meets the basic needs
Development of all people without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own life-
In the last three decades, the terms «sustainable sustaining needs.» Since then, a rich discussion
development» and «sustainability» have been has ensued about what this means in practical
in use by the governments and policy makers terms. Though many other sets of words have
7.2 · Mining and Sustainable Development
543 7
been suggested for defining sustainable devel- environment (Haldar 2013). Since the release of
opment, the Brundtland Commission defini- «Our Common Future,» including the aforemen-
tion has stood the test of time. In mining world, tioned Brundtland Report, many of the major
these words were possible first utilized in the industries in the world, including mining compa-
early 1990s in the Rio Summit (1992). nies, many of its governments, and the United
In recent years, the word sustainability has Nations have adopted a policy of sustainable devel-
also found its way into common use. The ideas of opment.
sustainable development and sustainability are In this sense, the mining industry has been a
different but synchronous. Sustainability is a more particularly active locus of sustainability-related
general term that captures the idea that we need policy and practice innovations because: (a) the
to maintain certain important aspects of the world potential implications of mining activities and the
over the long term. These features vary from pri- minerals and metals that result are significant; (b)
mary requirements of human society such as air, many interests are touched by mining; (c) the role
water, food, clothing, shelter, and basic human of many of these interests in decision-making is
rights to a group of perceptions that would col- growing (e.g., communities and indigenous peo-
lectively be termed «quality of life» and not only ple); (d) the nature of contemporary communica-
for people but also for other forms of life. tions systems has brought the often dramatic
Sustainable development is the human or action nature of mining operations into the public eye;
part of this set of ideas. Together, these ideas are and (e) industry, governments, civil society orga-
very appealing, but their translation to practical nizations, and the public, in general, are all anx-
action remains much debate. This is not surpris- ious to ensure mining makes a positive
ing since there are about 200 countries across the contribution that is fairly shared (Hodge 2011).
world, and the global ecosystem is complex and However, the focus is not on how mining can be
not fully understood (Hodge 2011). sustainable, identifying that mining operations
At the base of the interlinked ideas of sustain- has a finite useful life, but on how mining indus-
ability and sustainable development is the easy tries can help to sustainable development. This is
perception that the human activities, obviously a conceptual change from a singular analysis and
including mining, should be carried out in such a mitigation of impacts to a more complete study
way that the activity itself and the products origi- that looks at the broader contribution of the
nated together afford a net contribution to human industry and its products (ICMM 2012a). In this
and ecosystem well-being over the long term. An sense, financial aspects are essential to meet the
optimum balance clearly requires to be maintained sustainable development objectives (. Box 7.3:
Box 7.3
sound environmental management comply with the EP. Where a and/or impacts that are few in
practices. Thus, the importance of project is proposed for financing, number, generally site-specific,
climate change, biodiversity, and the EPFI will, as part of its internal largely reversible, and readily
human rights is recognized, and environmental and social review addressed through mitigation
negative impacts on project- and due diligence, categorize it measures; and (c) category C,
affected ecosystems, communities, based on the magnitude of its projects with minimal or no
and climate should be avoided potential environmental and adverse environmental and social
where possible. If these impacts are social risks and impacts (principle risks and/or impacts. Obviously,
unavoidable, they should be 1 – Review and Categorization). the Equator Principles have
minimized, mitigated, and/or offset. Such screening is based on the greatly increased the attention
EPFIs review the Equator Principles environmental and social and focus on social/community
from time to time based on categorization process of the standards and responsibility
implementation experience and in International Finance Corporation since 2010. They include robust
order to reflect ongoing learning (IFC). Using categorization, the standards for indigenous
and emerging good practice. EPFI’s environmental and social peoples, labor standards, and
The EP are primarily intended due diligence is commensurate consultation with locally affected
to provide a minimum standard with the nature, the scale and communities within the project
7 for due diligence to support stage of the project, and the level finance mining market. The most
responsible risk decision-making. of environmental and social risks important lending institutions
According to this, EPFIs commit and impacts. The categories are worldwide, many of whom
to implementing the EP in their as follows: (a) category A, provide financing for mining
internal environmental and social projects with potential significant activities, have adopted the
policies, procedures, and adverse environmental and social Equator Principles. Thus, currently
standards for financing projects risks and/or impacts that are 83 EPFIs in 36 countries have
and will not provide project diverse, irreversible, or unprec- officially adopted the EP, covering
finance or project-related edented; (b) category B, projects over 70 percent of international
corporate loans to projects where with potential limited adverse project finance debt in emerging
the client will not, or is unable to, environmental and social risks markets.
Today, mining companies employ the principles roject and mineral life cycles, that is, including
p
of sustainable development in their environmental exploration, design and construction, operation,
policies. This has resulted in positive development closure, and reclamation.
for the industry and has allowed mining companies In the late 1990s and faced with growing con-
to view the impacts of their operations in a more cern about access to capital, land, and human
comprehensive manner. The process has not been resources, the chief executive officers of nine of
easy; conflict is still present and consensus is not the world’s largest mining companies took an
always possible (Stevens 2010). In summary, a unprecedented step. Working through the World
sustainable mining operation must be safe, proves Business Council for Sustainable Development,
significant practices in EMS and community they started the Global Mining Initiative (GMI).
engagement, is financially robust, and which, very They commissioned the International Institute
importantly, effectively utilizes the mineral resource. for Environment and Development (London) to
Thus, mine managers establish a sustainable mining carry out a global review that would lead to iden-
operation if they focus on the five areas: safety, envi- tification of how mining can contribute in the
ronment, economy, efficiency, and community best form to the transition to sustainable develop-
(Laurence 2011). At present, almost all mining ment. The resulting project, «Mining, Minerals,
companies include in their Web pages a heading or and Sustainable Development,» sparked a large
subheading entitled «Sustainability» or «Sustainable and rich literature, including the final report of
Development.» Thus, headings such as socioeco- the project, entitled «Breaking New Ground:
nomic development, environment, community, or Mining, Minerals, and Sustainable Development.»
indigenous relations are common, and annual sus- As a direct result of MMSD, the International
tainability reports updated regularly are available in Council of Mining and Metals (ICMM) was
almost all mining Web pages. But application of founded at 2001. It is an international organiza-
sustainability concepts to the mining, minerals, and tion devoted to enhance the social and environ-
metals industry needs attention paid to the full mental performance of the mining industry.
7.3 · Social License to Operate
545 7
Formed by 23 mining and metal companies and to all countries with mineral resources, in particular
34 regional and commodity associations, ICMM developing countries; in this sense, mining offers
represents the views of most of them in address- the opportunity to catalyze broad-based economic
ing the core sustainable development issues development, reduce poverty, and assist countries
facing the industry. In May 2003, ICMM’s CEO- in meeting internationally agreed development
led Council committed member companies to goals when managed effectively and properly; (c)
implement and measure their performance that countries have the sovereign right to develop
against ten sustainable development principles. their mineral resources according to their national
They are based on the issues identified in the priorities and responsibility regarding the exploita-
Mining, Minerals, and Sustainable Development tion of resources described in the Rio Principles;
project, and all ICMM member companies have and (d) that mining activities should maximize
committed to following this set of ten princi- social and economic benefits and effectively address
ples. negative environmental and social impacts. The
The ten principles published by ICMM are the Resolution claims to governments and businesses
following: to foster the continued enhancement of responsibil-
1. Implement and maintain ethical business ity and transparency and the efficiency of the sig-
practices and sound systems of corporate nificant existing mechanisms to avoid the illicit
governance. financial flows from mining activities.
2. Integrate sustainable development consider- Moreover, building on the Millennium
ations within the corporate decision-making Development Goals (MDGs), the 17 Sustainable
process. Development Goals adopted by all United Nations
3. Uphold fundamental human rights and member states in 2015 after extensive global con-
respect cultures, customs, and values in deal- sultation process seek to rebalance and integrate
ings with employees and others who are the economic, social, and environmental pillars of
affected by our activities. sustainable development, with a central focus on
4. Implement risk management strategies people, planet, prosperity, and peace. In order to
based on valid data and sound science. align the activities of the mining sector with these
5. Seek continual improvement of our health global goals, the United Nations Development
and safety performance. Programme (UNDP) has conducted a mapping
6. Seek continual improvement of our environ- exercise that identifies the key ways in which min-
mental performance. ing activities can have a positive or negative
7. Contribute to conservation of biodiversity impact on the achievement of each of the SDGs.
and integrated approaches to land use The mapping exercise they have undertaken has
planning. identified those positive direct and indirect
8. Facilitate and encourage responsible product impacts of mining on sustainable development
design, use, reuse, recycling, and disposal of that should be enhanced and those negative
our products. impacts that must be mitigated. Mining activities
9. Contribute to the social, economic, and do not always produce economic and social prof-
institutional development of the communi- its to the countries in which the operations are
ties in which we operate. located since the mines in some cases are situated
10. Implement effective and transparent where there is bad governance, including corrup-
engagement, communication, and indepen- tion.
dently verified reporting arrangements with
our stakeholders.
7.3 Social License to Operate
Regarding the role of the United Nations in sustain-
able development and mining, in «The Future We At a meeting with World Bank personnel in
Want» Resolution (Res/66/288 – 2012), the United Washington in 1997, Jim Cooney, at that moment
Nations contributed with the following consider- director of international and public affairs with
ations: (a) that minerals and metals make a major Placer Dome, proposed that the industry had to
contribution to the world economy and modern act positively to recover its reputation and gain a
societies; (b) that mining industries are important «social license to operate» in a process that, begin-
546 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
.. Fig. 7.8 Local community members are essential to obtain and maintain the social license to operate (Image
courtesy of Anglo American plc.)
ning at the level of individual mines and projects, operate» is in some cases confusing with the
would, over time, create a new culture and public exclusively operational phase of a mine life cycle
profile for the mining industry (Thomson and where mineralization is extracted for processing.
Boutilier 2011). The concept of a social license to A better sense of the term to operate is to continue
operate (or simply social license) soon entered in the project, no matter where in the mine life cycle,
the vocabulary of the industry, civil society, and from starting exploration to closure and reclama-
communities that host mines and mining proj- tion (Thomson and Boutilier 2011). The explora-
ects. Thus, the concept is in fact an outcome of tion stage is especially important because that is
sustainability. The social license has been defined when first impressions are made. It is a challeng-
as existing where a mine or project has the ongo- ing period that can affect community relations
ing approval within the local community and during the whole mine life cycle. A positive rela-
other stakeholders. This includes not only local tionship can lead to the early acquisition of a
communities (. Fig. 7.8), indigenous people, and
social license. If that is maintained, it can create
governments but also the international commu- the tolerance and mutual understanding needed
nity. Inherent in this concept is the belief that to deal with conflicts and different interests dur-
local communities should benefit from the min- ing the whole life of the mine.
ing project (Stevens 2010). Therefore, mining The normative components of the social license
companies must communicate openly with all include the community/stakeholder perceptions
interested parties and stakeholders, and they must of the legitimacy and credibility of the mine or
have a solid sustainability record in order to have project and the presence or absence of true trust.
the social license. These elements are obtained sequentially and are
Social license to operate is intangible, dynamic, cumulative in building toward the social license.
and nonpermanent because beliefs, opinions, and The mine or project must be seen as legitimate
perceptions are subject to vary as new informa- before credibility is of value in the relationship,
tion is obtained. Hence, the social license has to and both must be in place before meaningful trust
be gained and later retained. It is commonly can develop. These concepts are extended in the
granted on a site-specific basis. Thus, a company following subheading. Sometimes, the social
can have a social license to operate for one mine license can transcend approval if an important
but not for another one. Obviously, the larger the part of the community and other stakeholders
effects, the more difficult it becomes to get the include the project into their identity. At this level,
social license to operate. Moreover, the term «to it is common for the community to become
7.3 · Social License to Operate
547 7
defenders of the mine or project since they con- level is shown as narrower than the acceptance
sider themselves to be co-owners and emotionally level above it in order to symbolize the possibility
involved in the future of the mine or project. that, globally, more projects are accepted than
The license is granted by the community, a rejected. Regarding legitimacy boundary criterion,
term used generically to describe the network of legitimacy can be defined in the context of stake-
stakeholders that share a common interest in a holders and politics as the approval by the individ-
mining or exploration project and make up the uals and by relevant organizations of an association’s
granting entity. Use of the terms community and right to exist and to pursue its affairs in its selected
stakeholder network implies that the license is not way (Knoke 1985). This adequately summarizes
granted by a single group or organization. It is a the bare minimum of legitimacy even when the
collective approval granted by a network of groups company has no social license.
and individuals. Therefore, the existence of a Where legitimacy is established, the commu-
handful of supporters in the middle of a larger nity response is that they will listen to the company
network of opponents would mean that the license and consider its proposals. If, by their own stan-
has not been granted. However, the condition that dards, they have no reason to doubt the company’s
the license be a sentiment for a very different credibility, they can allow the project to tentatively
group of individuals originates great complexity proceed. This constitutes the acceptance level of
into the process. In this sense, individuals and social license. It is a minimal objective for any
groups will cooperate with the company for many company. The acceptance level is bounded by the
reasons, including courtesy, a desire for gain, a legitimacy criterion and the credibility criterion.
perception of having no alternative, or, as is com- This represents how acceptance requires that the
mon in many cases, a sense of obligation with company’s legitimacy must be firmly established
authorities. Cooperation for these motives does and its credibility should at least not be damaged.
not indispensably need a confidence relationship. Legitimacy can be earned by just listening; credi-
bility requires doing something about what has
been heard. Credibility is the basis of confidence,
7.3.1 hases of Earning a Social
P and where an enterprise is considered as credible,
License it is seen as following through on promises and
dealing with everyone. An essential component of
As aforementioned, a social license has distin- credibility comes from openness and transparency
guishable levels. At the same time, the process of in the provision of information and decision-mak-
moving from one level to another can be thought ing.
of as a smooth gradient of continuous relationship Where a company has established both legiti-
improvement through increasing social capital. macy and credibility, a community is likely to grant
. Figure 7.9 shows the four levels of social license
approval of the project. This means the company
and the three boundary criteria that separate them. has secure access to the resources it needs. The
The levels represent how the community treats the community regards the project favorably and is
company. The boundary criteria depict how the pleased with it. This level of social license depicts
community opines on the company, principally lack of sociopolitical risk. Regarding the full-trust
based on the behavior of the company. The levels boundary criterion, in management research trust
and boundary criteria are organized in a hierarchy, has been shown to be essential in relationships
and it is possible to go both up and down the hier- between and within organizations. Trust is espe-
archy. For example, if a company loses legitimacy, cially important where bridging the boundary
the project will be shut down. If full trust is gained, between businesses and civic sector organizations,
the community will support and protect the proj- which include many community groups. Credibility
ect as its own (Thomson and Boutilier 2011). is a basic level of trust related to honesty and reli-
Starting from the base, the rejection level of a ability. Communities that have a complete level of
social license is the worst-case scenario. This is trust in a company think that the company will
when the community stops progress on the project. always behave according the interest of the com-
Many mineral deposits cannot be exploited because munity.
the community does not grant any level of social Consequently, both parties come to view proj-
license to proceed. The withholding/ withdrawal ect’s success as a co-ownership arrangement. The
548 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
Approval
Credibility Boundary
7
Acceptance
Legitimacy Boundary
Withholding/Withdrawal
There have been cases where community mem- can take place during all phases of the mining
bers have traveled to foreign countries to chal- cycle, from exploration to closure and post-
lenge false information being promoted by NGO closure phases. The issue is that mining involves
critics. Few mining companies have taken their many stages that commonly begin from deposit
community relations to the co-ownership level. prospecting and exploration stage, mine develop-
Many have difficulty seeing beyond the immedi- ment and preparation phase, mine exploration
ate transactions to the much greater benefits of stage, and treatment of the mineral itself with
establishing strong collaborative relationships. each of these phases involving specific environ-
Nonetheless, as awareness of the potential bene- mental adverse effects.
fits grows, more companies are attempting to win Therefore, since there are different phases in a
a higher level of social license (Thomson and mining project, each phase of mining is associated
Boutilier 2011).
7.4 · Potential Environmental Impacts and Their Management
549 7
with different sets of environmental impacts. The Once an ore body of sufficient grade has
adverse effects exploration stage on the natural found, then the mining company can start for
environment are generally minimum, but it is planning the development of the mine. This stage
worth initiating surveys of the present state of the of the mining project has different components
environment before starting any activity that will and possible environmental adverse effects. Thus,
impact the environment. Thus, activities at ground construction works and the greater amount of
level commonly need the utilization of boreholes, traffic originate noise and dust. Changes to the
pitting, and transect lines. For example, the drill- land surface raise the risk of soil erosion
ing fluids utilized in diamond drilling can get into (. Fig. 7.11) and surface runoff, and the further
the water utilized to bring cuttings to surface; this incremented waterborne loads of solid particles
water therefore must be adequately disposed so increase the turbidity of water bodies. Drainage
that it does not pollute the groundwater. The water and runoff from a mine operation can also
application of support equipment also affects the increment loads of metals and nitrogen in water
environment since prospecting vehicles request bodies downstream if water is not adequately
access tracks. For this reason, application of high- controlled. All of these changes in water body fea-
standard environmental management procedures tures as well as in vegetation can affect the condi-
in mineral prospection is critical to assure that tions for organisms and generate significant
such activities are adequately managed with the changes in species biodiversity. On the other
protection of environmentally delicate zones and hand, if a mine operation is situated in a distant,
community concerns efficiently addressed. More undeveloped area, the mining company usually
over, some countries request independent envi- requests to start the operations by clearing land
ronmental evaluations for the exploration stage of for the construction of staging areas that would
a mining project since subsequent phases of min- house project personnel and equipment. Relative
ing cannot assure if prospection fails to find suffi- to other phases of activity, the design and con-
cient amounts of high-grade mineralization. struction phase is short. However, this intense
550 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
.. Fig. 7.11 Control of erosion using a mechanical erosionometer (Image courtesy of Freeport-McMoRan)
group of activities and related environmental linked to concentration of minerals and/or metals
implications can be destructive if not carefully from the waste piles.
managed. Underground mining, although it is a less
After the mining company has developed environmentally harmful method to extract the
access roads and staging areas, mining can begin. mineralization in an ore deposit, it is usually more
Surficial mining generally includes the extraction expensive and implies greater safety risks than
of vegetated zones and commonly also includes open-pit mining. Mineralization extraction, uti-
the generation of an open-pit that extends below lizing specializing heavy equipment such as load-
the groundwater table. In this situation, ground- ers, haulers, and dump trucks, which transport
water must be pumped out of the open-pit to the ore to concentration installations utilizing
enable mining to develop. Thus, mining opera- haul roads, can produce noise and generate a spe-
tions at this stage originate discharges to water cific group of environmental adverse effects such
that can represent the most important adverse as emissions of dust. Finally, disposal of overbur-
effects to the environment. Outflows of water den and waste rock is also a source of different
from the mine site can result in changes such as environmental impacts, commonly associated to
incremented turbidity, acidification, or saliniza- presence of harmful substances. These materials
tion in water bodies downstream as well as incre- are often located on-site, either in piles on the sur-
mented concentration of metals and nutrients. face or as backfilling in pits, or within under-
Regarding the mining projects that exclusively ground operations. Therefore, environmental
include removing of abandoned waste piles, they assessments for mining projects must carefully
prevent the environmental adverse effects of surfi- evaluate the management possibilities and related
cial mining but still imply environmental impacts adverse effects of overburden disposal.
7.4 · Potential Environmental Impacts and Their Management
551 7
After the ore has been brought to surface, the is often measured in tens to thousands of hectares
process of getting the metal out can also create and can account for the main disturbance. Waste-
harmful substances. In beneficiation processes, related perpetual water management and treat-
grinding results in tailings that must be designed ment can account for more than half of the total
to avoid harmful components to reach the envi- closure cost at some mines (Borden 2011). Public
ronment. For this reason, a treatment procedure concerns during project permitting are com-
for capturing chemically the by-products must be monly centered on potential exposure risks and
included in the design. Thus, they can be safely water quality impacts from chemically reactive
disposed individually from the principal portion mineral wastes and can result in project delays
of the mine tailings. For example, sulfides present and costly permitting requirements. Fortunately,
in the waste rock have to be kept from creating significant advances in mineral waste character-
acid runoff. Meanwhile, different concentration ization and management have been made over the
techniques create several types of waste, including past several decades. Proactive mineral waste
waste rock dumps, another type of tailings, heap management can significantly reduce the inten-
leach products (e.g., in gold treatment), and dump sity, footprint, and duration of environmental
leach products (e.g., in copper leach beneficia- impacts. Companies that practice proactive man-
tion). agement can reduce their financial liability,
The concentration process uses plenty of improve their reputation, and become miners of
water, and this water can contain small concen- choice, helping ensure access to new mining
trations of various organic and inorganic reag opportunities.
ents used in the concentration process. How this The environmental adverse effects of mine
high volume of water and material is disposed is wastes are controlled by their type and composi-
one of the central questions that will establish tions, which change significantly with the raw
whether a suggested mining project is environ- material being extracted, type of mineralization,
mentally suitable. The essential long-term objec- and methods utilized to concentrate the ore. As a
tive of tailings management is to avoid the result, each mine needs its own waste profiling,
release into the environment of toxic compo- prediction, monitoring, control, and treatment.
nents of the tailings. For instance, wastes includ- Most mine wastes are environmentally harmless
ing sulfide minerals can produce acidic or and can be utilized for landform reconstruction,
neutral runoff with elevated concentrations of vegetation covers, and road and dam construc-
metals and sulfates as the sulfide minerals are tion. According to Rankin (2011), the main envi-
acidified. If water is not adequately managed, ronmental impacts from waste disposal at mine
this can decrease water quality in surface water sites can be separated into two categories: (a) the
and groundwater bodies. In some cases, water loss of productive land following its conversion to
flowing from zones where tailings have been a waste storage area and (b) the introduction of
disposed can also include traces of chemicals sediment, acidity, and other contaminates into
utilized in mineral processing (e.g., flotation). surrounding surface and groundwater from water
Another issue of concern is the potential migra- running over exposed problematic or chemically
tion of pollutants through rock masses; in frac- reactive wastes.
ture rocks, the main portion of the pollutants Despite the recycling of many waste types at
can migrate through a system of joins, bedding mines, the bulk of waste generated is still located
planes, and faults producing contamination of into storage facilities, and the restoration and
soil and groundwater. long-term control of these installations have
become an essential part of modern mine devel-
opment and closure. Governments and other
7.4.2 aste Impacts and Their
W types of regulators can request any waste storage
Management structures to maintain stable at least for 100 or
200 years, which indicate they must withstand
At large mines, the mass of mineral waste gener- utmost events such as floods and earthquakes.
ated can commonly be measured in tens of mil- Thus, technological improvements and variation
lions to billions of tons. Similarly, the surface area in regulations have produced a meaningful
that must be disturbed for mineral waste disposal enhancement in waste management procedures
552 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
.. Fig. 7.12 Overburden (top soil) used for landscape contouring (Image courtesy of Daytal Resources Spain S.L.)
dumps and containment facilities must be 2. Waste rock: material that includes mineral-
designed and treated such that geotechnical risks ization with low grade considered not
and environmental adverse effects are adequately interesting to be mined at a profit.
evaluated and managed throughout the whole 3. Tailings: the fine solid waste generated in the
mine cycle. beneficiation process (e.g., froth flotation).
7.4 · Potential Environmental Impacts and Their Management
553 7
Waste rock is typically a poorly sorted mixture of waste requires thorough understanding of perti-
clay, silt, sand, gravel, and boulder-sized material. nent regulations, well-designed characterization
Although waste rock can be utilized as backfill in programs, careful site selection, good facility
earlier mined areas or translated off-site and uti- design, and rigorous ongoing management and
lized at construction projects, most of the waste monitoring.
material originated is placed in piles close to the
mine site. The most common disposal method for Potential Impacts
waste rock is placement within dumps and stock- Mineral waste disposal can be responsible for
piles, although in-pit disposal is common in strip much of the environmental impact caused by
mines. Not all mine wastes are defined as harmful mining. Potential impacts that must be assessed,
wastes since they can even be utilized as feedstock minimized, and mitigated during mine design,
for cement and concrete. Such materials cannot operation, and closure include the following:
be classified as wastes by definition because they 1. Direct land disturbance: construction of
really represent meaningful by-products of min- out-of-pit mineral waste storage facilities will
ing operations. typically require burial of the pre-mining
On the other hand, tailings are the fine- surface, its soils, and ecosystems beneath tens
grained waste that remains after the minerals or to hundreds of meters of waste.
elements of economic interest have been removed 2. Geotechnical instability: unless properly
from the ore (. Fig. 6.91). Thus, tailings are com-
designed, thick waste piles can be prone to
posed of the gangue minerals in the ore and resid- geotechnical instability and failure; instability
ual minerals of economic interest that were not can range from excessive surface erosion to
recovered along with process water and any large deep-seated slope failures; geotechnical
reagents that were added during the milling and risks are generally highest for tailings and
concentration processes. Tailings commonly leave other fine-grained waste materials that are
the process as slurry formed by 40–70% liquid saturated when deposited.
and 30–60% solids; they are usually disposed of in 3. Erosion and sediment release: erosive wastes
the form of a water-based slurry in specially engi- are prone to the formation of gullies and
neered repositories (on-site impoundments such other erosion features; the release of sediment
as tailing ponds) that are capable of containing at much higher rates than surrounding
the fine-grained and often saturated tailings mass natural landforms can have negative impacts
without risk of geotechnical failure. on down-gradient surface water bodies and
When developing a waste characterization aquatic ecosystems.
program, operations must identify and under- 4. Visual impacts: large-scale mineral waste
stand the physical and chemical characteristics transport and placement can significantly
and hazards of all mineral wastes that will be dis- modify the landscape, creating landforms that
turbed, exposed, produced, or imported over the are taller than the surrounding topography,
life of the operation. The characterization pro- truncating valleys and drainage lines, and
gram must be rigorous enough to provide reliable creating unnatural uniform planar landforms
predictions of the long-term physical and chemi- that do not blend in with the surrounding
cal behavior of the waste. Ultimately, the program natural topography; visual impacts are likely
will be used to select appropriate management to be a particular concern near population
strategies that comply with pertinent regulations centers and recreational or protected areas.
for each waste type, ensure that all repositories are 5. Direct exposure risks: chemically reactive
physically and chemically safe and stable, and mineral waste can pose direct chemical
allow for successful rehabilitation and closure exposure risks to people, plants, and animals
(Borden 2011). The presence of chemically reac- that live on or near the waste; the pH, salinity,
tive mineral waste can significantly increase the or metal content of the waste can also inhibit
complexity and cost of waste management. Succ vegetation establishment and prevent
essful management of chemically reactive mineral successful rehabilitation of waste surfaces.
554 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
met during start-up, operation, and closure. The management systems, (b) regular visual inspec-
selected strategy does not have to completely pre- tions for signs of excessive surface erosion and
vent any solute or contaminant release but must shallow or deep-seated failure on the outer slopes
ensure that release rates meet regulatory require- of waste repositories, and (c) monitoring of water
ments and are low enough to be assimilated by levels and pore pressure within embankments and
the receiving environment without causing harm the waste (Borden 2011).
to people, ecosystems, organisms, or resources Spillways consist of primary spillways, which
(Borden 2011). are designed to allow smaller flows out of the
556 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
.. Fig. 7.14 Aerial view of Marlin Spillway (Guatemala) (Image courtesy of Goldcorp Inc.)
tion to sustainable development is clearly positive roadways to keep dust down during dry periods),
over the long term. In this sense, it is necessary to the water is usually recycled so only a small
bear in mind that managing water is one of the amount of new water is needed every day. For
most important environmental activities at operat- example, chemicals utilized in the concentration
ing mines. Moreover, water control is a collabora- process are generally removed or diluted before
tively liability across the operations although tailings are sent to the tailings storage facility
collective management does not signify that liabil- (Stevens 2010).
ity for certain zones cannot be allocated. Global Planned water releases from mines into the
responsibility is best controlled if the operation environment are commonly closely controlled to
has someone in charge of committees and pro- assure observance with legislation and to dimin-
cesses (Commonwealth of Australia 2008). ish adverse effect to receiving waters. Release of
The main sources of water on a mine site are process water is systematically managed and must
from precipitation, dewatering of open-pits or acquire some quality standards and requests in
underground workings, and pumping and removal terms of temperature, pH, and conductivity.
of groundwater specifically around open-pit oper- Other discharges are produced due to normal
ations. Precipitation that falls on the mine site run-off, utmost storm events, and release from
must be collected and cleaned prior it can be dis- surplus dewatering where water can be contained
charged to the environment. Water from the and discharged appropriately (ICMM 2012b).
dewatered open-pit works or underground opera- Surrounding surface and groundwater quality is
tions requests to be treated before being released. controlled, and numerous treatment procedures
Regarding management of water utilized on the can be utilized to assure mine water complies leg-
mine site (e.g., processing the ore or watering of islation standards previous to be released.
558 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
Precipitation Evaporation
REUSE
Open pit
Rock dump Tailings dump
MINE SIT Other industry
7
REC Water treatment
YCL CE
E REDU
Community
Sea
Groundwater Groundwater
.. Fig. 7.16 Flows of water to and from a mine site (ICMM 2012b)
Implementation of internal proactive management Thus, mine waters are almost always acidic and
strategies that reduce the volume of water that need the addition of lime or caustic soda to
must be treated and/or reduce the solute load in increase the pH. Once pH has been incremented,
the water can be cost-effective as well as ultimately dissolved metals can precipitate out of solution
more protective of the environment (Borden and sink to the bottom of settling or sedimenta-
2011). tion ponds where they can be extracted. Chemicals
Broad water management strategies and con- called coagulants or flocculants can be added with
trol techniques to decrease the potential for water the aim of converting smaller particles into larger
560 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
clumps that settle out of the water more quickly Acid mine drainage is responsible for prob-
(Brown 2002). Regarding the passive water treat- lems of water pollution in major coal and metal
ments, they are commonly combined with water mining areas around the world.
monitoring programs and advantage of natural Once AMD develops, it can be hard to control
physical, chemical, and biological processes that and stop. If acid mine drainage is not controlled, it
remove water contaminates without additional can pose a serious threat to the environment because
physical or chemical inputs. Examples of these acid generation can lead to elevated levels of heavy
procedures are bacteria-controlled metal precipi- metals and sulfate in the water, which obviously
tation, contamination uptake by plants, and filtra- have a detrimental effect on its quality. Stopping
tion through soil and sediments. AMD development can be very complex since it is a
process that, when left unrestrained, will advance,
Acid Mine Drainage and can accelerate, until some of the chemical com-
The term acid mine drainage (AMD) or acid rock ponents (sulfide minerals, oxygen, and water) are
drainage (ARD) is used to describe the drainage depleted or removed from reaction (Verbug 2011).
resulting from the natural oxidation of sulfide Thus, the development of ARD is time dependent
minerals that occur in mine rock or waste exposed and sometimes can evolve over a period of decades
to air and water. It is important to remember that or even centuries after mining has ceased.
it is a natural process, not something specifically Managing acid rock drainage is a preoccupa-
generated by mining (. Box 7.4: Chemistry of
tion at mine workings and after mine closure.
Acid Mine Drainage). AMD can incorporate Furthermore, AMD is also a major concern for
acidity and dissolved metals into water, which is mining companies since nowadays mining opera-
usually very harmful to aquatic life. tions tend to increment the quantity of rocks
7.4 · Potential Environmental Impacts and Their Management
561 7
Box 7.4
Reaction 2
Iron sulfide + Oxygen + Water ⇔
Ferric hydroxide + Sulfate + Acid ( orange precipitate ) FeS2 (s ) + 14 Fe3 + ( aq ) + 8 HO( aq ) ⇔ 15 Fe 2 +
+2 SO 4 2 + 16 H +
There are two key processes involved in the generation
of acid (H+) from iron sulfide: (a) oxidation of sulfide (S22−)
to sulfate (SO42−) and (b) oxidation of ferrous iron (Fe2+) Pyrite + Ferric iron + Water ⇔ Ferrous iron
to ferric iron (Fe3+) and subsequent precipitation of ferric + Sulfate + Acid
hydroxide. These can be represented in the following
three reactions (these reactions, when combined, are Under the majority of circumstances, atmospheric
equivalent to Reaction 1): oxygen acts as the oxidant. However, aqueous ferric
iron can oxidize pyrite as well. This reaction is
Reaction 1a considerably faster (two to three orders of magnitude)
than the reaction with oxygen and generates
substantially more acidity per mole of pyrite oxidized.
FeS2 (s ) + 3 O 2 ( g ) + H 2O( aq ) ⇔ Fe 2 + ( aq ) However, this reaction is limited to conditions in which
+2 SO 4 2 −( aq ) + 2 H + ( aq ) significant amounts of dissolved ferric iron occur (i.e.,
acidic conditions – pH 4.5 and lower). Oxidation of
ferrous iron by oxygen is required to generate and
Iron sulfide + Oxygen + Water ⇔ Ferrous iron replenish ferric iron, and acidic conditions are required
+ Sulfate + Acid for the latter to remain in solution and participate in
the ARD production process.
exposed to air and water, and many metal miner- AMD Formation
alization and coal deposits are rich in sulfide min- The process of sulfide oxidation and development
erals. In this sense, mining companies are of AMD is not easy to understand and includes
upwardly requested to assess the ARD potential at numerous chemical and biological processes that
future mine operations and propose comprehen- can change importantly in accordance with envi-
sive planning to prevent or avoid ARD at all stages ronmental, geological, and climate characteristics
of mining cycle as part of the environmental (Nordstrom and Alpers 1999). In unaffected nat-
impact assessment (EIA) procedure. ural situations, acid development is a moderately
562 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
slow process considering geological time. But (e) low turbidity or total suspended solids. On the
mine works and concentration of mineralization other hand, according to Commonwealth of
and materials incorporating metal sulfides hugely Australia (2007a), essential indicators of AMD
increase the acid-generating process because it presence include «red colored (. Fig. 7.18) or
rapidly exposes those substances to oxidizing unnaturally clear water, orange-brown iron oxide
conditions. precipitates in drainage lines, death of fish or other
The most common acid-generating sulfide aquatic organisms, precipitate formation on mixing
minerals are pyrite (FeS2), pyrrhotite (FeS), mar- of AMD and background (receiving) water, poor
casite (FeS2), chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), and arseno- productivity of revegetated areas (e.g., waste rock
pyrite (FeAsS). It is clear that not all sulfide pile covers), vegetation dieback (e.g., bare areas),
minerals originate acidity when being oxidized and corrosion of concrete or steel structures.» For
since sphalerite and galena tend not to generate instance, the most common and very noticeable
acidity when oxygen is the oxidant. But it is also manifestation of ARD from a dump is the reddish
very evident that all sulfide minerals are capable brown staining associated with the effluent and
of generating acidity if aqueous ferric iron is the which consists of precipitates of principally ferric
oxidant. In this sense, the presence of microor- salts. These salts are a source of turbidity, but they
ganisms such as Thiobacillus ferrooxidans may do not represent an environmental issue.
accelerate the reaction by its enhancement of the Locations susceptible to develop acid rock drain-
rate of reduced sulfur oxidation. If conditions are age since sulfides can be routinely exposed to air and
not favorable, the bacterial influence on acid gen- water are waste rock pile, ore stockpile, tailings stor-
eration will be minimal. As aforementioned, ARD age facility (. Fig. 7.19), underground mine, and
is a natural process and has been produced in a heap and dump leach pile. However, ARD will not
natural manner over millions of years. Thus, the occur if the sulfide minerals are nonreactive or if the
names of rivers such as the Rio Tinto in Spain, the rock contains sufficient alkaline material to neutral-
Norwegian Raubekken, and the Iron Creek in ize the acidity. In the latter instance, pH value of the
Colorado reflect the historical nature of AMD. water may be near n eutral, but it may carry elevated
In general, ARD can show the following chemi- salt loads, especially of calcium sulfate. In other
cal features: (a) low pH ranging from 1.5 to 4, (b) words, the acid-generating capability of sulfide min-
high-soluble metal concentrations, (c) high (sulfate) erals is countered by acid-neutralizing minerals.
salinity, (d) low quantities of dissolved oxygen, and Most carbonate minerals are capable of dissolving
7.4 · Potential Environmental Impacts and Their Management
563 7
.. Fig. 7.19 Schematic
representation of AMD Rainfall
generation and pollutant
Oxygen Oxygen
migration from a waste
rock (Ritchie 1994) Oxidized region
Oxidation and chemical reactions Oxygen
Oxygen
Chemical reactions
Groundwater flow
quickly, making them efficient acid consumers. In dissolving and removing oxidation products,
some cases, calcium-magnesium silicates can buffer leaving a fresh mineral surface for oxidation;
mine effluents at neutral pH. In cases of near neutral in addition, greater volumes of AMD are
pH, the levels of major ions such as calcium, magne- often produced in wetter areas where there is
sium, and sulfate are unacceptably high from an more water available for reaction.
environmental viewpoint. 5. Temperature: pyrite oxidation occurs most
However, the neutralization of acid generally quickly at a temperature around 30 °C.
increases the amount of toxic metal concentra- 6. Microorganisms present: some microorgan-
tions in the resulting drainage. While increases in isms are able to accelerate AMD production.
pH are desirable, the consequent increase in toxic
metal concentrations is not. At most mining sites, Important progresses in the knowledge of AMD
there is not sufficient natural neutralizing materi- have been carried out in the last decades with
als to increase the pH of drainage to near neutral advancements also in mine water quality forecast
values. Thus, acid mine drainage characterized by and utilization of preventing methods. However,
low pH and high toxic metal concentrations is the mine water quality forecast can be complex due to
most usual manner of AMD undergone at mine the broad range of the chemical reactions included
operations (Commonwealth of Australia 2007a). and potentially very long periods over which
Lottermoser (2012) affirms that the rate of these reactions develop. In spite of the uncer-
AMD generation depends on a number of factors tainty, quantitative forecasting generated by uti-
such as: lizing realistic scenarios has demonstrated to be
1. Surface area of sulfide minerals exposed: of significant value for identifying AMD manage-
increasing the surface area to air and water ment options and evaluation of potential environ-
increases sulfide oxidation and AMD mental adverse effects. Thus, prediction of mine
formation. water quality generally is based on one of more of
2. Type of minerals present: not all sulfide the following procedures: (a) test leachability of
minerals are oxidized at the same rate, and waste materials in the laboratory; (b) test leach-
neutralization by other minerals present can ability of waste materials under field conditions;
occur, which would slow the production of (c) geological, hydrological, chemical, and miner-
AMD. alogical characterization of waste materials; (d)
3. Amount of oxygen present: sulfide minerals geochemical and other modeling (INAP 2009).
oxidize more quickly where there is more
oxygen available; as a result, AMD formation AMD Impacts
rates are higher where the sulfides are AMD is one of the most sensible and visible envi-
exposed to air than where they are buried ronmental problems facing the mining industry
under soil or water. because it is often the method of transport for a
4. Amount of water available: cycles of wetting rank of contaminants, which can affect on-site
and drying accelerate AMD formation by and off-site water resources, and associated
564 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
.. Fig. 7.20 Encapsula-
tion of reactive tailings to Cover, if required
minimize sulfide reaction
rates (Commonwealth of
Australia 2007a) Tailings
Containment
Liner, if required
Foundation
human and ecological receptors. The impacts of On the other hand, a risk-based planning and
AMD on near and distant water resources and design forms the basis for prevention and mitiga-
receptors can also be long term and persist after tion of AMD. The main goal of the risk-based
mine closure. Therefore, AMD prevention, miti- procedure is to quantify the long-term adverse
gation, and treatment are important components effects of alternatives and to utilize this knowl-
7 of overall mine water management over the entire edge to elect the option that has the most conve-
life of a mining operation (Verbug 2011). nient combination of attributes. Including the
The environmental adverse effects of AMD prevention and mitigation effort into the mine
depend on the size and sensibility of the water operation is an essential factor for successful
body concerned and the quantity of neutraliza- AMD management (INAP 2009). Therefore, the
tion and dilution. For instance, the same amount most cost-effective and low-risk AMD manage-
of ARD would have greater adverse effect on the ment approach is to prevent AMD development
water quality of a small lake than it would have in through prediction and mine planning.
the ocean, as the ocean has a higher dilution capa- Prevention of AMD must begin at exploration
bility and salt water has stronger acid-buffering stage and continue throughout all the mine cycle,
capacity than freshwater. The dissolved metals being the keystone to avoid costly mitigation. The
associated with AMD are commonly more toxic first aim is to use techniques that minimize sulfide
to fish and aquatic organisms than is the acidity. reactions, metal leaching, and further migration
of weathering products originated from sulfide
AMD Prediction and Mitigation oxidation (. Fig. 7.20).
One of the most important studies that must be Where sulfide mineral extraction is inevitable,
carried out in a mining environmental assessment a number of AMD prevention strategies have
is to evaluate the potential developing of AMD been carried out such as locating waste rock
processes. Thus, an accurate prediction of acid underwater, flooding and sealing underground
mine drainage is required in order to determine mines, mixing acid-producing materials with
how to bring it under control. The objective of acid-buffering materials, covering waste rock, and
AMD control is to satisfy environmental require- treating of sulfide wastes chemically. In the latter,
ments using the most cost-effective techniques. organic chemicals have been used to sulfide
The options available for the control of contami- wastes with the aim to decrease the rate of AMD;
nated drainage are greater at proposed rather than however, there is concern that some of these
at existing operations, as control measures at chemicals can reduce beneficial microorganisms
working mines are limited by site-specific and in the environment, thus being pollutants them-
waste disposal conditions. The length of time over selves (Price and Errington 1998; Johnson and
which the control measurements are requested to Hallberg 2005). In this sense, it is far more effi-
be efficient is a factor which requires to be deter- cient and usually far less costly in the long term to
mined previous to the design of a system to con- control acid mine drainage during its early phases.
trol ARD. The prediction of the potential for acid Prevention and control of AMD is undertaken
generation involves the collection of available using primary, secondary, and tertiary control
data and the performance of static and kinetic mechanisms. Primary control measures are those
tests. Both tests provide data that can be used in that prevent AMD from developing. They com-
different models to predict the effect of acid gen- monly include segregating potentially acid origi-
eration and control processes. nation waste rock or tailings from non-potentially
7.4 · Potential Environmental Impacts and Their Management
565 7
acid-generating rocks and locating it underwater types, mineralogy, and available neutralization
or underground. Secondary control measures are resources as well as interrelationships between
those that do not stop AMD from developing but these. The control of acid mine drainage can
prevent or decrease the migration of AMD waters. request different approaches, depending on the
In some cases, secondary control measures can be severity of potential acid generation, the longevity
applied until primary methods can be developed. of the source of exposure, and the sensitivity of
Finally, tertiary control measures involve the the receiving waters. Regarding treatment of
long-term collection and treatment of AMD waters, there are two phases involved with the
waters to decrease acidity and remove dissolved design of a system for the treatment of ACM, one
metals. This is an unacceptable solution for a new during mine operation and another after closure.
mine and is only utilized for old or closed mines In any case, conventional active treatment of mine
that did not consider AMD-mitigation at the time waters needs the installation of a treatment plant,
of the operation or were not planned effectively. continuous operation, and maintenance, which
This type of measures is costly and can go on result in high capital and operational costs.
indefinitely (Stevens 2010). Obviously, where the Alternatively, passive methods try to minimize
entire prevention of AMD process is ineffective, the inputs of energy, materials, and manpower
acid mine waters must be trapped and treated uti- and so decrease operational costs.
lizing a number of water treatment processes.
control, and the latter is preferred over treatment. 7.1), airborne asbestos fibers can be present as
Election of the best minimization and control minor/trace contaminants in the dust produced
management strategies depend on climate, topog- during blasting, crushing, and further handling
raphy, mining method, material type, soil/rock and processing. Concern about the effect on
566 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
has the possibility to carry out a decisive contribu- recognizing that strengthened commitments to
tion to biodiversity conservation through the pro- biodiversity assessment and management are
duction of knowledge and the implementation of likely to be adopted (ICMM 2006). The concep-
actions in cooperation with others partners. tual approach adopted for a good practice guid-
Since mining will often have unavoidable nega- ance is illustrated in . Fig. 7.21, showing how
tive impacts on biodiversity, it is possible to offset integrate biodiversity into the mining project
impacts by creating benefits elsewhere to produce cycle (ICMM 2006).
an overall conservation outcome that maintains
the biodiversity assets of a region. Such offsets can Biodiversity Management
be direct through acquiring comparable land and Habitat alteration is one of the most significant
managing it for biodiversity conservation. This potential threats to biodiversity associated with
process is sometimes referred to as biobanking mine operations. Although this alteration can
(CSIRO 2014). Another form of a direct offset is take place at any stage of the mine cycle, there is
through funding the implementation of regional no doubt that the greatest potential for temporary
conservation plans. Biodiversity offsets can also be or permanent alteration of terrestrial and aquatic
7 indirect such as by conducting relevant research for habitats occurs during construction and opera-
improved conservation management or through tional activities. To integrate conservation req
education and training that increases regional uests and development priority in a manner that
capacity for biodiversity management. meets the land utilization requirements of local
The risks and impacts to business of the failure communities is generally a critical problem for
to correctly manage biodiversity problems can mining projects.
include (a) increased regulation and liability to Recommended strategies to solve these issues
prosecution; (b) increased rehabilitation, remedi- from the International Finance Corporation
ation, and closure costs; (c) social risks and pres- (World Bank Group) include consideration of the
sure from surrounding communities, civil society, following (IFC 2007):
and stakeholders; (d) restricted access to raw 1. Whether any critical natural habitats will be
materials, including access to land, both at the ini- adversely impacted or critically endangered
tial stages of project development and for ongoing or endangered species reduced
exploration to extend the lifetime of existing proj- 2. Whether the project is likely to impact any
ects; and (e) restricted access to finance and insur- protected areas
ance (Commonwealth of Australia 2007b). 3. The potential for biodiversity offset projects
Thus, it is very interesting for mining compa- (e.g., proactive management of alternative
nies to address biodiversity for many different high-biodiversity areas in cases where losses
sound business reasons. Consequently, most min- have occurred on the main site due to the
ing companies have established an ever more mining development) or other mitigative
complex perspective to managing biodiversity as measures
part of their compromises to achieve and main- 4. Whether the project or its associated infra-
tain a social license to operate. structure will encourage in-migration, which
Taking responsible decisions regarding to could adversely impact biodiversity and local
biodiversity management is upwardly considered communities
as very important with respect to (a) reputation, 5. Consideration of partnerships with interna-
which links to the license to operate, an intangi- tionally accredited scientific organizations to,
ble but significant benefit to business; it can pro- for example, undertake biodiversity assess-
foundly influence the perceptions of communities, ments, conduct ongoing monitoring, and
NGOs, and other stakeholders of existing or pro- manage biodiversity programs
posed mining operations; and (b) access to capi- 6. Consultation with key stakeholders (e.g.,
tal, particularly where project finance is to be government, civil society, and potentially
obtained from one of the investment banks that affected communities) to understand any
are signatories to the Equator Principles, which conflicting land use demands and the
apply the Biodiversity Performance Standard of communities dependency on natural
the International Finance Corporation (IFC) to resources and/or conservation requirements
all investments in excess of US $10 million, that can exist in the area
7.4 · Potential Environmental Impacts and Their Management
569 7
.. Fig. 7.21 Integrating
biodiversity into the
mining project cycle (ICMM
2006) Pre/feasibility
ion
rat Developm Co
plo roject ent ns
Ex wP tru
Ne
tal Managemt Sy
cti
men ste
on
iv ron ms
En lder Engag e
ho m
ke en
Sta t
Ancill
ary Infrast ture
Systems, tools & processes can apply
at any stage of the project style
ti o n s
ruc
Opera
Mi
tig a
tio n ols
a n d r e h a b ili ti o n to
ng
E nv
essi
iro n e nt
m en
ro c
ta l a n d S i a l A s s e s s m
n /p
oc
ti o
tr
ac
Im
ple Cl o s u r e Ex
me
nt a t
io n g
Pl a n n i n
Regarding terrestrial habitat alterations, they such as the United Nations Convention on the
must be diminished as much as possible and be Law of the Sea (IFC 2007). To an adequate man-
consistent with the request to preserve critical agement of potential affections in aquatic habitats,
habitats. Some controlling strategies include sit- it is essential to maintain water body catchment
ing access roads in places that prevent adverse zones equal or comparable to predevelopment
effects to critical terrestrial habitat, diminishing features, preventing stream channel stability by
disruption to vegetation and soils, and imple- restricting in-stream and bank disturbance and
menting mitigation techniques adequate for the constructing, maintaining, and reclaiming water-
type of habitat. Other strategies are preventing the course crossings that are stable and safe for the
generation of barriers to wildlife movement and intended utilization and that decrease erosion,
offering alternative migration routes if the genera- mass wasting, and degradation of the channel or
tion of barriers cannot be avoided and manage lake bed (IFC 2007).
vegetation growth along access roads and at con-
tinued above-ground facilities (IFC 2007).
Aquatic habitats are affected through varia- 7.4.6 irborne Contaminants, Noise,
A
tions in surface water and groundwater flows and and Vibration Management
generating incremented pressures on fish and
wildlife communities. In particular, aquatic habi- Airborne Contaminants
tats in marine environments can be affected by The provision of an adequate air environment to
several methods to extract resources such as promote the health, safety, and comfort of people
dredge mining and deep sea mining or other has always been and will continue to be an essen-
activities such as offshore loading activities, port tial requisite for successful mining operations.
development, and tailings disposal. Assessment Airborne emissions can take place during all stages
and control of adverse effects for marine environ- of the mine cycle but specifically during explora-
ments must be in accordance with suitable host- tion, development, construction, and operation
country obligations to international decisions activities. The main sources of these contaminants
570 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
are dust from blasting, crushing ore, exposed sur- from simple dilution with ventilation air to com-
faces such as tailings facilities, stockpiles, waste plex procedures for removal of the contaminant
dumps, haul roads and infrastructure, and, to a prior to mixing with the mine air or suppression/
lesser extent, gases from combustion of fuels in elimination at the source. Thus, the International
equipment (. Fig. 7.22). Therefore, although dust
Finance Corporation (IFC 2007) recommended
is the principal emission associated with mines, a the following air pollution management strate-
rank of gaseous and particle emissions are linked gies:
to mining and other on-site processing operations. 1. Dust suppression in roads and work areas,
The adverse effects of air emissions depend on the optimization of traffic patterns, and reduc-
type of pollutant, its release features, and the tion of travel speeds.
nature of the receiving environment. The pollut- 2. Exposed soils and other erodible materials
ants can be present in solid, liquid, and gaseous should be revegetated or covered promptly.
forms. Gaseous emissions generated by fuel com- 3. New areas should be cleared and opened up
bustion or mineral processing include pollutants only where absolutely necessary.
such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide that 4. Surfaces should be revegetated or otherwise
have well-defined harmful effects and are tightly rendered non-dust forming when inactive.
controlled in the ambient environment and work- 5. Storage for dusty materials should be
place (Commonwealth of Australia 2009b). Since enclosed or operated with efficient dust
management of air quality at mine operations is suppressing measures.
essential at all phases of the mine cycle, dust emis- 6. Loading, transfer, and discharge of materials
sions from the dry surfaces of tailings facilities, should take place with a minimum height of
waste dumps, stockpiles, and other exposed areas fall and be shielded against the wind.
should be always minimized. 7. Conveyor systems for dusty materials should
The sequence of dust control techniques are be covered and equipped with measures for
(a) prevention of generation of dust and its sus- cleaning return belts.
pension in air, (b) suppression of airborne dust 8. Chemical treatment at haul roads.
on-site, (c) collection of dust that could not be 9. Selection of superquality mine explosives.
suppressed, and (d) dilution with auxiliary and 10. Installation of dust/gas extraction systems at
main ventilation. crushers.
The control strategy for these environmental 11. Spraying waste rock piles with sealants.
impacts depends on the type of contaminants, 12. Storing crushed ore that is waiting to be
their sources, and rates of emission. It can range processed in the mill in enclosed structures.
7.4 · Potential Environmental Impacts and Their Management
571 7
.. Fig. 7.23 Noise control
(Image courtesy of
Eldorado Gold Corporation)
Noise is an inherent health hazard in mining that can include (a) implementation of enclosure
industry. Raw material exploration, extraction, and cladding of processing plants; (b) installation of
and processing can generate important levels of proper sound barriers and/or noise containments,
noise that can affect the surrounding environ- with enclosures and curtains at or near the source
ment. This is because the mining process is highly equipment (e.g., crushers, grinders, and screens);
mechanized, from the earliest ore removal to final (c) installation of natural barriers at facility bound-
processing, and heavy equipment is essential at aries (e.g., vegetation curtains or soil berms); and
virtually every stage of operation. Thus, exposure (d) optimization of internal traffic routing, particu-
to noise is a concern for workers who drive mech- larly to minimize vehicle reversing needs (reducing
anized equipment as well as those who operate or noise from reversing alarm) and to maximize dis-
work near stationary equipment such as haulage tances to the closest sensitive receptors (IFC 2007).
belts or crushing equipment. Moreover, commu- The most significant vibrations are usually
nities can suffer noise and vibration adverse associated with blasting activities. In this sense,
effects from mining operations in many forms, the increasing size and depth of open-pit mines
not only from the mine site: noise can take place and large diameter long-hole blast in underground
at all stages of the logistics chain, including rail mines further aggravate the vibration (Haldar
and truck haulage and activities at ports 2013). However, vibrations can also be generated
(Commonwealth of Australia 2009b). Exposure by many types of equipment. Measurement and
to noise levels above regulatory or recommended control of vibration serves two purposes: (1) pre-
limits can result in hearing loss. It is important to vention of premature wear and failure due to
emphasize that most hearing loss is preventable. structural damage and (2) reduction of noise lev-
Prevention can be achieved by eliminating noise els. Measurement of vibration requires specialized
sources, substituting quieter equipment, install- equipment and experience in data interpretation.
ing appropriate engineering controls, implement-
ing administrative controls, using personal
protective equipment, and adopting effective 7.4.7 ther Potential Environmental
O
hearing conservation programs (Walter 2011). Impacts
Good practices in management of the noise
sources must be defined based on the prevailing Subsidence
land utilization and the vicinity of noise receptors Subsidence of the ground surface can be consid-
such as communities or community use areas. ered as ground movement caused by the extrac-
Where necessary, noise emissions must be managed tion from underground of any resource, whether
572 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
it be solid, liquid, or gas. It is commonly an inevi- larly dangerous. Mining methods such as block
table consequence of such activities and reflects caving and sublevel caving also lead to discon-
the movements that occur in the area so affected. tinuous subsidence, but in these operations, use
The problems associated with subsidence have of an access to the surface area affected by the
been recognized since antiquity. Agricola’s De Re subsidence is generally prohibited. In the case of
Metallica of 1556 talks about «a mountain or continuous subsidence above laterally extensive
hill… subsiding by its weight» as a result of min- extraction zones such as longwall coal mining
ing. The subsidence effects of mining raw materi- operations, observations of subsidence profiles
als are controlled by the type of mineral deposit, or troughs above the mined areas have shown
the geological features, specifically the nature and that they can be characterized on the basis of
structure of the overlying rock or soil, and the shape, in particular the absence or presence of an
mining method applied in the extraction process. essentially horizontal central region.
In addition, time when subsidence occurs depends Regarding the factors affecting mine subsid-
upon the type of mining, as does the reliability of ence, experience has revealed that many geologi-
subsidence prediction. Thus, the major objectives cal and mining parameters besides the width of
7 of subsidence engineering are prediction of the extraction zone can affect the magnitude of
ground movements, determining the effects of subsidence. The number and interrelation of these
such movements on structures and renewable factors means that predicting in an accurate,
resources and minimizing damage. The surface quantitative manner the magnitude and time to
displacements and deformations characteristic of subsidence onset is generally not straightforward.
subsidence will affect any use made of the ground The main factors are the following:
surface. Consequently, subsidence can generate 1. Extraction thickness: the thicker the material
serious effects on surface structures, buildings, mined, the larger the quantity of possible
and communications and can affect agricultural surface subsidence.
land through the disturbance of drainage and 2. Mining depth: magnitude and time to onset
alteration of gradient. of subsidence are dependent on depth.
The creation of any subsurface opening pro- 3. Inclination of extraction horizon: asymmet-
duces deformations and displacements of the ric subsidence occurs where the zone being
material, and these changes can cause the rock mined is inclined.
around a mine excavation to collapse into the 4. Degree of extraction: reducing the amount
mined void. The ground movements associated of material extracted will reduce the amount
with such collapse tend to propagate to the of subsidence.
ground surface, with the deformations and dis- 5. Mined area: the critical width of a mined
placements experienced there being termed sub- void must be exceeded in all directions if
sidence. Surface subsidence generally entails maximum subsidence is to develop.
both vertical and lateral movements and can be 6. Method of working: the amount of subsid-
discontinuous (steps, cracks, or cavities form at ence is largely controlled by the degree of
the surface) or continuous (the surface deforms caving induced by the mining method (e.g.,
smoothly). Discontinuous subsidence is gener- complete subsidence for block caving and
ally of limited areal extent and is characterized longwall mining and zero for room and
by large vertical displacements. It occurs where pillar) together with the amount of support
material overlying an extraction zone collapses offered by any backfilling.
into the void, and its form depends on the min- 7. Competence of surrounding materials:
ing method, the geometry of the extraction zone, because subsidence propagates from the
and the geomechanical properties of the rock mine level, the mechanical behavior of the
above the extraction zone (Harrison 2011). The rock adjacent to the mined void directly
presence of weak structural features (e.g., faults affects the initiation of subsidence.
or boundaries between different geological mate- 8. Geological discontinuities: the existence of
rials) can lead to plug subsidence in which a faults can increase and localize subsidence
large plug of material falls suddenly and instantly potential so strongly that in areas of adverse
downward into the mine void; the speed and geological conditions the effects of the other
suddenness of the process means this is particu- parameters can be discounted.
7.4 · Potential Environmental Impacts and Their Management
573 7
9. Near-surface geology: the nature of any appearance of the land (Haney G 2010). Restored
near-surface soils and unconsolidated rocks lands must conform to the visual features of the
affects subsidence development, with both surrounding landscape. The reclamation planning
the thickness and mechanical characteristics should consider the vicinity to public viewpoints
of these materials being important. and the visual effect within the context of the
10. Hydrogeology: the increased groundwater viewing distance. Alleviation methods can incor-
pressure can reduce the effective stress, porate specific location of screening materials
thereby inducing shear on faults. including trees and utilization of adequate types
11. Elapsed time: subsidence does not occur of plants in the reclamation stage as well as
instantaneously but over a period of time changes in the location of ancillary installations
(Harrison 2011). and access roads. In this sense, visual absorption
capability is described using three physical fac-
Measures that can be implemented to control and tors: slope, vegetation (including landscape tex-
minimize subsidence damage fall into the catego- ture), and geology (landform dissection). Visual
ries of adoption of particular mining methods, absorption capability classifies the relative ability
post-mining stabilization, architectural and struc- of a landscape to accept human alterations with-
tural design, and comprehensive planning. In out a loss of landscape character or scenic quality.
adopting a particular mining technique, the prin- A typical example of visual impact is that pro-
cipal measures to consider are partial mining, duced from mine waste dumps and leach pads.
changes to the mine layout, harmonic mining, This is because this adverse effect is a major con-
backfilling, and changing the extraction rate. For cern for mines located in the proximity of popu-
post-mining stabilization, stabilization of com- lated areas or where the facilities are clearly visible
plete mine sites extending over many hectares can from roads and highways.
be achieved by backfilling (as previously out- Landscape alteration can generate an adverse
lined), grouting, or, in the case of shallow voids opinion among potential observers and compro-
beneath derelict or unused land, complete excava- mise the possible development of the surround-
tion and backfilling. Concerning architectural ing territory. In fact, the evaluation of landscape
and structural considerations, where structures and visual impact often is based more on the sub-
are to be built in areas of known or future mining jective perception of the observers, which
activity, designs should be adopted that will toler- includes cultural and social issues, individual
ate the anticipated ground movements. Many opinions, aesthetic tastes and visual comprehen-
design techniques are available to produce struc- sion, and less on the real features of the visible
tures tolerant of subsidence. alteration (Nicholson 1995). For instance, Las
Médulas Roman Mine (. Fig. 1.7) was one of the
.. Fig. 7.24 Revegetated waste rock areas (Image courtesy of Eldorado Gold Corporation)
for the area or whether design adjustments will be can reduce erosion, significantly increase evapo-
requested. transpiration, and reduce the amount of water that
infiltrates the underlying waste material. Direct
Fire and Explosions revegetation may allow many of the benefits of a
Fires and explosions have the potential to kill store-and-release cover to be realized without the
people in addition to causing an environmental need to import large volumes of cover material
impact. Presence of methane is probably the most (Borden 2011). For instance, revegetation of tail-
characteristic source for this issue although flam- ings impoundments can be particularly important
mable and combustible liquids are often stored to prevent dust generation from inactive tailings
underground in most mines and pose a special surfaces as they dry out. In this sense, some waste
fire hazard (WorkSafe New Zealand 2016). The surfaces may be directly revegetated after minor
7.4 · Potential Environmental Impacts and Their Management
575 7
physical or chemical modification, such as ripping placement of mulch can increase soil moisture,
to reduce compaction, addition of alkaline materi- provide a temporary cover to reduce erosion
als to increase the pH to near neutral, or the addi- risk, moderate soil temperature, and increase the
tion of organic matter. Thus, revegetation tests for likelihood of seed establishment.
mineral wastes may progress from nutrient analy-
ses and grain-size distribution, to greenhouse trials, ine Soil Selection and Placement
M
and to field revegetation test plots and plant tissue Procedures
sampling (to determine metals uptake) (Borden Correct revegetation processes of active open-pit
2011). mines start well early of fertilization and seeding.
Revegetation fosters soil development, gener- Thus, the most significant stage in surface mine
ates aesthetically landscapes, and facilitates post- revegetation takes place where the soil is chosen
mining land use. Thus, revegetation is the most and located on the land surface. With the objec-
broadly admitted and helpful manner of restora- tive to obtain an optimum plant growth, the soil
tion of mine works with the objectives to decrease must be elected to offer physical and chemical
erosion and protect soils against degradation. The features proper for the aimed post-mining land
revegetation must be established with the plants use. Fertilization and, in some instances, liming
elected in accordance with their capability to sub- are significant elements of revegetation processes.
sist and regenerate in the particular environment The most efficient manner to attain a correct com-
and on their capability to stabilize the soil frame- bination among soil characteristics, species, and
work. In this sense, numerous factors must be post-mining land use is to choose and place
taken into account in an efficient mined-land surface-soil materials to generate a soil that is
revegetation procedure such as soil features, time beneficial to vegetation congruent with the post-
of seeding, species seeded, and soil amendment mining land use declared in the mining permis-
application rates. sion. Election and arrangement of surface spoils
Revegetation in a zone impacted by mining will have a crucial impact over vegetation success
works, once the final landform has been devel- in post-mining land use. Lime, fertilizer, and
oped and an adequate growing medium gener- organic component additions can be added to
ated, includes five main steps: (a) mine soil remediate issues of low soil fertility and/or mod-
selection and placement procedures, (b) species erate acidity.
selection, (c) planting, (d) seed collection and
purchase, and (e) seedbed preparation. In general, Species Selection
the optimum moment to establish vegetation is Frequent issues associated with revegetation
defined by the seasonal pattern and reliability of defeat are the inadequate election of plant species
rainfall. All the previous works must be finished and their unsuitable mixtures. Sometimes, the
prior the time when seeds are most likely to expe- chosen species are either not adjusted to the site
rience the conditions they need to germinate characteristics or to the suggested land utiliza-
(Minerals Council of Australia 1998). tion. The species for establishment will be
A plan for revegetation includes, but not lim- selected based on the future land utilization of
ited to, descriptions of the revegetation schedule; the zone, soil characteristics, and weather condi-
species and amounts per square meter of seeds tions. Many rehabilitation processes are directed
and seedlings to be used; methods to be used in toward the reestablishment of native species. If
planting and seeding, mulching techniques, and the main goal is to restore the pre-mining condi-
irrigation (if appropriate); pest and disease con- tions, then the species must be preset (. Fig. 7.25).
trol measures, if any; measures proposed to be However, a decision must be taken whether to
used to determine the success of revegetation; utilize only local origin of the native species or to
soil testing plan for evaluation of the topsoil utilize a broad rank of sources. This decision
results; and handling and reclamation proce- requires to be made on a site-by-site basis, usu-
dures related to revegetation (Nelson 2011). ally depending firstly on the degree of similarity
Several immediate revegetation establishment between the pre- and post-mining environmen-
options exist, including drill seeding, hydroseed- tal features.
ing, broadcast seeding, and transplanting entire Where the aim is the reestablishing of a diverse
live plants or plant cuttings. In addition, the and permanent cover of local species, the
576 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
7 Planting
The planting techniques elected will be based on the
size and nature of the mine sites and the species to
establish. Direct seeding is potentially a costly effec-
tive and reliable technique to establish species that
generate sufficient numbers of easily collected, via-
ble seed with high germination, and seedling sur-
vival rates. Advantages include low cost, random
distribution of plants, and no check on growth rates
.. Fig. 7.25 Predetermined species for revegetation through planting out. Disadvantages include higher
(Image courtesy of Daytal Resources Spain S.L.) risk of failure through adverse climate conditions,
competition from weeds, loss of seed by insect pre-
following methods of determining suitable spe- dation, and low seed germination and survival
cies for the post-mining conditions should be fol- rates. For planting seedlings, a reliable supplier of
lowed: seedlings or the establishment of an on-site nursery
1. Observe plant species growing naturally on is obligatory (. Fig. 7.26). Advantages are the effec-
any old disturbed areas near the rehabilita- tive utilization of forthcoming seed, control over
tion site so that the effective colonizing species mixture and location, and less limitation on
species can be identified. the species considered in the revegetation program.
2. Observe the soil and drainage conditions to Disadvantages include higher costs for planting
which the different local species are adapted, and/or nursery operation or purchase of seedlings,
and match them with the conditions on the check in growth rate at planting, need to preorder
mine site. or sow several months previous to anticipated utili-
3. Identify plant species that produce sufficient zation, longer planting time needed, and seedlings
viable seed to harvest economically. can deteriorate if planting is delayed.
4. Consider habitat requirements where return Another option to planting is transplanting
of wildlife to the area is a significant element (. Fig. 7.27). Transplanting of trees and ground
.. Fig. 7.27 Transplanting of mature tree (Image courtesy of Eldorado Gold Corporation)
578 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
cases, the most usual method to seed and apply Seedbed Preparation
amendments is using a hydroseeder. Fertilizer, Methods selected for the preparation of the seed-
lime, mulch (. Fig. 7.28), and seed are commonly
bed will be based on topography of the site, the
mixed with water in the hydroseeder tank. required land use, the extent of soil amelioration
and fertilizer utilization, and the sowing or planting
Seed Collection and Purchase method suggested. The objective in creating a seed-
A consistent supply of adequate seed is crucial for bed is to place the seed in an adequate location for
the success of revegetation. Seed can require to be germination. For this purpose, points to consider
obtained from different zones with the aim to include:
match site characteristics since there are many 1. Prevent compaction, crusting, and subse-
issues inherent in collecting native seeds. Seed of quent erosion by avoiding disturbance to soils
several species needs pre-sowing treatment. Thus, when wet and sticky or dry and powdery.
germination of most native legumes and a num- 2. Timing of seedbed preparation and sowing is
ber of other species is improved by heat treatment. often critical for successful establishment of
Most companies utilize seed mixtures including vegetation.
at least two or three perennial grasses, two or 3. Where the topsoil contains significant quanti-
three legumes, and either a warm-season annual ties of seed of desirable species, care must be
or a cool-season annual for quick cover. Thus, a taken not to disturb the soil after these seeds
broad variety of species is suitable for utilization have started to germinate, as this will cause a
in mine sites rehabilitation. substantial reduction in plant establishment.
7.5 · Potential Social Impacts
579 7
4. Where hand planting of seeds or seedlings is community in relation to mining operations
proposed, site preparation can best be limited (Evans and Kemp 2011). More recently, the term
to deep ripping (Minerals Council of stakeholder has become a common term that is
Australia 1998). related to but distinct from community. A com-
mon definition of stakeholders is those who have
Biosolids concern in a specific choice, either as individuals
Biosolids are «the dark, organic, and nutrient- or representatives of a group. This covers people
rich materials produced as byproduct of current who influence a decision, or can influence it, as
wastewater treatment practices» (EPA 2001). An well as those affected by it (MCMPR 2005). Thus,
increasing option to traditional waste disposal is this term can include local community members,
the land application of biosolids. Since they NGOs, governments, shareholders, and employ-
include many nutrients and metals necessary for ees.
plant life, biosolids are capable to serve as fertil- The social impacts of mining projects have
izers and as a mine reclamation alternative. Thus, received increasing attention in recent years.
biosolids have been utilized successfully at mine Although it has been commented that mining can
sites to establish vegetation. Not only do the be a crucial economic impeller for developing
organic matter and nutrients in the biosolids countries because it can facilitate industrializa-
decrease the availability of toxic components tion along with the promises of wealth and jobs,
commonly encountered in disturbed mine soils, mining can also be a source of social discontent.
they also build a healthy soil layer where little In fact, the social cost of mining interacts with
soil has been left. They can also be applied for other cultural and environmental issues that call
treating acid mine drainage from abandoned for concerted efforts in addressing them. Thus,
mines. Biosolids are able to efficiently establish a unmitigated negative social impacts have the
vegetative cover on contaminated lands and limit potential to result in negative publicity, incre-
the movement of metals through erosion, leach- mented litigation processes, and reputational
ing, and wind. Depending on the amendments damage or to delay, prevent, or close down min-
added, biosolids can serve many purposes, ing in existing and prospective areas because of
including pH control, metal control, and fertil- community concerns. In this sense, it is also inter-
ization. Moreover, their adaptability enables esting to introduce the concept of social risk. A
them to conform to the specific features of any social risk is the potential for an existing or
reclamation site. planned project to have an impact on individuals
or groups or, conversely, to be impacted by them.
Like impacts, social risks are both positive and
7.5 Potential Social Impacts negative because of the potential for mining to
generate social and economic opportunities, such
A community is usually a diverse group of people as economic and community development and
with some common bonds. Diversity can come in employment (Franks 2011).
the form of gender, ethnicity, religion, race, age, Many factors can have a significant impact on
economic or social status, wealth, education, lan- the interactions and relationships between min-
guage, class, or caste. As a result, individuals of ing operations and communities, including vari-
any community are likely to hold diverse percep- ous social and political aspects, as well as the stage
tions about a mining operation and its activities as of the mining life cycle involved. Mining is a truly
well as most other subjects. Individuals within a global activity, involving many different types of
community will have different and sometimes organizations and communities in settings that
overlapping associations with the mine as neigh- range from arid mountains in parts of the Andes
bors, employees, suppliers, and so on. It is not or remote areas within the Arctic Circle to estab-
uncommon for disagreement and sometimes lished agricultural regions in developed countries
conflict to develop between different sections of a and to tropical rainforest settings in developing
580 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
economies in Asia (Evans and Kemp 2011). In displacement and resettlement and migration, (b)
this sense, political and legal frameworks within a lost access to clean water, (c) impacts on livelihoods
country will have a significant impact on the scale and public health, and (d) impacts to cultural and
and nature of the mining industry and can also aesthetic resources (ELAW 2010).
often be the subject of intense community focus. However, it could be stated that well-managed
Government capacity to regulate the minerals mineral projects can deliver abroad range of long-
industry and manage the benefits of mining for and short-term profits. Thus, many countries have
the local communities has been identified as a benefited from foreign exchange earnings, incor-
crucial aspect by recent studies and has been the poration of new technologies, enhanced invest-
subject of recent World Bank projects in several ment opportunities, construction of infrastructure,
developing countries. and education of mine workers and their families
In the nineteenth century and most of the (Anderson 1997). Moreover, in some cases mine
twentieth century, all involved entities such as works form the most significant economic resource.
governments and mining companies paid little In this sense, the closure of mine can have a strong
interest to the adverse impact of mining on indig- unfavorable socioeconomic impact. The social
7 enous people. Consequently, it has become almost issues originated by the closure of a mine can be
impossible for different indigenous communities partially mitigated through the retraining of the
to commit successfully with contemporary issues workers to newer employment possibilities and
that impact on their communities such as resource newer companies (Aswathanarayana 2005).
development propositions (Commonwealth of In spite of the social impacts and concerns, lit-
Australia 2007c). Based on the above, the social erature reveals that efforts at mitigating the impacts
impacts of mining activities and projects have of mining have only focused on the environmental
received increasing attention in recent years. impacts and have been wrongly assumed that deal-
A social impact is considered as «something ing with the environmental impacts alone would
that is experienced or felt (real or perceived) by an inevitably reduce the social impacts. The fact that
individual, social group, or economic unit; social policy initiative responses are usually geared
impacts are the effect of an action (or lack of toward environmental impact assessment implies
action) and can be both positive and negative» that social impacts are necessarily not considered
(Franks 2011). Obviously, social impacts can vary (Opoku-Ware 2010). Thus, social impacts are
in type and intensity and over space and time. commonly mentioned exclusively in the context of
Moreover, many times an environmental impact environmental impact studies, alluding to impacts
induces a social impact because mining activities that affect communities causing changes in their
can originate changes to community amenities, welfare. Many companies have concentrated much
health, or accessibility and quality of water and effort on employment especially for indigenous
land. Though it has been argued that mining can people and have created programs to support them
be a vital economic propellant for most countries, in their shift from welfare to work (Jantunen and
especially the developing ones, sometimes it can Kauppila 2015).
also be a source of social discontent. In fact, the Gender is obviously an essential aspect to
social cost of mining interacts with other cultural understand the concept of community. Mining is
and environmental issues that call for concerted usually a male-dominated industry, but women play
efforts in addressing them. significant roles in communities as workers, as fam-
If communities think that they are being ily members, and as individuals and are generally
unjustly treated or improperly compensated, min- very active forming groups in the community. In
ing projects can originate social tension and violent some situations, «special effort can be needed to
conflict (ELAW 2010). Communities feel especially ensure that women’s perspectives are sought and
vulnerable where links with different sectors of the that women are proactively included in community
society are weak or where environmental impacts engagement and development programs because
of mining affect the subsistence and livelihood of women are deprived of the access to the benefits of
local people. Thus, the main impacts of mining mining developments, especially money and
projects on social values can include (a) human employment» (Commonwealth of Australia 2006b).
7.6 · Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
581 7
7.6 Environmental Impact aid agencies have EIA processes that implement to
Assessment (EIA) borrowing and recipient countries (Ogola 2007).
to have important adverse effects on the environ- impact assessment processes. Prediction should
ment. Thus, EIA is carried out within the legal be based on the available environmental baseline
and/or institutional frameworks defined by coun- of the project area, being these predictions
tries and international agencies (Ogola 2007). described in quantitative or qualitative manner.
According to Ogola (2007), the considerations in
impact prediction must include:
7.6.2 EIA Phases 1. Magnitude of impact: this is defined by the
severity of each potential impact and indi-
The early stage of an EIA is termed the «Initial cates whether the impact is irreversible or
Environmental Examination (IEE),» and the sec- reversible and estimated potential rate of
ond is the «Environmental Impact Studies (EIS)» or recovery; the magnitude of an impact cannot
merely detailed EIA. IEE is developed to establish be considered high if a major adverse impact
whether possible unfavorable environmental effects can be mitigated.
are important or whether mitigation measurements 2. Extent of impact: the spatial extent or the
can be adopted to decrease or even remove the zone of influence of the impact should always
7 adverse results. The IEE includes a short statement be determined; an impact can be site-specific
of main environmental problems obtained using or limited to the project area.
forthcoming information, and it is utilized in the 3. Duration of impact: environmental impacts
first stage of project planning. The IEE also decides have a temporal dimension and need to be
if further in-depth studies are required. Where an considered in an EIA; an impact that gener-
IEE allows offering a final solution to environmen- ally lasts for only 3–9 years after project
tal issues of a project, an EIA is not needed. completion can be classified as short term; an
EIS or detailed EIA is a process utilized to impact that continues for 10–20 years can be
study the environmental effects, both positive and defined as medium term, and impacts that
negative, of a proposed project and to assure that last beyond 20 years are considered as long
these consequences are considered in project term.
design. Consequently, the EIS is based on predic- 4. Significance of the impact: this refers to the
tions. The adverse effects can include all signifi- value or amount of the impact; once an
cant items of the natural, social, economic, and impact has been predicted, its significance
human environment. The study needs a multidis- must be evaluated using an appropriate
ciplinary focus and must be carried out very early choice of criteria.
at the feasibility stage of a project. In other words,
a project should be assessed for its environmental
feasibility. Thus, EIS should be established an 7.6.4 Methods for Identification
integral part of the project planning procedure. of Effects and Impacts
Finally, the analyses of alternatives are carried
out to define the preferred or most environmen- There are three main methods for assessing envi-
tally sound, financially viable, and benevolent ronmental impacts: checklists, flow diagrams, and
possibility for accomplishing project goals. The matrices (Sorensen and Moss 1973). Checklists
World Bank directives request systematic com- are complete registers of environmental effects
parison of suggested investment designs. For each and impact gauges established to encourage the
alternative, the environmental cost is estimated as analyst to think widely about potential conse-
far as possible and economic data enclosed where quences of contemplated actions. However, this
feasible and the selected alternative stated. The strength can also be a weakness because it can lead
analysis of alternatives must always incorporate the analyst to ignore factors that are not on the
the so-called no project alternative. lists. In any form, checklists are included in almost
all EIA methods. In some cases, flow diagrams are
utilized to look for action-effect-impact relation-
7.6.3 Impact Analysis and Prediction ships. They allow the technician to visualize the
connecting between action and impact. This
Predicting the extent of impacts and estimating method is most suitable to single-project assess-
their significance are essential in environmental ments, not being recommended for large regional
7.6 · Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
583 7
actions. Regarding matrix method, it is probably project can be carried out, it must undergo an envi-
the most used in the EIA (. Box 7.5: Matrix ronmental assessment as legislated by local or
Method in the EIA). The matrix method in envi- national governments. In this sense, each jurisdic-
ronmental impact assessment studies can be very tion has different regulations governing environ-
helpful due to its simplicity and understandability mental review, and some are more stringent than
of its algorithm. others (Stevens 2010).
Initially, an EIA was only requested in highly
regulated circumstances. Nowadays, it is impossi-
7.6.5 EIA for Mining Projects ble to find a major mining project anywhere in the
world that is not requested, either by legislation or
The EIA is the accepted method for evaluating pro- corporate standards, to undertake an EIA. In gen-
posed mining projects to obtain regulatory approval eral, an EIA for a mining project must include (a)
and to help companies plan for responsible devel- assessment of the current state of the environ-
opment. From its early beginnings to its develop- ment; (b) definitions of various project alterna-
ment over the past three or four decades, the EIA tives, assessments of their environmental impacts,
has become increasingly exacting, paralleling the and a comprehensive picture of the impacts of the
development and expansion of international and project and its implementation alternatives, pre-
national standards. Generally accompanied by sented together with assessments of the scale and
environmental and social management plans, the significance of such impacts; (c) plans for the
EIA has undeniably become the essential regulatory mitigation of detrimental impacts; and (d) the
document required of new mines by governments publication of an accurate and coherent EIA
worldwide (Mitchell 2012). Thus, before any m
ining report (Jantunen and Kauppila 2015).
Box 7.5
impact and (2) on the vertical axis interactions between various example of an environmental
the existing environmental project actions and environmental impact matrix.
conditions that can be affected by parameters and components. They
584 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
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POTENTIAL IMPACTS
Impacts on terrestrial biodiversity
Loss of ecosystems and habitats
Loss of rare and endangered species
7 Effects on sensitive or migratory species
Effects of induced development on biodiversity
Aquatic biodiversity & impacts of discharges
Altered hydrologic regimes
Altered hydrogeologic regimes
Increased heavy metals, acidity or pollution
Increased turbidity [suspended solids]
Risk of groundwated contamination
Air quality related impacts on biodiversity
Increased ambient particulates [TSP]
Increased ambient sulfur dioxide [SO2]
Increased ambient oxides of nitrogen [NOx]
Increased ambient heavy metals
Social interfaces with biodiversity
Loss of access to fisheries
Loss of access to fruit trees, medicinal plants
Loss of access to forage crops or grazing
Restricted access to biodiversity resources
Increased hunting pressures
Induced development impacts on biodiversity
EIA of mining projects request an approach the sustainable development of the world’s
of the entire life cycle of a mine, from explora- resources. In this sense, key aspects of the EIA
tion to mine closure and reclamation. Mining procedure of mining projects must include (a)
companies have realized that this is the most broad participation; (b) the public availability of
cost-effective method to planning and managing documents prepared during the EIA procedure
a mine and, particularly, to managing environ- (EIA program, EIA report, and the statements
mental effects (Weaver and Caldwell 1999). In and opinions of the competent authority and
summary, EIA can help to reduce costs and other parties), (c) review of the various project
unscheduled project delays and minimize future alternatives, (d) broad definition of the environ-
economic and environmental liabilities. As mental impacts of the project, and (e) assessment
aforementioned, a credible approach to EIA by of the environmental impacts that will occur
the proponent company can serve to support the during the various stages of the project (plan-
reputation of both the company and the mining ning, construction and commissioning, opera-
industry generally as participants in planning for tion, and closure) (Jantunen and Kauppila 2015).
7.6 · Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
585 7
In all the EIA procedure, consultations are an To generate a suitable EIA, the planning of the
essential component of the environmental revi- project must be so advanced that its adverse
sion process. Consultations enable experts, gov- effects can be evaluated accurately and reliably
ernment, communities, and indigenous people a enough. For instance, it is essential to have precise
possibility to discuss the adverse effects of the knowledge of the technical solutions that will be
mining project, occurring at different phases in utilized in the project to allow accurate quantita-
the review process. In this sense, mining compa- tive and qualitative assessment of emissions.
nies that adhere to the principles of sustainable However, the EIA process cannot be left too late
development commonly include consultations because it must be finished before a mining proj-
since the early prospection stage of the mineral ect can obtain the necessary permits. It is a sound
deposit. As a result, the company will likely have practice to start the permit procedure for a project
addressed any significant concern with the proj- only after the EIA process has been finished.
ect before it officially begins the review process. Thereafter, the EIA document and the qualified
Depending on the EIA method, liability for authority’s statement on the report must be
generating a mining EIA will be allocated to one of enclosed to the permit applications for the mining
the following: the government agency or the proj- project. Thus, the EIA process is commonly
ect proponent. For proponents, a correctly coordi- formed by a group of procedural stages culminat-
nated EIA of a suggested mining project can help ing in a written impact assessment document that
substantially to efficient planning. If EIA laws per- will report the decision-maker whether to approve
mit, either party can opt to recruit a consultant to or reject a proposed mining project (ELAW 2010).
carry out the EIA or handle certain parts of the EIA The first stage includes the identification and
procedure. In this sense, some EIA laws accept definition of the project or activity. Although this
conflict of interest generated where a mining com- stage can be comparatively easy, definition of a
pany or other project proponent recruits an exter- project for the purpose of an EIA can be very
nal consultant to draft an EIA. Utilizing a consultant difficult and even controversial if a mining project
carries the risk that the paper will be influenced in is large and has several phases, or multiple sites
favor of developing the mining project. For this must be covered. The aim of this phase is to define
reason, some laws request consultants to be regis- the project with sufficient specificity to accurately
tered with the government and/or a professionally establish the area of potential adverse effects and
accredited organization in EIA preparation. In to incorporate activities that are strictly linked
some cases, a consultant can be requested to file a with the proposition, so that the entire scope of
statement disclosing any financial or other interest environmental impacts is assessed. In this step,
in the result of the project (ELAW 2010). the screening process establishes whether a cer-
tain project warrants preparation of an EIA. In
Stages of the EIA Process some instances, especially if the potential impacts
EIA must be a procedure that proceeds through- of a project are not understood, a previous envi-
out the life cycle of a mining project with results ronmental evaluation will be outlined to establish
that become ever more accurate. . Figure 7.30
whether the project warrants an EIA.
shows the EIA process in connection to the com- The next step, scoping, commonly involves the
mented life cycle of a mine (Jantunen and Kauppila interested parties that identify the key environ-
2015). Pre-feasibility reports usually offer an ade- mental problems that should be addressed in an
quate basis for carrying out an EIA because they EIA. This phase offers one of the earliest opportu-
classically approach to the geology of the property, nities for members of the public to learn about a
types of ore deposits, resource estimations, mining suggested project and to voice their opinions.
and mineral processing techniques, management Scoping can also show connected activities that
of mining wastes, requirement for infrastructure, can be occurring near a project or identify issues
water and energy consumption, and labor and that request to be mitigated or that can originate
transportation costs. At this phase, estimates of the project to be canceled. In this procedure, the
these factors cannot be awaited to be especially terms of reference serve as a roadmap for EIA
accurate (margins of error can range between 20% preparation and should ideally embrace the
and 30%). This is because the information about adverse effects that have been identified during
the project is still clearly imprecise. the scoping. A draft «terms of reference» can be
586 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
Regional studies
7 E
Resource evaluation drilling, I
10–20 years exploration shafts, A
feasibility studies Mining permit
Rehabilitation and
monitoring
.. Fig. 7.30 EIA procedure in relation to the life cycle of a mine (Jantunen and Kauppila 2015)
made forthcoming for public revision and com- project. The technical details of the project will be
ment. Public revision at this first phase of the pro- obtained from pre-feasibility or feasibility studies
cess originates a good opportunity to assure that that commonly are finished previous to beginning
the EIA is adequately framed and will address of the environmental assessment process. Baseline
issues of community concern. studies generally take several years to complete
Then, a draft EIA is developed according to the and, in some cases, commonly start at the begin-
terms of reference and/or the rank of problems ning of the exploration stage (Stevens 2010).
identified during the scoping procedure. The draft The next stage generates a final impact assess-
EIA can also meet the content requirements of the ment document that tackles the points of view
global EIA regulations. This phase will ideally take and comments of the parties that revised the draft
part a broad range of technical specialists to assess EIA. These comments can promote revisions or
baseline conditions, forecast the likely adverse additions to the report of the draft EIA. In some
effects of the project, and establish mitigation mea- instances, this final EIA will include an appendix
surements. Regarding baseline studies, they iden- synthesizing all of the commentaries received
tify the present status of the physical, social, and from the public and interested institutions and
economic environment before the project starts, supply responses to those comments. A decision
and technical studies define the features of the to approve or reject a mining project is commonly
7.7 · Social Impact Assessment (SIA)
587 7
based on the information provided for the final (e.g., Vanclay and Esteves 2011). Moreover, SIA is a
EIA, but, in some cases, an environmental clear- common requirement of regulatory approval pro-
ance can be just one stage in the mine permitting cesses at the project approvals phase for mining
procedure. Once the mine is permitted, monitor- and processing stages in many jurisdictions.
ing procedure is an important tool of project The good practice of SIA accepts that social,
implementation. According to ELAW (2010), economic, and environmental issues are inher-
monitoring serves three purposes: (1) ensuring ently interconnected. Thus, change in any of these
that required mitigation measures are being fields immediately generates changes in the other
implemented, (2) evaluating whether mitigation domains. According to Esteves et al. (2012): there
measures are working effectively, and (3) validat- is consensus on what good SIA practice is: (a) it is
ing the accuracy of models or projections that participatory; (b) it supports affected peoples,
were used during the impact assessment process. proponents, and regulatory agencies; (c) it
increases understanding of change and capacities
to respond to change; (d) it seeks to avoid and
7.7 Social Impact Assessment (SIA) mitigate negative impacts and to enhance positive
benefits across the life cycle of developments; and
Social impact assessment (SIA) can be defined as (e) it emphasizes enhancing the lives of vulnerable
«the process of managing the social issues of proj- and disadvantaged people.
ects.» To be efficient, the management of social Social impact assessment has been early
issues requires to begin from the moment a proj- included within the field of Sociology and related
ect is early planned right through to further clo- sub-areas (Environmental Sociology, Human
sure. Corporations can carry out SIA as part of Geography, etc.), but different professionals from
their liability to address their social impacts and many disciplines have developed experience in
their wish to obtain a social license to operate. The the field. It is essential to consider the SIA in con-
origin of this type of study was in the 1970s, and text with the other parts of the project, specifically
the main goal of SIA has varied from early con- the environmental impact assessment that must
cerned about the adverse impacts of a project to be also submitted with the application for an
being more concerned about how a project can be exploitation license (BMP 2009). Social impact
improved. This is with the aim of increasing the assessment and management are the responsibil-
profits to communities so that both communities ity of community relations practitioners at most
and companies can benefit from the project. These mining operations. However, there is a need for
studies will have more importance in the near mining engineering professionals to be familiar
future, and its request will continue to increase for with such perspectives because efficient manage-
several reasons, including the incrementing ment needs integration across all aspects of the
investment in developing countries. In this sense, operation. SIA and impact management are most
a combined action of weak institutions and effective where carried out in all the life cycle of
decreasing land accessibility generates potential mining, including all of the activities from explo-
for disagreement between companies and com- ration, construction, extraction, and processing,
munities, mainly if the risks are not early defined through to post-closure, as well as also incorpo-
and mitigation planning is not implemented or rating recycling and waste management. The
not carried out in cooperation with the impacted diverse social impacts across the mine life cycle
peoples themselves. stages and the extraction and resource processing
In addressing the social aspects of sustainable phases require a complete rank of approaches to
development, social impact assessment early assessment and management.
emerged as a component within environmental
impact assessment (EIA) used to evaluate, moder-
ate, and invariantly mitigate the impact of planned 7.7.1 General Overview of SIA
interventions (Esteves et al. 2012; Mahmoudi et al.
2013). The impact of projects and policies on the Social impact assessment involves «the processes of
social welfare of communities is clearly a topic of analyzing, monitoring, and managing the social
increasing concern, which justifies the increased consequences, both positive and negative, of
development and practice of SIAs in the last years planned interventions (policies, programs, plans,
588 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
projects) and any social change processes invoked take into account the social impacts of mining
by those interventions.» Its first goal is to achieve a on the surrounding environment and affected
more sustainable and equitable biophysical and communities and to include social impact
human environment (Vanclay 2003). Contemporary assessment into the operational activities of a
SIA arguably began along with EIA in the early mine as a management tool.
1970s in response to the formal requirements of the The social impact assessment should con-
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) 1969 of sider baseline information related to at least the
the USA. The first SIA document was the publica- four following areas: (1) changes in access to and
tion in 1994 of the «Guidelines and Principles for power over local resources (land, water); (2)
Social Impact Assessment» by the US Inter- changes in the characteristics of a population
organizational Committee. (size, composition, traditions, productive activi-
A milestone case in the establishment of SIA ties); (3) divergent perceptions between decision-
was the inquiry at 1974 by Chief Justice Thomas makers, the mining company, and local people
Berger into the suggested Mackenzie Valley gas about the distribution of economic benefits and
pipeline from the Beaufort Sea to Edmonton social/environmental costs of a large mining
7 (Alberta, Canada). It was the first occasion that operation; and (4) land property and use (ELAW
social impacts had been formally taken into account 2010). For instance, relocation of a population is
in project decision-making. The SIA finally recom- a vital social problem. To resolve this issue, envi-
mended that the project be postponed for at least ronmental impact assessment must incorporate
10 years to enable sufficient time for land claims to detailed information about compensation, relo-
be settled and for new programs to help the native cation planning, and information about consid-
population. «The findings were, at the time, unprec- eration to guarantee people similar quality of life.
edented and marked the start of a huge growth in
SIA» (Joyce and MacFarlane 2002). Today, many hases of a Mining Social Impact
P
institutions and national governments consider Assessment
SIA as a mandatory activity for project proposals. A list of sequential steps should be followed in the
Other procedures related to social impact SIA process, drawn primarily from the environ-
assessment are health impact assessment (HIA) mental impact assessment (EIA) steps (Arce-
and strategic environmental assessment (SEA). In Gomez et al. 2015). Thus, Franks (2011) affirmed
most EIAs, HIA is usually included under SIA. HIA that mining social impact assessment can include
is a wide concept that implies an interest in the a number of distinct but iterative phases within an
safeguarding and improvement of human health. adaptive management process (. Fig. 7.31): (1)
Regarding SEA, it is carried out much earlier in the scoping and formulation of alternatives, (2) profil-
decision-making process than EIA, being thus a ing and baseline studies, (3) predictive assessment
key tool for sustainable development. SEA aims to and revision of alternatives, (4) management strat-
include environmental and sustainability aspects egies to avoid and mitigate negative social impacts
into strategic decision-making procedures such as and enhance positive impacts, (5) monitoring and
the formulation of policies, plans, and programs. reporting, and (6) evaluation and review.
The scoping stage establishes the criteria for
the further stages of assessment and management
7.7.2 SIA for Mining Projects by determining the scale, timing, and focus of the
assessment, establishing who is likely to be
Large-scale mining projects can generate differ- impacted and detecting the actions that are likely
ent and intense social impacts. They can differ to result in impacts. In this stage, alternative pos-
significantly based on the duration of the proj- sibilities must be defined for further studies and a
ect, the position of populated areas related to the first evaluation of the impacts of these alternatives
project area, and the potential mine expansion carried out. The output of this phase can be to
planning. Most EIA guidelines require social consider the aim, scope, scale, priority issues, and
impact analysis. This implies that specialists in terms of reference for the following phases of
several fields are involved in planning, imple- assessment and management.
mentation, and monitoring throughout the min- The second stage includes understanding the
ing project life. In this sense, it is essential to communities and stakeholders potentially affected
7.8 · Reclamation Case Studies
589 7
.. Fig. 7.31 Phases of
social impact assessment Scoping and formulation
within an iterative adaptive of alternatives
management process
(Franks 2011)
New activity
Continuing
Evaluation activity Profiling and
and review baseline studies
Update
profile Predictive
Monitoring
and reporting assessment
Management strategies to
avoid, mitigate, and enhance
by the activity through social and economic 2. Baseline information on which progress can
research. Profiling includes studies of the social be measured.
and economic features of an area at a given point 3. Well-defined indicators for each program and
of time. In turn, baselines are an evaluation of the identified impacts in the SIA: the indicators
state of a community before a mining activity can be quantitative or qualitative, and they
occurs. Thus, baseline information must generate shall be of scientific quality.
a clear description of present social conditions in 4. Frequency: while baseline information
the area potentially impacted by the project before provides a picture of the present situation,
it is realized. explicit and verifiable parameters are needed
Regarding predictive assessment and revision in order to assess the progress made (BMP
of alternatives, the outcomes of predictive assess- 2009).
ment are generally prioritized by their scale and
level of significance. They are utilized to offer The final phase, evaluation and review, evaluates
feedback to stakeholders and project developers and reviews both assessment and management
with the aim of modifying and revising the proj- processes. The reconciliation of impacts estimated
ect. They allow them to make the decision to in the assessment stage with the actual impacts
which suggested project alternative best accom- undergone during implementation will contrib-
plish the goals of the project while still improving ute to refine and enhance future perspectives. A
social outcomes and preventing negative impacts. well-defined evaluation plan shall include an out-
Different scenarios for the project design might line of the evaluation methodologies to be applied
be significant to describe apart from describing and a plan of action for handling the outcome of
the zero alternative where the possible conse- the evaluations.
quences are explained if the mining project is not
finally developed.
The monitoring and reporting stage includes 7.8 Reclamation Case Studies
collection, analysis, and dissemination of infor-
mation through time. As a rule, a well-defined zz Sanquelim Iron Ore Mine Reclamation (Goa,
monitoring plan shall include: India): Courtesy of Vedanta
1. Outline of the monitoring methodologies to The Sanquelim group of mines is located in the
be applied to measure progress. North Goa District of Goa State (India) covering an
590 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
area of 203 Ha. Sanquelim group of mines were were mainly planted as nurse crop to prevent ero-
operated since 1956–1957 for production of iron ore sion on dumps and stabilize the dumps. The com-
and subgrade ore. The ore deposit was broken in six pany also tried growing cashew plants based on
pits. The mines have been reclaimed since the 1980s their experience at Orasso Dongor mine (Sesa’s
with environmental considerations and community First mine).
infrastructure requirements. Where major mining After the dumps were stabilized, company
operations were discontinued in late 1990s, there selected one of the reclaimed mine pits to experi-
were no legislations in place for a systematic mine ence with diverse afforestation methods utilizing
closure planning. However, the company proactively native horticulture and forest species. Most of the
carried out systematic and scientific mine closure horticulture crops growing in Goa (e.g., mango,
plan. The reclamation activities mainly comprised banana, guava, pineapple, cinnamon; . Fig. 7.32)
three main aspects: extensive afforestation, conver- were planted with success. Use of leguminous
sion of some parts of the pits into water bodies to cover crop like plumeria seeds was used to sow in
harvest rainwater, and utilization of existing build- the areas under acacia and eucalyptus plantation.
ing infrastructure for benefit of community. The plumeria creeper grew luxuriantly over the
trees and over the time killed the acacia and euca-
kAfforestation lyptus plantations naturally, thus making the stabi-
The total area of mine leases is 203 Ha, out of lized land available for plantation of native species.
which about 105 Ha has been efficiently restored
by afforestation. The open-pits were consistently kPisciculture
backfilled by constituting benches making it viable Along with afforestation, a major part of mine pits
for carrying out plantation. Company has planted were also retained or converted into water bodies
more than 750,000 saplings on the Sanquelim iron by harvesting rainwater. In order to add value to
ore mine. Initially, most of the areas were covered the water bodies, the company approached the
by planting fast growing plants like Acacia auricu- National Institute of Oceanography to establish
liformis and Casuarina equisetifolia. These species the option of cultivating freshwater fishes in the
7.8 · Reclamation Case Studies
591 7
open-pit filled with rainwater. The pisciculture various native species to improve the biodiversity
project was taken up in 1990, and, as a result, the of the areas. Under this plan, various projects such
cultivation of fish was successfully carried out, as a medicinal garden, a butterfly park, and a bam-
and the pit was abundant with freshwater fish like boo serum were conceptualized and implemented.
rohu, katla, common carp, etc. The project has Two medicinal gardens, namely, Nakshatra
also resulted in increase in bird and butterfly Vatika and Charak Vatika based on constellation,
activity in the area. zodiac signs, and Ayurveda, respectively, were
developed. The idea behind it was to spread aware-
kReclaiming the Old Building Infrastructure ness among the locals and school students about
The reclamation was not restricted to growing of medicinal plants growing in our surroundings
plants but also for the old infrastructure like and its benefits. Each plant is identified and pro-
buildings and workshops that were put to produc- vided with other details such as medicinal value.
tive use for communities. The mine workshop was Regarding the butterfly park (. Fig. 7.33), in its
converted into a technical school imparting edu- life cycle, the butterflies require two types of plants
cation to local youth, and the residential quarters to survive, namely, host plant and nectar plant. If
were converted into the football academy to cater both types are available, they naturally attract the
to the needs of the local community. butterflies. Various plants identified as host and
nectar plants (flowering plants) were planted on
kBiodiversity Management Plan the mine site with the aim to attract butterflies.
After the results of previous reclamation methods This has added the beauty of the area increasing
used in one of the mine pits, it was decided to also the biodiversity.
bring the other areas within the Sanquelim mine Bamboo is one of the frontrunners of environ-
also under biodiversity plantations, and hence a mental rejuvenation, being the quickest growing
Sanquelim Mine Management Plan was prepared. species among all other woody plants. Its capabil-
In consultation with forest department, the mature ity to rejuvenate itself without being planted is
acacia plantations were proposed and to plant most advantageous because cutting bamboo
592 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
encourages the growth of new ones; they grow to igneous and metamorphic rocks in the adjacent
its fullest height in 60 days compared to the woody Archaean shield, separated in near-shore sedi-
plants which take 60 years. With an aim to pro- ments through different stages of weathering. As
mote bamboo cultivation, various species of bam- the mineralization is extracted, overburden and
boo were collected from across India. More than sands with a small content of valuable minerals are
25 varieties of bamboos have been grown and backfilled into the void, clay waste is pumped to
each of them was identified. Further to support solar drying cells, and the surface is recontoured to
the cause of bamboo promotion, a huge structure look like the original landscape, previous to re-
made out of locally available bamboo was con- spreading topsoil and seeding for reclamation.
structed. This Bamboo Pavilion (. Fig. 7.34) is
Thus, the objective of rehabilitation at Cooljarloo
used as an exhibition hall cum training center for is to establish safe and stable landform (. Fig. 7.35)
for vegetation establishment. The lower soil profile depleted, resource alternatives are being trialed,
is usually formed with sands containing a higher including the use of Terolas, an emulsion that binds
clay content to assist in water retention within the the topsoil together while allowing infiltration of
root zone (referred to as Class 2 materials). water and germination of seedlings. This product
Watercourses are constructed during landforming will be used in conjunction with tub ground and
to ensure appropriate surface water flow across the fresh harvested material over areas on Dam 8.
site is maintained. Infiltration embankments are
constructed to increase water retention and mini- kNative Seed Distribution
mize water erosion on slopes. Native seed picked by the Billinue Aboriginal
Community (. Fig. 7.37) and from seed suppliers
Jabiluka exploitation is situated within the evolution of the pond from 2011 to 2016, after
Alligator Rivers area and is about 230 km east of complete rehabilitation.
Darwin and 20 km north of Jabiru, being this area Jabiluka is actually under long-term care and
a major uranium-bearing zone. The mine site of maintenance. Current weed, fire, and water qual-
Jabiluka and associated facilities are within the ity management is in place at Jabiluka, incorpo-
Jabiluka Lease surrounded by the Kakadu National rating monitoring in the care and maintenance
Park. Principal land utilization for this region stage that is regularly reviewed. Regarding weed
includes national park, fishing, Aboriginal tradi- control, in 2015 ERA embraced a qualitative esti-
tional uses, and mining. Work began on rehabili- mation to weed management with the aim of
tating the disturbed land on the Jabiluka Mineral evaluating trends in weed management zones,
Lease in 2003 where the surface and subsurface backed by regular on-ground observations. Thus,
facilities were dismantled and the open-pit and weed management operations are controlled by
decline were backfilled. land management approach that addresses prior-
ity species such as annual Pennisetum, mission
kRevegetation grass, and rattlepod. In-field weed monitoring
Revegetation is an essential part of the progressive shows that a progressive reduction of weed had
reclamation activities that have been taking place been produced.
at Jabiluka. Revegetation of the disturbed areas at
the Jabiluka footprint took place in three stages zz Ekati Diamond Mine Reclamation
over a decade. The Energy Resources of Australia (Northwest Territories, Canada): Courtesy of
(ERA) formed a strategic partnership with a local Dominion Diamond Corporation
indigenous supplier Kakadu Native Plants, which The Ekati mine site is situated in the Lac de Gras
raised saplings from seeds collected within the region of the Northwest Territories, about 250 km
lease area. Traditional owners consulted on native northeast of Yellowknife (Canada). The Ekati
species, density, and landforms, and several com- Diamond mine (named after the Tlicho word
pany indigenous trainees and workers were incor- meaning «fat lake») (. Fig. 5.29) is the first sur-
porated in the planting of saplings. Revegetation of face and underground diamond mine in Canada.
disturbed areas began in 2005 with the planting of It is a remote mine accessible only by air and by
7560 local native seedlings, being the seeds from winter road for 2–3 months of the year. The com-
native species collected and germinated. As of pany understands the importance of reclaiming
February 2014, 36,000 individual tube stocks had the Ekati mine site so that it can be returned to a
been planted within the Jabiluka mine site foot- viable northern environment at the end of opera-
print with survival of 48% noted during the June tions. The goal of reclamation is to keep the site
2014 routine periodic inspection. In 2015 the final safe for human and wildlife use. This involves
phase of the revegetation project at Jabiluka was arranging rocks and plant life in a variety of pat-
completed. terns to determine which pattern allows the veg-
etation to grow best and which offers protection
kWater Management Pond Rehabilitation from erosion. Thus, the use of vegetation in the
In 2013, ERA committed to rehabilitating the final cover system will enable a more economical
Interim Water Management Pond. The program of cover design and also blends itself into the natural
work included removal of the pond liner and con- tundra landscape. Similar to the sections of a gar-
crete spillway, relocation of waste rock stockpiles, den, the test areas have been seeded with various
regrading of fill surfaces, and excavation work. The configurations of native grasses to develop an ini-
land was reshaped and recontoured so that it was tial ground cover.
596 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
.. Fig. 7.38 Evolution of Water Management Pond rehabilitation from 2011 to 2016
Fine processed kimberlite is discharged as a temporary ground cover until permanent vegeta-
slurry to Long Lake Containment Facility (LLCF) tion is established. Control erosion provides micro-
and Beartooth open-pit. The overall reclamation niches for colonizing plants and adds organic
goal for the LLCF is the design and construction matter to the soil environment. In addition, there
of a long-term cover that will physically stabilize have been some investigations into the plant species
the processed kimberlite with a landscape that will best adapted for revegetation of the processed kim-
be safe for human and wildlife use. For this pur- berlite in the LLCF. Preliminary investigations indi-
pose, it is essential to define a combination of veg- cate that revegetation with grass has been effective
etation and rock cover system to physically and initial monitoring has indicated specific species
stabilize the processed kimberlite. Vegetation is that are better adapted to the conditions of LLCF.
planned to be the main stabilization component. Recent soil chemistry test results on new kim-
Rock placement is intended to promote a local- berlite in LLCF have indicated elevated sodium
ized environment for vegetation growth and pro- concentrations and pH when compared to older
vide larger-scale wind and water erosion processed kimberlite test results. Elevated sodium
protection (. Fig. 7.39). Short-term focus of recla-
results in increase in the sodium adsorption ratio
mation research has been to establish and evaluate (SAR). Thus, elevated SAR values can make it dif-
vegetation growth directly within processed kim- ficult for plants to obtain other essential nutrients
berlite including natural colonization, vegetation/ due to competition from the excessive sodium.
rock plots, annual cover crop trials, plant species For this reason, in 2013 small field-scale trials
trials, soil amendments, and plant tissue analysis. were constructed to evaluate the potential of low-
Since 2004, native northern alkali goose grass ering the SAR through the additions of chemical
has been naturally colonizing on the east side of the amendments such as alfalfa pellets, gypsum, and/
LLCF. Rate of vegetation colonization is annually or calcium nitrate.
analyzed. Historical natural colonization and estab- In summary, the main 2013 to 2014 LLCF rec-
lishment in research areas indicates high potential lamation research and monitoring was the follow-
for goose grass. Regarding annual cover crop trials, ing.
7.8 · Reclamation Case Studies
597 7
.. Fig. 7.39 2013 goose grass in the boulder field (July 2014) (Image courtesy of Dominion Diamond Corporation)
.. Fig. 7.40 Typical wet tundra species planting scenarios in LLCF: 30 tall water sedge and 35 nodding cotton grass
seedlings at location EK1 as planted June 28, 2014 (Image courtesy of Dominion Diamond Corporation)
locations. Each of those species has its own habi- to be seeded was loosened by pulling a weighted
tat requirements, but in general all would nor- chain harrow across it with a track-mounted side-
mally be found growing on moist to wet tundra or by-side ATV. Seed was then broadcast at 100 kg/
in shallow water (. Fig. 7.40). Where seedlings
ha using a large tire spreader pulled behind the
were counted, their height was measured, and ATV. A final pass with the chain harrow and a
percent ground cover was estimated along each roller was conducted to incorporate the seed and
row in the plot. In 2014, only seedlings in each improve seed to soil contact.
row were counted (selective grazing by sik siks In 2014 and 2015 (. Fig. 7.41), annual cover
had affected many of the plants, rendering height crops were planted over 18 ha in part of the
and percent ground cover inapplicable). The LLCF. These hectares were seeded with barley and
cranberry seedlings planted in 2013 were moni- fall rye cover crops. Species trials include test
tored by determining the size of every living growth of native grass cultivars and native plant
shrub. seed and/or seedlings directly within processed
kimberlite. In 2015, 15 new species of seedlings
kAnnual Cover Crop Trials and seeds were planted LLCF. Monitoring results
In 2013, eight grass species, one native legume, suggest barley is better adapted than fall rye.
and 40 mountain cranberry seedlings were
planted. In 2014, transects were established in kSoil Amendment Trials
each of the treatment areas, percent ground cover A small trial plot area was constructed in 2013 to
was estimated, and plant stems were counted. In test the effectiveness of various soil amendments
this year, a total of 563 seedlings grown from seed in modifying the elevated sodium levels in
collected on the mine site were planted in various PK. Gypsum and calcium nitrate were applied at
locations across LLCF. The seeding operation was 1.5 tons/ha, alfalfa pellets at 10 tons/ha. In 2013
conducted in stages. First, the surface of the area and 2014, soil chemistry from the samples col-
7.8 · Reclamation Case Studies
599 7
.. Fig. 7.41 Seeding annual cover crops (July 2014): harrow and roller following broadcast seeding (Image courtesy of
Dominion Diamond Corporation)
lected at 0–20 cm depth was analyzed, and vegeta- crust that develops upon its drying. That condi-
tion was monitored by measuring percent ground tion can be ameliorated, however, by roughening
cover, counting seedlings, and measuring average or ridging the surface by deep ripping.
plant heights. Barley and alkali grass performed
similarly in all treatments in 2013, except the two kNatural Colonization
with calcium nitrate, and growth was most suc- Over the long term, a key measure of revegetation
cessful in the untreated PK. In 2014, vegetation success at Ekati will be the proportion of ground
growth in the unamended PK was poorer than in cover comprising indigenous native plant species.
the treated areas. Therefore, creating conditions that encourage col-
onization of disturbed areas by local native plants
kGlacial Till Topdressing is an important objective. Conversely, the unlikely
Another possible solution to address the new PK spreading of non-native annual crops would not
chemical properties is the use of glacial till as a be desirable. In 2014, site investigations were com-
topdressing over the PK. The objectives of the gla- pleted for any evidence of vegetation colonization.
cial till topdressing study are to assess the suitabil- Baseline vegetation growth was established by
ity of till as a capping material over PK, thereby analyzing satellite imagery data using the normal-
providing a better plant growth medium than the ized difference vegetation index (NDVI). The out-
uncapped material. The suitability of glacial till as put data were consolidated into three categories
a reclamation substrate has been assessed at sev- with the following results: (a) 81% is PK and does
eral locations on the mine site. In 2013, two small not have any overlying vegetation growth; (b) 12%
trail test pad areas were constructed using till as a is covered with vegetation that has been classified
topdressing material. One test pad was with till as lower biomass vegetation; the majority of this
over PK, and one was with till over Coarse 12% is attributed to the «goose grass» that sur-
Kimberlite Rejects (CKR). Over the long term, rounds the tundra and the 2013 seeded alkali
plant growth on till has been satisfactory, but grasses; and (c) 7% is covered with vegetation that
establishment is impeded by the hard surface has been classified as higher biomass vegetation;
600 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
.. Fig. 7.42 Geese grazing on the barley annual crop (Image courtesy of Dominion Diamond Corporation)
the majority of this vegetation is attributed to reclamation process is planned to return the land
uncovered natural tundra that was not covered by disturbed by mining works to a stabilized, near-
PK during deposition activities. natural condition that will assure the long-term
protection of land and water resources. Additional
kWildlife Observations goals include minimizing or eliminating long-
One closure objective for the final LLCF cover is term management requests and matching state
ensuring its safety for wildlife use. In the short term, and federal regulatory requests. In this sense, True
introduction of wildlife into the reclamation research North offers a habitat to a wide range of Alaskan
areas has the potential to lead to positive benefits by species such as moose, wolves, bear, and birds of
initiating the nutrient cycle. Initial wildlife observa- prey. In 2010, Kinross set out to utilize indigenous
tions were collected during 2014 site visits. Large seedlings. After establishing that no seedlings are
numbers of geese were attracted to the 2014 annual present, the company created a greenhouse to
cover crop trials with substantial evidence of grazing observe if indigenous seedlings could be grown.
(. Fig. 7.42). Arctic hares and sik siks were also fre-
The selected species were black spruce, white
quently seen eating young plants. Observation of spruce, birch, and alder.
grazing by wildlife was evident for all the research Reclamation has occurred in the following
areas, most notably for the annual crops. phases, with some overlap: (a) interim reclamation
to stabilize and maintain viability of topsoil and
zz True North Gold Mine Reclamation growth media stockpiles were completed during
(Fairbanks, Alaska, USA): Courtesy of and directly after construction; (b) previously dis-
Kinross Gold Corporation turbed areas including historic exploration trenches,
The True North Gold Mine is within the Chatanika abandoned roads, and exploration drill pads that
River watershed, about 26 miles northwest of were not affected by current mining operations
Fairbanks Alaska. The region is vegetated with were concurrently reclaimed; (c) final contouring
black spruce and surface moss that cover the occurred upon final cessation of mining operations;
north and east facing slopes. Because of the cli- and (d) vegetation, slope stability, and water quality
matic conditions, reclamation commonly is car- monitoring will continue until all reclamation per-
ried out at summer months. The True North Mine formance standards are achieved.
7.8 · Reclamation Case Studies
601 7
kGeneral Reclamation Procedures conserving moisture, moderating soil tempera-
The primary reclamation components of the True tures, and improving erosion control. The prac-
North Reclamation Plan included grading and tice of scarifying the seedbed on the contour prior
recontouring, storm water conveyance channel to seeding minimized the potential for erosion.
construction, growth media placement, seedbed Mulch was evaluated if seed germination becomes
preparation, fertilizing, seeding, and monitoring. a limiting factor in the reestablishment of vegeta-
Waste rock dumps required major grading, con- tion. Seeding was conducted as soon as possible
touring, and possible growth media application. following seedbed preparation. Generally, seed-
Other disturbed areas were revegetated and some ing was implemented after spring break up until
required regrading. Growth media were be mid-July. Such seeding allowed the seed to take
applied on all waste rock dumps and areas that advantage of the summer moisture period.
require it to successfully achieve a 70% cover. However, if a seeding was unsuccessful for any
Waste rock dumps were configured to establish reason, the area was reseeded the following year.
drainage and avoid swales and depressions.
Storm water drainage channels were con- kWaste Rock Dumps
structed where deemed necessary during recon- During the summer of 2005, the identified dis-
touring to minimize potential soil erosion while turbance in dumps was regraded and ripped
vegetation is reestablishing. Temporary control with dozers, seeded, and fertilized, including
devices were removed where the site-specific this work different dumps. Seed and fertilizer
potential for erosion had been minimized through were used on all restored disturbance utilizing
earthwork or revegetation. There were sound rea- either a broadcaster mounted on a dozer or by
sons to continue maintenance of some control aerial application with a fixed wing aircraft
structures depending on final recreational use (. Fig. 7.43). Reclamation consisted of scarifying
and other types of use. Growth media were stock- or ripping of the graded surface on contours
piled at True North in anticipation of future recla- apart that created a broken, roughened surface
mation needs. Approximately 6 inches of growth to trap moisture, reduce wind shear, and mini-
media were applied generally to those sites requir- mize surface erosion by increasing infiltration of
ing additional growth media to be revegetated or the top surface of the soil, which in turn created
to promote natural reinvasion by native plant spe- micro-habitats conducive to seed germination
cies. However, application depth varied depend- and development. . Figure 7.44a shows North
ing upon the facility. Roads, trails, stock pads, and Shepard Waste Rock Dump in 2005, prior recla-
building sites required little, if any, growth media. mation, and . Fig. 7.44b the same Waste Rock
Once the implementation of growth media is pos- Dump after reclamation in 2013.
sible, the specific site was designed for seeding by Subsequent to this restoration work, a part of the
ripping on the contour to roughen the surface. North Shepard Dump slumped and needed further
The goal of preparing the seedbed in this fashion earthworks and reseeding/fertilizing. The slump
promoted revegetation and enhance evapotrans- area encompassed approximately 7 acres. This prob-
piration. Prepared seedbeds were fertilized prior lem was corrected in early 2010 by picking up the
to, after, or during the seeding operation. Final slide material and backfilling the North Central Pit
fertilizer and application rates considered infor- along the south and west edge of the pit. The mate-
mation acquired from previous reclamation rial to backfilling was pushed at a 3:1 slope for final
efforts. grading. The slump area was excavated to a 2.5:1 or
Regarding the grass seed mix used, the first shallower slope or until natural ground was found.
aim of this seed mix was to obtain fast vegetative
cover that helped to diminish soil erosion and kPits
promote succession back to climax vegetation. Pits developed during mining have been back-
The seed mix may change over time in response to filled. The three remaining pits account for 125
such factors as internal and external research acres of disturbance. The North Central Pit was
results, changes in technology, changes in land partially backfilled in 2007 to decrease surface
management philosophy, and commercial avail- water pooling. The Hindenburg Pit floor was
ability. Native species were the preferred mix. In graded and scarified to decrease potential runoff
some instances, mulch was to be found useful in to the North Central Pit. Both of these pits
602 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
.. Fig. 7.43 Aerial seeding via fixed wing aircraft (Image courtesy of Kinross Gold Corporation)
received seed and fertilizer in 2007 to promote complete lateritic profile capped by a ferruginous
revegetation to reduce surface water flow. Due to duricrust. Thus, the ore deposit is a typical nickel
work within the pits and continued water flow, the laterite in which enrichment has occurred in the
North Central Pit and Hindenburg Pit were residual soils formed by tropical weathering of
regraded and scarified once again in August 2010. ultramafic bedrock. Prolonged weathering has
To prevent water flow, the diversion ditch above produced a thick mature laterite profile in which
the pit was cleaned out and reconstructed to the nickel grades have been enriched from the
divert water toward the Shepard Road. levels seen in the underlying bedrock.
The Ambatovy mine (. Fig. 7.45) lies in a high-
zz Ambatovy Nickel Mine Reclamation biodiversity area at the southern tip of a large section
(Antananarivo, Madagascar): Courtesy of of remnant eastern rainforest corridor. From a recla-
Sherritt International Corporation mation viewpoint, it is essential to bear in mind that
Ambatovy is a large-scale nickel and cobalt min- Madagascar is a global hotspot for biodiversity, with
ing situated 80 km east of Antananarivo (the capi- very high-degrees of endemism, and, at the same
tal of Madagascar) near the town of Moramanga. time, a high-level of threat. The most important
The mine operates since 2010 as an open-pit min- impacts on biodiversity will carry out at the mine
ing and a processing plant. From the mine, the site and along the upper section of the pipeline.
slurried laterite mineralization is sent via pipeline Environmental management at the property is
of approximately 220 km in length to a prepara- adaptive and consists of applying the mitigation
tion plant and refinery situated south of the Port hierarchy, which includes impact avoidance, mini-
of Toamasina. The estimated life of the operation mization, and, where necessary, compensation or
is approximately 29 years. Since ultramafic rocks offsetting by regular monitoring of the physical
present in Ambatovy mine are highly unstable in and biological environment. Physical environ-
a tropical weathering environment, the mine mental monitoring includes water quality (total
presents a deep weathering alteration, with a suspended solids and other parameters), air quality
7.8 · Reclamation Case Studies
603 7
a
.. Fig. 7.44 a North Shepard Waste Rock Dump in 2005 prior reclamation (Image courtesy of Kinross Gold Corpora-
tion); b North Shepard Waste Rock Dump after reclamation in 2013 (Image courtesy of Kinross Gold Corporation)
604 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
.. Fig. 7.45 Ambatovy mine and rainforest (Image courtesy of Sherritt International Corporation)
(dust and other parameters), and meteorological prevent release of sediments from the mining area
monitoring. Biological monitoring includes moni- into local watercourses. A total of seven dams will
toring the populations and health of affected be built, three of which have been completed. The
lemurs, small mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibi- dams are equipped with spillways as discharge
ans, and fish. Biological management actions of structures.
the mitigation hierarchy include defining clearly The progressive mine site reclamation will be
and minimizing the mine footprint, slow direc- carried out through erosion monitoring, reforesta-
tional clearing of forest (accompanied by the sal- tion with certain species, and facilitated secondary
vage and relocation of plant species of concern and successions. Several test plots have already been
the less mobile vertebrate animals), and establish- launched to establish the optimal floral species suc-
ment and management of conservation zones or cession composition for the soil matrix once min-
offsets. The offsets include about 3300 ha of forest ing works are finished. The main goal is to generate
surrounding the footprint, two set-aside parcels of a rehabilitation process for the mine site. It is neces-
azonal forest amounting to approximately 300 ha sary to comment that the process will incorporate
growing over part of the ore body and active sup- specific ecological aspects such as the selection of
port to regional conservation initiatives. the flora species that can favor species recoloniza-
tion of the reclaimed pit zones. Throughout 2012,
kMine Site Ambatovy worked to conserve forests around the
As a consequence of the estimated high residual mine footprint and to prepare for reclamation of the
impacts to biodiversity and the significance of footprint itself. Construction of a research and pro-
azonal and transitional areas to supporting rare duction nursery was completed, with a capacity to
plants and fauna within the mine area, a produce over 250,000 plants annually and equipped
comprehensive on- and off-site mitigation plan to with a poly-tunnel and other experimental facilities
preserve key habitat elements is proposed. At the to determine the optimal cultivation methods and
mine site, sedimentation dams are constructed to conditions for successful plant production.
7.8 · Reclamation Case Studies
605 7
.. Fig. 7.46 Aerial view of slurry pipeline route in tavy zone (Image courtesy of Sherritt International Corporation)
.. Fig. 7.47 The former Crawford mill and diesel power plant area after reclamation (Image courtesy of FreePort-
McMoRan)
and fallen creating a distinctive valley-mountain restoration studies at different stockpiles in the
range topography. Critically as this landscape Bisbee area. These stockpiles were always sources
formed, they tilted exposing the lower crustal levels of acid rock drainage during summer and winter
where porphyry copper deposits form. The depos- storm events. The project included grading, cap-
its are all copper dominant with subsidiary molyb- ping, and replanting vegetation with the aim of
denum mineralization and unusually with very enhancing visual impact, removing acid drainage,
little precious metals. They are Late Cretaceous to and creating wildlife habitat. About three millions
Early Tertiary in age. Mineralization is high-grade of cubic meters of material were translated to
copper sulfides (chalcopyrite and bornite) with recontour and cover the South Bisbee stockpile.
minor lead and zinc carbonates in irregular replace- In 2011, restoration works started on the
ment ore bodies. Ore control was nearby dykes and Bisbee area tailings dams and adjacent installa-
sills with associated brecciation. Alteration was tions. The tailings program reclamation comprises
gossan with Mn and Fe oxides induced by hydro- the North and South tailings dams (. Fig. 7.47),
1880 and kept to until all activities ceased in 1975. Basin. As part of that reclamation procedure, the
In the early 1900s, it was the most productive cop- company regraded the side and top surfaces of
per mine in Arizona. Once open-pit mining both dams and covered them with about 70 cm of
started in 1954, rock stockpiles were constructed, clean material to efficiently control storm water
and tailings from diverse milling works were con- and assure that it is discharged in a manner that
stituted. Since 2006, several restoration projects originates replacement of the local watershed.
have been carried out to mitigate zones impacted In this sense, fast liberation of these large
by mining activities. These projects encompass storm water runoff flows is critical for restored
approximately 500 ha. Part of this effort includes tailings dams to decrease the volume of water that
7.8 · Reclamation Case Studies
607 7
.. Fig. 7.48 Reclamation of North (right) and South (left) tailings impoundments as of 2013 (Image courtesy of
FreePort-MacMoRan)
can infiltrate into the tailings material becoming zz Mina Fe Uranium Mine Reclamation
long-term seepage that must be gathered. In order (Salamanca, Spain): Courtesy of ENUSA
to match runoff and infiltration objectives, past INDUSTRIAS AVANZADAS S.A.
tailings restoration programs needed important Uranium was discovered in Salamanca during the
quantities of new material to be placed with the 1950s. Mine production started in 1974 at ENUSA’s
aim of providing positive drainage from the top Mina Fe mine, an open-pit mine that increases to
surface toward off-site conveyance. become the biggest uranium exploitation in Spain
The approach for the Bisbee tailings dam res- that produced over 4000 t of uranium. The mine
toration plan was to prepare design ideas that closed in 2000 because of the low prices of the
would reduce regrading of the top surfaces with metal. A full decommissioning plan began in 2001,
imported material while decreasing the necessity and the mining areas, including one large pit, three
for conveyance structures needed to control peak small ones, and four waste dumps, have since been
storm water runoff flows. The Bisbee concept uses restored. Also, a small uranium plant and heap
the present grading of the dam and the big top leaching have been dismantled. The Mina Fe ura-
surface area to capture storm water runoff from nium-ore deposit is located about 10 km northeast
certain areas of the dam and decrease the peak of Ciudad Rodrigo (Salamanca, Spain). Regarding
flow as it is conveyed off the top of the dam into the geological setting, the rocks consist, mainly, of
an off-site conveyance. This new concept attenu- low metamorphosed carbonaceous pelitic and fine-
ated peak flows by nearly ten times. Moreover, grained psammitic rocks, in which sedimentary
basins are created to generate low net infiltration textures are commonly preserved, interlayered
of precipitation. The basins are planned not only with carbonate metric beds. The igneous rocks
to decrease large flows but also to capture low (granodiorites) intrude the stratigraphic sequence
flows. These attenuation basins work in essence as generating a contact metamorphism. The Tertiary
«engineered playas.» Alpine orogeny produced further fractures as well
608 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
as the rejuvenation of older ones, forming some 4. Limiting dust and radon emissions according
time important cataclastic breccia zones. Primary to future land uses
uranium deposits (uraninite + carbonates + pyrite 5. Applying ALARA acronym for (As Low As
+ adularia) occur in fault-related rocks. Reasonably Achievable) criteria (a principle for
At Mina Fe, the Elefante plant was mainly a bac- radiological protection, minimizing radiation
terial heap leach installation that was substituted by doses, and releases of radioactive materials by
the Quercus mill in 1993. This plant utilized a com- employing all reasonable methods)
bination of heap and dynamic leach until 2000.
Quercus metallurgical process was based in a grad- The main works of reclamation of Mina Fe and
ing of the crushed mineral, in a humid atmosphere, ancillary installations were located in: (a) open pit
to obtain three fractions of differing size and grade: mines, 15 Mm3 (with about 2.7 Mm3 of acid mine
the coarsest was classified as waste, intermediate waters); (b) waste rock piles (schists), 35 Mm3; (c)
was heap-leached (static lixiviation with sulfuric spent ore piles, > 4 Mm3; (d) tailings dams, > 1 Mm3;
acid), and finest was leached in mixing tanks and (e) metallurgical plants: Elefante and Quercus
(dynamic lixiviation), also with sulfuric acid. After plants.
7 a back washing in thickener classifiers and a clarifi- The reclamation process was developed in dif-
cation of the fertile liquids obtained from previous ferent projects due to their different nature and
stages, recuperation, concentration, and purifica- structures involved.
tion of the uranium contained were carried out. It
was performed through a process of extraction with kUranium Plants (Elefante and Quercus)
an organic dissolvent and re-extraction of pH con- Decommissioning
trolled with ammonium sulfate. The following steps The main activities in dismantling operations of
were precipitation of the uranium contained in the Elefante plant were carried out between 2001 and
watery extract in ammoniac diuranate, drying the 2004 and included:
humid concentrate, and packaging the product in 1. In situ stabilization by leveling tops and
drums. The process terminated with the neutraliza- slopes and extending beds of spent ore piles
tion of the sterile effluents, sending these solutions from heap leaching: 7.2 Mt (60 ha).
and the neutralized pulps to the waste dam, and 2. Dismantling of industrial plant: wastes were
conditioning of effluents. stored in a containment enclosure, built under
reconfigured spent ore piles and capping beds.
kReclamation Process 3. Capping of a multilayer cover for land
ENUSA began in 2001 to reclaim the forming restoration (. Fig. 7.49), formed from bottom
uranium mining operations and to dismantle the to top by (1) 0.9 m of clayey arkoses to
uranium plants. The objective of this restoration minimize water infiltration and to attenuate
(one of the most important in Europe) was to radon gas emission, (2) 0.9 m of rip-rap
recuperate the affected natural space with envi- (selected rock waste of low grade) to prevent
ronmental and radiological conditions as similar erosion of the clayey layer, and (3) 0.5 m of
as possible to those existing before mining works. top soil to allow planting of vegetation and
Actually, these environmental reclamation activi- reinforce the action of preceding layers.
ties are focused to control the dismantled radioac- 4. Technical and radiological controls.
tive installations and the restored mining works,
and on chemical processing of polluted waters, Concerning the evolution of the reclamation
which is required until the adequate quality for process, first the spent ore piles (more than 7 Mt,
discharge to public waterways is carried out. The in the shape of a truncated pyramid with slopes
main criteria used to achieve the aforementioned near 75%) were reconfigured to a final structure
objective were: having new slopes around 20%. The original sur-
1. Ensuring the containment and stability of the face 24 ha was converted to 56 ha of reclaimed
contaminated structures for long term terrain, being located the containment enclosure
2. Creating new structures without active and the tailings dams, from the plant processing,
maintenance, integrated in the environment under the restored ore piles. The whole set then
3. Protecting water resources (surficial and was covered with the aforementioned 2.3 m
groundwater) multilayer cover, formed by almost 3 Mt of the
7.8 · Reclamation Case Studies
609 7
.. Fig. 7.49 Multilayer cover (Image courtesy of ENUSA INDUSTRIAS AVANZADAS S.A.)
Regarding Quercus processing plant, it is 2. Capping of multilayer cover for land restora-
pending of decommissioning approval. Due to tion; it was formed from the bottom by (1)
problems related to acid mine drainages (AMD), 0.3 m of clayey arkoses to minimize water
it is necessary to maintain some structures, as the infiltration and to attenuate radon gas
tailings dam and big ponds, to collect acid waters emission and radiation, (2) 0.3 m of rip-rap
as well as the plant for chemical treatment (neu- (selected rock waste) to prevent erosion of
tralization process), working until the water qual- the lower layer, and (3) 0.3 m of top soil to
ity allows its discharge directly to the river. For allow planting of vegetation and reinforce the
this reason, the process will be carried out in action of preceding layers.
phases. Dismantling of the plant will be under- 3. Land revegetation.
taken firstly, including the associated spent ore 4. Water management plan, including collec-
piles. The plan will include the building of a con- tion, treatment, drainage, discharge, analytic
tainment enclosure and a multilayer cover, as in and radiological controls, etc.
the case of Elefante plant. At present, there is a 5. Technical and radiological controls. Since
maintenance and control program to the begin- 2014, there is a monitoring and control
ning of the dismantling process. program, including groundwater manage-
ment and stability of created structures, to
kOpen-Pit Mines and Waste Rock Pile check the compliance of the restoration
Reclamation objectives.
Open-pit mines and associated waste rock dumps
affected 250 ha. The main activities in open-pit The first activity was the most important from a
mine reclamation from 2004 to 2008 were: visual impact viewpoint. Total amount of removed
610 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
.. Fig. 7.50 Open-pit at 2004 a and 2016 b (Images courtesy of ENUSA INDUSTRIAS AVANZADAS S.A.)
waste rock was about 20 Mm3. Regarding the multi- plant, because of the different radiological natures
layer cover for environmental and radiological pro- of the rocks to cover, mine waste rock instead of
tection, it was prepared in a similar way for Elefante spent ore rock, and, therefore, different radiological
plant. The only difference was the total thickness, activities. Revegetation process includes seeding
since the cover was globally 1 m less than in Elefante and planting native species, such as herbaceous and
7.9 · Question
611 7
.. Fig. 7.51 Evaporation units (Image courtesy of ENUSA INDUSTRIAS AVANZADAS S.A.)
bush plants, but not trees to prevent their roots drill are designed, made, and used à la carte. Artificial
the clayey layer, covering more than 250 ha. Water soils can solve or reduce the specific problems of
management was carried out creating new channels affected mining exploitations and/or meet the
for best drainage of waters as well as some minor needs for the restoration of contaminated soils.
dams for water temporary storage. Previous successful results in the recovery of con-
taminated major sites were located in mining
kAcid Mine Drainage sites, such as the coal mine of As Pontes (La
To control acid mine drainage from the mine, it is Coruña); waste dumps, open-pits, and waters in
necessary to collect approximately 500,000 m3 of the sulfide mine of Touro (La Coruña); soils of the
water per year for chemical neutralization process Guadiamar River Valley (Sevilla) contaminated
in two neutralization plants. This is in order to by the failure of the Aznalcóllar sulfide tailings
guarantee appropriate quality, according to required dam and the sludge discharge; and others. The
parameters, before the controlled discharge of the artificial soils are spread in thin beds on the
water to the river. In order to try to minimize this ground as surficial deposit or in areas with back-
important problem, different actions were carried waters to create a reactive wetland.
out, including (a) sugar beet carbonate foam
amendments; (b) improvement of revegetation; (c)
waterproof of filtering dams; (d) in situ stabilization 7.9 Question
actions, protecting gullies, repairing multilayer cov-
ers, etc.; and (e) incorporating new enhanced evap- ??Short Questions
oration units (. Fig. 7.51).
55 Explain the final step in the operation of a
Their effectiveness has been only partial or mine.
temporary. This is the reason that a new plan for 55 Define the concept of community used in
AMD remediation, based in artificial soils («tec- minerals industry.
nosoles») application technics, is being tested, 55 Explain the concept of rehabilitation in
including edaphic studies, chemical and radio- mining reclamation.
logical determinations, etc. They are obtained 55 What is an Environmental Management
with inert residues, not toxic or hazardous, and System?
612 Chapter 7 · Environment and Sustainability
55 Define sustainable development. Borden RK (2011) Waste disposal and contamination man-
55 What are the Equator Principles? agement. In: Darling P (ed) SME mining engineering
handbook, 3rd edn. Society for Mining, Metallurgy,
55 List the main types of solid mine and Exploration, Inc, Englewood, pp 1733–1752
waste. Brown BS (2002) Management of tailings disposal on land.
55 What is biodiversity? Explain the rela- In: Mular AL, Halbe DN, Barratt DJ (eds) Mineral pro-
tionship between mining and biodiver- cessing plant design, practice and control Proceedings,
sity. 1st edn. SME, Englewood, pp 1809–1827
Commonwealth of Australia (2006a) Mine Closure and
55 What are the main measures that can be completion. Leading practice sustainable develop-
implemented to control and minimize ment program for the mining industry. Commonwealth
subsidence damage? of Australia, Canberra, 63 p
55 List the potential contributors to visual Commonwealth of Australia (2006b) Community engage-
impacts in mining. ment and development. Leading practice sustainable
development program for the mining industry.
55 What are the main advantages of reveg- Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, 48 p
etation in reclaiming mined lands? Commonwealth of Australia (2007a) Managing acid and
55 What biosolids means? metalliferous drainage. Leading practice sustainable
7 55 What is a social impact? development program for the mining industry.
Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, 96 p
55 Explain briefly the environmental impact
Commonwealth of Australia (2007b) Biodiversity manage-
assessment process. ment. Leading practice sustainable development pro-
55 What is the main method for the identifi- gram for the mining industry. Commonwealth of
cation of effects and impacts in an envi- Australia, Canberra, 79 p
ronmental impact assessment? Commonwealth of Australia (2007c) Working with indige-
nous communities. Leading practice sustainable
development program for the mining industry.
??Long Questions Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, 78 p
55 Describe in detail the definition and Commonwealth of Australia (2008) Water management.
importance of a «social license to operate.» Leading practice sustainable development program
55 Explain the acid mine drainage formation. for the mining industry. Commonwealth of Australia,
Canberra, 102 p
Commonwealth of Australia (2009a) Hazardous materials
management. Leading practice sustainable develop-
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7
615 8
Mining Software
8.1 Introduction – 616
8.3 RockWorks – 619
8.3.1 Borehole Manager – 619
8.3.2 Utilities – 622
8.4 Datamine – 623
8.4.1 Fusion/Geological Database Management System – 624
8.4.2 Studio RM – 625
8.4.3 Datamine Studio OP – 631
8.4.4 NPV Scheduler – 634
8.5 Questions – 637
Reference – 638
GEOEAS CSMine
Geostatistical Environmental Assessment Software The main emphasis of the program is on open
(GEOEAS) was developed by the Environmental pit mine planning because the book in which
Protection Agency at 1991, so this system was the program is included is mainly devoted to
designed to run under DOS and consequently this topic. The program is designed to take
works badly in modern equipment, most of them raw drillhole data through the block modeling
using 64-bit architecture. However, it is possible to process to the generation of the final economic
run properly the program using emulation soft- pit limits. The major features of the program
ware such as DoxBox. GEOEAS is probably the include (1) graphical displays of drillhole data:
most famous public domain geostatistical software drillhole plan maps and drillhole section or pro-
in the history, being a suite of tools for carrying out file maps; (2) compositing of raw drillhole data
two-dimensional geostatistical analysis of spatially to regularly spaced samples for processing by the
distributed data. GEOEAS can produce data maps, block model; (3) block modeling by the inverse
univariate statistics, scatter plots/linear regression, distance squared method or kriging; it includes
and variogram computation and model fitting graphical presentation of the block model data
(. Fig. 8.1), but the main function of the package is
(block plots and contour plots through any
the generation of grids and contour maps estimates bench or section); (4) assigning of economic
obtained by interpolation using kriging methods. values to the blocks and their graphical presen-
Once the drillhole database has been selected, tation; and (5) final pit limit generation includ-
GEOEAS provides a Stat1 program for univariate ing geometric pit limits defined by the surface
exploratory data analysis. It is essential to have a topography and pit slope constraints and eco-
look at the histogram of the data and to maintain nomic pit limits defined by a three-dimensional
it in mind during the different processes since floating cone algorithm. Thus, the program is
variogram modeling and kriging estimation are divided into three modules to deal with the three
very susceptible to the presence of extreme values. types of data. These are (a) the drillhole mode,
Then, the Vario program is selected. The main used to read in and display the raw drillhole
goal of Vario is to develop a mathematical model data; (b) the composite mode, used to regularize
of the spatial continuity of a variable (variogram) the raw drillhole data into composites of equal
adjusting the model to the experimental semivar- length; and (c) the block mode, used to create
iogram. Later, Xvalid control the goodness-of-fit and display the block model, to assign economic
of the model selected. Finally, Krige program values to the blocks, and to generate the final
carry out 2-D estimation using kriging. economic pit limits.
618 Chapter 8 · Mining Software
.. Table 8.1 The main mining software vendors, including their programs and web pages, arranged alphabetically
type in the market. They can be classified into two founded in the late 1980s, but a range of acqui-
main groups: (1) software with applications in sitions in the following decades change dramati-
mining and (2) specific mining software. The for- cally the market. For instance, three of the most
mer are programs with mining applications such popular softwares in those times such as Whittle,
as Surfer or RockWorks, although RockWorks Gemcom, and Surpac are now property of
is more specifically delivered as geological utili- GEOVIA. On the other hand, companies such as
ties software. Below are very brief descriptions Micromine or Maptek remain the same. Whittle
of an example of each group: RockWorks and is an exciting example of this acquisitions trend
Datamine, respectively. (. Box 8.1: Whittle Software History).
Box 8.1
variety of cutoff, scheduling, scal- tonnages, and cash flows. Here- project had been «Whittled.» The
ing, and timing options within after, Whittle Four-X was released Whittle software package is cur-
a financial analysis framework. in 1997 with the purpose of rently considered as the premier
The program was very good on handling multiple elements within open pit optimizer and is used as
sensitivity analysis and how the the same orebody. a benchmark for mining studies
pit would change with different By 2000, the Whittle mine throughout the world. Companies
metal prices, but also as a good optimization products where depend on Whittle to help them
technique for designing early pit used by over 400 companies in determine their investment strat-
phases and pushbacks within the 48 countries around the world. egy and to deliver robust mine
ultimate pit. In 1995, Opti-cut This amount does not include the plans that maximize profitability
was released to optimize cutoff many mining consultants who by taking into account real mining
grades over the life of the mine. used the Whittle product on their constraints. Whittle Program-
This program was inspired by Ken client’s projects. Thus, Whittle ming was sold in January 2002 to
Lane’s theories on cutoff grade had become the industry’s most Gemcom Software International,
optimization (see 7 Chap. 4). Fur-
trusted strategic mine planning which is now known as GEOVIA
thermore, Opti-cut produced life software solution, and some following its acquisition by Das-
of mine cutoff, stockpile strategy, banks commonly asked if a mining sault Systèmes.
Some common characteristics of this type of detailed volume tools; (d) geotechnical: borehole
software are: (a) They offer integrated tools for database for lithologic, geophysical, geotechnical
modeling, estimation, mine design, optimiza- data; logs, sections, surface/solid models, struc-
tion, and scheduling; (b) they are compatible with tural tools. Mining applications can be arranged
many third-party software applications including in three levels: borehole database tools, mapping
GIS, Google Earth, ALS CoreViewer, and various tools, and other tools such as block modeling and
mining applications; (c) they can manage and volume calculations.
visualize very large and complex data sets, process RockWorks is organized in two main data
the information, and rapidly generate models; (d) windows: Borehole Manager and Utilities. The
they usually offer multilingual support: English, Borehole Manager includes a data window and a
Spanish, French, etc.; (e) they are commonly orga- suite of menus to enter and work with borehole
nized in modules or separate programs, each one data. In this tool, most of the subsurface model-
specifically devoted to the different parts of the ing and visualization in RockWorks (e.g., 2-D and
mining process, that is, exploration database, geo- 3-D logs, cross sections, solid and stratigraphic
logical and block modeling, resource estimation, models, among others) is carried out. The Utilities
mine design, and optimization and scheduling. data window is a simpler, row-and-column type
of data window with its proper group of menus.
It is possible to generate diverse types of maps,
8.3 RockWorks charts, and diagrams.
Easting
481.900,0 482.000,0 482.100,0
4.400.000,0
4.400.000,0
DH–32
DH–19
DH–20
DH–17
DH–18
DH–30
DH–08 DH–43 DH–12
DH–03
DH–37 DH–22
4.399.900,0
4.399.900,0
DH–02
DH–21
DH–40
4
Nothing
Nothing
DH–41
DH–29
8 DH–09 DH–05 DH–07
DH–38 DH–36
DH–23
DH–15
DH–16
DH–01 DH–42 DH–28 DH–04
4.399.800,0
4.399.800,0
DH–35
DH–
–24
DH–13
DH–14
DH–27
DH–26
DH–25
Top
W N
Lith
hology
Clay
Gravel
Ignimbrite
Mudstone
Rhyolite
Sand
S E
Silt
Siltstone
Soil
Base
DH-27
Lithology
E Clay
N Gravel
Ignimbrite
Mudstone
Rhyolite
Sand
Silt
Siltstone
Soil
model intersects a horizontal plane; the completed material mined in a period (e.g., 1 week, 1 month, or 1
map is showed in RockPlot 2-D. Histogram tool is year) considering a grid model for the first day of the
used to read a single column of data from all bore- month and a grid model for the last day of the month.
holes and compute the frequency or percentage of The subtracted grid will offer the amount cited. In
the measures for that variable that is included in each each case, Grid/Statistics/Report option shows all the
grouping or cell previously defined by the user. The values of the grid model, including model volume,
values then are displayed using a bar histogram plot. which represents the volume of the raw material
8 included in the model (. Fig. 8.5).
directional analysis, etc. The Solid menu creates, of model, representing lead concentrations dis-
manipulates, and analyzes solid models. Finally, played as an isosurface diagram with boreholes.
the Volumetrics menu computes volumes, creates In the Volumetrics menu, two programs are
extraction surfaces, creates GT reports, etc. In the highlighted: 2-D (grid model) and Extract Solid. The
Map menu, for example, the Grid-Based Map pro- grid model is utilized for estimating formation vol-
gram reads XYZ data from the datasheet, inter- ume from a column of thickness values in the data-
polates a grid model, and creates a 2-D map with sheet and including different filtering parameters.
symbols, labels, grid-based line/color contours, The computations are grid-based, being the grid-
triangle network, background image, and/or bor- ding algorithm (e.g., kriging, closest point, or inverse
der annotation. 3-D surfaces are also created. distance weighting) selected by the user. Some of the
In the Grid menu, the polygon filter is utilized to advanced filtering options contain thickness, strip-
set the grid nodes inside or outside a defined polygon ping ratio, up to five quantitative data column range
to either a level specified by the user or to the values constraints, polygon areas, and distance. In addition,
established in another grid model. A classical applica- it is possible to invoke a polygon clipping filter so that
tion of this tool is to set zero to all the values out of the only those thickness nodes within a user-entered
polygon. For instance, if the input grid model depicts polygon area are included in the computations. The
mineralization reserves and the polygon means a output report can even list «Proven,» «Probable,»
lease boundary, the grid statistics will compute min- and «Inferred» reserves based on user declaration of
eralization reserves only within the lease boundary. In distance confidences.
addition, Grid/Math carries out arithmetical opera- The Grid-Based Volume calculator offers several
tions with the grid node Z-values in two existing grid types of output: (a) a grid file containing the numeric
files. This is very useful to estimate the amount of raw model for the final (filtered) grid of formation
8.4 · Datamine
623 8
DH-19 DH-43
Dh-31_1
DH-18_1 DH-02
DH-21_1
N DH-36_1
DH-04
DH-06 DH-14
Lead
4.0
3.6
1,750.0
3.2
2.8
2.4
1,725.0
S 4,400,000.0
2.0
1.6 4,399,900.0
1.2
0.8 1,700.0 4,399,800.0
0.4
0.0 482,100.0
482,000.0
481,900.0
DH-
DH-3
DH
D H-3
H-3
39
DH-
DH-3
D
DHH-3
H-30
H- DH
DH-
DH-1
D H-1
H-
H-17 DH-3
DH-
DH-3
DH
H-331 DH-32
DH-
DH-2
DH
D H-2
H--2
29 DH-
DH
DH-0
D H-0
H
H--0
03 DH-1
DH
DH-
D H-1
H
H--1
18
DH-
DH
DH-3
H-3
H -3
3
388 DH-
DH-1
D
DHH-
H-119 DH-3
DH-
D
DHH
H-33
DH-
DH-0
D
DHH
H-0
-0
0
088
DH
DH-1
DH-
D H--16
H-1
H DH-
DH-2
DH
D H
H-2
H--21 DH-4
DH
D H4
H-4
433 N
W DH
DH-3
H-3
H --3
36 DH-4
DH-
D
DHH-
H
H-440 D
DH
DH-3
DH-
H 37
H-3
DH-
DH-0
DH-
DHH-0
H 02
DH
DH-
DH-1
D H-1
H
H--1
1
122 DH-
DH-2
DH
D H 20
DH-0
DH
DH-
D H-05
H-0
H DH-
D
DH-2
DHH-2
H -222
2
DH
D
DH-
DH-1
H-1
H 10 DH
DH-0
D H
H-0
-0
01 DH-4
D H- 1
DH-
DH
DH-2
D H-2
H-
H2 27
7 DH-
D
DH-3
DHH 35
H-
H-3 DH-
DH-4
DH
D H-4
H-
H 42 DH 07
DH-0
DH-
DH-1
D
DHH-13
H-1
H DH
D H
H-2
-28
DH-
DH-0
DH
H---0
H-0
H 06
06 DH-0
H-04
4 DH-
DH-
DH-1
DH
H-1
H -1
-1
155 DH-
DH-2
D
DHH-2
H -2
23
DH
D
DH-2
H-26
H-2
H- DH-3
D H 4
DH
DH-
DH
H-1
--1
14 DH-
DH-1
D
DHH-1
H-1
H-
- 1
DH-2
DH
D H 4
DH
DH-2
D H-2
H-
H -25
-2
E
S
t hickness values (or mass values, if requested), (b) a model. Maximum overall slope and bench heights
2- or 3-D map that illustrates the final thickness (or can also be defined.
mass) grid, and/or (c) a report that lists in detail the
intermediate and final volume computations (with
weight computations, if requested). 8.4 Datamine
Regarding the Extract Solid option, this pro-
gram consider an existing solid model (e.g., lithol- Datamine provides a range of integrated mining
ogy type) and establishes the volume of a pit that solutions for the all the processes involved in min-
would be needed to extract the parts of previous ing development. It incorporates software tools for
solid model that fall within a defined range (e.g., exploration fieldwork, resource modeling as well
a selected lithotype). The output is a report that as all levels of mine planning, strategic optimiza-
includes the pit, the volumes, and the stripping tion, detailed design, and short-term decision-
ratios, a 2-D diagram showing the pit elevations, making. Thus, the different programs can be
and/or a 3-D diagram illustrating the filtered solid grouped into four main categories: geological data
and the pit elevations (. Fig. 8.7). Obviously, the
management software, resource/reserve modeling
surface grid model must have the same dimen- software, open pit planning software, and under-
sions as the X and Y dimensions of the input solid ground planning software. Four of these programs,
624 Chapter 8 · Mining Software
DHLogger, Datamine Studio, Datamine Studio OP, Summit Underground Strategic Optimisation, Studio
and NPV Scheduler are briefly commented below. 5D Planner, Enhanced Production Scheduler, Aegis,
Exploration data forms the fundamental and Ventsim.
underlying basis for resource models and mining
resource/reserve evaluations, being critical for min-
ing companies to carry out a protection process of 8.4.1 Fusion/Geological Database
the investment with modern systems that control Management System
all the processes and safely store the data. In this
sense, Datamine provides a range of integrated tools The main purpose of Fusion software is to enable
for data capture, analysis, storage, and reporting of clients to collect, validate, manage, and deliver
geological, geotechnical, and geochemical infor- geological data for the project, improve the flow of
mation. This software category includes programs geological data throughout an organization, and
such as DHLogger, Sample Station, Mine Mapper, minimize the time required to work with the data
Fusion, Report Manager, Laboratory Information at all levels. Their capabilities include (a) data col-
Management System, and Core Shed Management. lection (e.g., data import from many external data
Datamine’s resource modeling system delivers sources like .txt, .csv, MS Access; data validation
geological models for all types of mines across the full ensuring that the data is correct; standardized pick
range of deposit types. It includes programs such as lists; or automatic validation of laboratory results),
Studio EM, Studio RM, Strat3D, and Ore Controller. (b) data management (e.g., captured data transferred
Regarding the third group, Datamine provides a to a central location), and (c) data delivery (e.g., share
full range of open pit planning applications from data with other users utilizing the Fusion applica-
strategic long-term optimization, pit design, reserve tions or share data with external applications using
generation, and operational equipment scheduling custom export routines). Regarding data collection
incorporating programs such as NPV Scheduler, and validation applications, DHLogger software cap-
Summit Strategic Open Pit Planning, and Studio OP tures and manages drillhole data, the sample station
(. Fig. 8.8). Finally, Datamine underground min-
module captures and manages point sample data,
ing software helps to design, plan, and schedule all the MineMapper3D option captures and manages
aspects of the underground mining. This category 2-D/3-D mapping data, and Century LIMS captures
includes programs such as Mineable Shape Optimiser, and manages mine lab data.
8.4 · Datamine
625 8
DHLogger 8.4.2 Studio RM
The main objectives of DHLogger are the fol-
lowing: (a) to complete drillhole data cap- Creating a geological and resource model is
ture including collar, geological and technical an iterative process with greater understand-
details, samples, and related QA/QC materials; ing of the geology and grade distribution, being
(b) to import analytical results using the Lab achieved as the study proceeds and more data
Import utility; (c) to import external geology becomes available. The process of creating a 3-D
data using the Drill Hole Import utility; (d) geological ore body model typically makes use of
to convert grid coordinates from one system the topography contours, drillholes, structural
to another; (e) to calculate sample composite data (e.g., fault surface), ore body string model
intervals; and (f) to manage dispatch of samples (section strings, top or bottom contact contours),
and drill costs. ore body wireframe model, and waste and ore
In DHLogger, the data is entered into block models. The addition of user-defined alpha
DHLogger through the use of three types of data or numeric attributes (e.g., zone (mineralization
entry screens: collar, details, and samples. The zone number) or density (rock density)) and the
details view of the drillhole window is used to log use of data filters, views and formatting, symbols,
major and minor interval data for the hole. Minor and linestyles facilitate the geological modeling
intervals must be associated to major intervals process and enable the generation of professional
and typically describe small or less significant core outputs such as summary reports, plots, and 3-D
properties such as alteration or minor lithology. views. In general, the geological modeling process
All texture, structure, alteration, and mineraliza- using a mining software includes the following
tion records are generally linked to specific major steps: (a) importing drillhole data, (b) importing
and minor intervals. All RQD data, magnetic topography, (c) geological string modeling, (d)
susceptibility, direction, coordinates, and wedge geological wireframe modeling, and (e) geologi-
records are generally linked to the hole. If there cal block modeling.
are gaps in core, a «no core available» rock type
or something similar must be created and used to Importing Drillhole Data
represent such intervals in the details view. Drillhole data is used as a basis for creating
The Samples interface contains all of the sam- geological models. The drillhole tables typically
ple and assay data associated with a particular consist of collars, downhole surveys, and down-
hole. It is possible to import drillhole data from hole samples tables. The minimum field require-
a comma or tab delimited format into DHLogger ments for the tables are as follows: (a) collars:
in a two-step process: defining which tables data BHID, drillhole identifier; XCOLLAR, collar X
will be imported into and defining which col- coordinate; YCOLLAR, collar Y coordinate; and
umns data will be imported into. On the other ZCOLLAR, collar elevation; (b) surveys: BHID,
hand, the worksheet of the Samples interface is drillhole identifier; AT, downhole depth; BRG,
used to calculate and save averages from a series bearing in degrees; and DIP, dip in degrees; (c)
of hole samples. Regarding data management, assays: BHID, drillhole identifier; FROM, down-
the Fusion Administrator option administers the hole interval start depth; TO, downhole interval
Fusion data model, manages users, and defines end depth; ASSAY1, first assay field, numeric val-
validation constraints; the Fusion Client option ues, units as defined by the user, for example, in
transfers data between databases and synchro- g/t or percentage; and ASSAY2, second assay field;
nizes administration changes; and the Fusion many assay fields are permitted, depending of the
Scheduler option transfers data from a remote mining software; (d) depth data tables: BHID,
site to a central location on a scheduled basis. For drillhole identifier; AT, downhole depth; and
data delivery, QueryBuilder queries the database, ATTRIBUTE1, alpha or numeric attribute such
exports results, manages QA/QC charts, and cre- as geological structural measurement or down-
ates custom reports; and Crystal Report Viewer hole geophysical survey parameter; (e) interval
displays, prints, and saves custom reports. data tables: BHID, drillhole identifier; FROM,
Finally, Report Manager creates automate QA/ collar X coordinate; TO, collar Y coordinate; and
QC reporting. ATTRIBUTE1, alpha or numeric attribute such as
626 Chapter 8 · Mining Software
interpreted mineralization zone flag code or rock are guided by the mineralized zones displayed in
density. . Figure 8.9 is an example of this type of
the drillhole data; the strings will then be saved
drillhole data. to a Datamine file. The section perimeters (closed
The drillhole data can be imported from strings) are used to model the ore body where
other formats such as ASCII space-delimited (a) drillhole data is organized in sections, (b) ore
format or Microsoft Excel worksheet format to bodies have complex geometries (e.g., irregular
generate the mining software (Datamine) format. shapes), and/or (c) needing to generate closed
Once the drillhole data is imported, a standard wireframe volumes. The interpretation of min-
procedure for checking and correcting possible eralization zones and the creation of geological
errors in the data is carried out immediately. It string models for ore bodies can be done using a
would be compared the listed errors against the variety of string modeling methods such as ver-
relevant records in the source files (e.g., data- tical, horizontal, or inclined section perimeters
base, text files, or spreadsheet) and correct data (closed strings) and contour strings (e.g., separate
entries where required. With the data imported top and bottom ore zone contact contours, sur-
in the Datamine table editor, different processes face topography).
can be performed such as to locate the positions As a rule, the perimeter is digitized in a clock-
of the drillhole collars, to show the drillholes in wise direction. The start point is the extrapolated
the 3-D window, to define sections (. Fig. 8.10), top of the upper zone position. Points are digi-
8
and much more. Another possibility is to obtain tized on the top (top contact) or bottom (bottom
the summary statistics of different data, including contact) of the relevant drillhole segments, by
minimum, mean and maximum mineral grade pointing or snapping to segment ends. The string
values, for instance to investigate the parametric points are labeled with the digitizing sequence,
summary statistics and to check for outliers. and the string will be closed to create a closed
Compositing down drillholes is a process that string (perimeter). The same process is carried
will be essential in successive steps. The com- out in the different drillhole sections to create a
posited drillholes will be (a) composited by rock string model. Therefore, the string model consists
type or domain by setting a very large interval to of sets of section strings that have been digitized,
generate individual rock type composites to be for example, in vertical N-S planes and spaced
used for rock type or domain boundary modeling 25 m apart. The translation distances of the sec-
and/or (b) composited by a fixed interval such as tions along a specific coordinate axis can be either
minimum mining width or block size for geosta- positive or negative, that is, translation in the
tistical analysis. direction of increasing coordinate values (e.g.,
+25) or translation in the direction of decreasing
Importing Topography coordinate values (e.g., −25). . Figure 8.12 shows
Although the topography can be created using a an image of the extended string model relative
number of points, the most common way to obtain to the drillhole and topography surface contour
the topography of the selected area is to import the data.
topography contours data from an AutoCAD file Then, tag strings are added to the existing geo-
and generate the Datamine format strings file. The logical ore body strings model. They are added in
CAD drawing file commonly has the data of poly- order to control the exact placement of wireframe
lines, which represent topography contours and a edges and overcome the problem of twisted wire-
bounding perimeter (e.g., contour interval 10 m, frames associated with complex geometries. The
elevation range 60–250 m, X coordinate range 5610– strings will link the northern and southern ends
6780 m, and Y coordinate range 4600–5779 m). At of the upper and lower mineralized zone strings
this point, an integrated topography-drillholes view between adjacent N-S sections that are spaced
can be displayed in the 3-D window (. Fig. 8.11).
25 m apart. Finally, the different string models
(topography and ore body) are combined into a
Geological String Modeling single object. It is useful for simplifying object
The next step in the process is to create the basic management where a large number of string
framework for a geological ore body string model. model objects are used and as a means of simpli-
It consists of sets of vertical section strings that fying a data set for presentation purposes.
8.4 · Datamine
627 8
6120 E 6120 E
6110 E 6110 E
5400 N
5300 N
5200 N
5100 N
5000 N
4900 N
4800 N
4700 N
4600 N
6100 E 6100 E
6090 E 6090 E
6080 E 6080 E
6070 E 6070 E
6060 E 6060 E
6050 E 6050 E
5500 N
5400 N
5300 N
5200 N
5100 N
5000 N
4900 N
4800 N
4700 N
4600 N
6040 E 6040 E
6030 E 6030 E
6020 E 6020 E
6010 E 6010 E
6000 E 6000 E
5400 N
5300 N
5200 N
5100 N
5000 N
4900 N
4800 N
4700 N
4600 N
200 Elev 200 Elev
50 Elev 50 Elev
0 Elev 0 Elev
5400 N
5300 N
5200 N
5100 N
5000 N
4900 N
4800 N
4700 N
4600 N
-150 Elev -150 Elev
.. Fig. 8.11 3D View of Cu Stockwork Wireframe Model (illustration courtesy of Matsa, a Mubadala & Trafigura Company)
8.4 · Datamine
629 8
at each end and between each section string ore model within the ore body’s closed volume
(. Fig. 8.13). There should not be any gaps nor
wireframe object is created. Finally, the extent of
holes in the wireframe volume. It is essential to the ore and waste block model against the surface
verify wireframes before calculating wireframe DTM and the ore body wireframe is combined
volumes, evaluating wireframes (for tons and (. Fig. 8.15).
630 Chapter 8 · Mining Software
.. Fig. 8.13 Wireframe
model of the ore body
(Datamine)
Then, it is needed to check the ore body maximum values (e.g., coordinates or mineral
block model. The process is carried out by visual grade values).
methods or using summary statistics. The aim of The last item in the geological modeling
visually checking a block model against its wire- process is to combine the waste and ore block
frame is to search errors such as cells extending models because it is essential to have a single
beyond the limits of the wireframe (e.g., the cell model for presentation, economic optimization,
center lies beyond the wireframe – the surface or evaluation purposes. However, it is impor-
may be damaged or contain holes). Regarding tant to note that combining block models can
checking of the ore body block model using potentially result in very large files. Obviously,
summary statistics, the goal is to review the block models that do not have the same block
block model’s numeric fields looking for errors model definition (e.g., block model prototype)
such as absent data (e.g., cells not flagged with cannot be combined. . Figure 8.16 shows the
the mineralization zone field), records with result of combining both models. Hereafter, it is
missing values, and unexpected minimum or possible to optimize the resulting block model
8.4 · Datamine
631 8
.. Fig. 8.15 Block model
including ore body and
topography (Datamine)
5000
4875
(Datamine)
12
12
125
25
5 12
125
12
255
0 0
5125
5000
4875
since the optimization (combination of subcells there are a great number of tools to design sur-
within the limits of parent cells by one or more face mines. Designing an open pit is an iterative
key fields) typically results in a smaller file size. process involving consideration of many design
criteria, constraints, and objectives. Before to start
a detailed pit design, it is necessary to have some
8.4.3 Datamine Studio OP idea of the existing surface topography, the extent
and nature of the orebody, and the economic or
Since there are many approaches to task of sur- ultimate pit limit of the mine. There are several
face mine design, there is not a predetermined ways to do this depending on available informa-
way for completing the design work. Moreover, tion. As aforementioned, two ways to represent
632 Chapter 8 · Mining Software
the three topics commonly exist: block model or 3. Navigate to an appropriate plan view and
surface wireframe. For economic or ultimate pit apply clipping limits to the data so that only
limit, it is also possible to use strings. Typically the data that is relevant for the initial string
these limits will have been determined from a can be seen; assuming a bottom-up design,
financial analysis using techniques such as the this would be the pit base string.
Lerchs-Grossmann nested pits or floating cone 4. Digitize the initial string using a view of the
pit optimization (see section devoted to NPV relevant data objects (e.g., block model
Scheduler). section); this string must be closed
There are four basic methods of creating (. Fig. 8.17).
a detailed pit design in Datamine OP: (a) Toe 5. Create the first road segment and edit the
+ Ramp + Crest Design: this method involves new road string as required; it is essential to
designing the pit on a bench by bench basis take care not to erase the point at which the
often starting from the lowest bench and work- road string meets the initial (toe) string. It
ing upwards; the toe string is created, the ramp must be defined a road gradient percentage, a
is inserted, and finally the crest strings are added; road width, and a target elevation; this is
the method builds ramps that include access to commonly the toe elevation of the next bench
the berms and it can be applied working either in which a berm will be inserted.
from the bottom up or the top down; (b) Toe + 6. Create the crest and toe strings; the bench eleva-
8 Ramp Design: This method involves creating all tion (the height of the first step running around
the toe and ramp strings first and then adding in and above the pit base) must be established.
the crest strings later; it is quicker than previous 7. Once a contour string has been defined, it is
approach and it yields a continuous ramp with no possible to add the road berm; the string
offsets; the pit can only be designed from the bot- created becomes the toe string for the next
tom upwards; (c) contour design: the third tech- bench. At this stage, the basic components for
nique involves inserting a ramp and crest strings the pit floor rising to the first bench position
into an existing set of toe strings; these toe strings have been created.
are typically created by generating contours
around an optimum pit shell block model; and Once the initial pit strings have been created, it is
(d) automated pit design: this process is designed necessary to design the next bench; to create sub-
to speed up open pit design; it enables an iterative sequent benches, it is important to click in the cor-
process whereby the design of a pit can be altered rect location where creating new road segments,
(ramp positions, gradients, berms, etc.) to find the switchbacks, and contours. This is to ensure that
best results. The first method is considered as an the integrity of the haul route design is maintained.
example. The following procedure outlines the general
method for the bench design above the pit floor.
Toe + Ramp + Crest Design The first step is, with the initial pit design work in
The following procedure outlines the stages a plan view, to create a road segment specifying
that are commonly worked through in order to a road gradient (the steepness of the road to the
create a Toe + Ramp + Crest design. The pro- crest of the next bench), a road width, and a target
cess can be summarized in three steps: (a) to elevation (if designing from the base upwards, this
create the base string and the first bench, (b) to will be a higher elevation than that specified for
define the second bench, and (c) to complete the previous bench); the new road segment will be
the design. projected at the specified gradient until it reaches
To create the base string and the first bench: the target elevation. Then, it is necessary to specify
1. Set the face angle and berm width for the new the direction around the pit the road will be con-
design, for example, 60 degrees and 4.5 meters, structed. Thus, a pit base string has been designed
respectively. It is possible to change this setting and a ramp projected. A contour string and road
at any time during pit design without affecting berm have also been applied at this level.
any previously created pit strings. Then, the next step is to define the position
2. Load all supporting files (e.g., any relevant of the next road contour by specifying an eleva-
block model, orebody wireframe, and/or tion for the new string and specifying a new road
topography data). berm; this will create the toe string for the third
8.4 · Datamine
633 8
.. Fig. 8.17 Digitized ini-
tial string of the first bench
(Datamine)
bench. Consequently, the present design includes below is a good option to create a merged pit/
a pit base, with a road rising to the first bench, topography.
and geometry for the second bench including a The first step is to load the topography wire-
continued haul route. To complete the design, it frame that is relevant to the pit design. The next
can continue using the procedure above to intro- step is to create a string where the topography file
duce all subsequent benches. The process finishes intersects with your new pit design (. Fig. 8.18).
where the projecting benches reach the existing At this stage, it is recommended to «condition»
topography. the intersection string. Conditioning will result in
the string being comprised of chord lengths not
Creating a Digital Terrain Model exceeding a maximum length and/or angle. This
Once a full pit design is completed, it is common method will help to create a more accurate (i.e.,
to build a digital terrain model (DTM) of the pit containing more data) intersection string. It will
design strings. At the first stage, it is often useful to produce a more realistic result where used to trim
see your pit design in context, showing the level of the pit wireframe. Next, a DTM of the clipped pit
the surrounding topography and trimming data strings is created (. Fig. 8.19).
where it sits above the surface. There are several The final stage is to carry out a hole in the
ways of achieving this, but the method described topography and draw it with the trimmed pit
634 Chapter 8 · Mining Software
DTM. There are several methods for doing this, bility of verifying your wireframe data beforehand.
but the simplest is to project an existing string onto The final display shows both digital terrain models
a wireframe surface and remove the data that is aligned at the pit boundary (. Fig. 8.20). The view
contained within. This option also offers the possi- of these data can be enhanced as required, with
each object (pit and topography) being indepen-
dently controllable.
ing economic model, (3) optimizing the pit, and any adjustment factors that apply, (c) dilution and
(4) generating pushbacks. recovery factors for the ore, (d) a unit cost of reha-
bilitation for waste, and (e) an additional cost for
Importing the Data processing each unit of a commodity.
The first step is to import the geological block This model is the starting point of NPV
model created previously. The geological block Scheduler processes. From the information it
model includes the ore (raw material) and waste contains, a set of mining phases can be defined
cells containing product grades and other infor- based on the basic principle of ensuring areas of
mation. Air cells (voids) do not need to be pres- high grade are mined, wherever possible, before
ent. The database includes many items such as areas of lower grade. Considering that realizing
product (metal or other mineral element that can the best value first is a basic principle of maxi-
be recovered from ore and sold at a price), den- mizing NPV, the order of the phases represents
sity, rock type, grade, tonnage factor, among oth- the first high-level categorization of the value
ers. Hereafter, it is necessary to import the region and the first stage of determining the optimal
perimeters, an AutoCAD file including topics extraction sequence.
such as the final pit limit created in previous sec-
tion, slope regions, etc. Optimizing the Pit
The pit optimization process is carried out using
Generating Economic Model Lerchs-Grossmann (LG) algorithm (7 see Chap. 5),
This step applies economic and technological which is a mathematical algorithm belonging to the
parameters to the geological model with the objec- family of network flow methods that finds open pit
tive of obtaining the economic model. An economic shell yielding maximum profit. The optimization of
model is a geological block model supporting the pit includes successively defining slope regions
additional information relating to the value of a and setting up pit optimization parameters. The
particular block of ore. It is defined by setting cost former sets the slope angles by region or for one
and price parameters for the life of the mine and global region encompassing the entire block model
then calculating an intrinsic value per processing volume. The latter has no effect on the computation
method of each block in a geological block model of the Lerchs-Grossmann ultimate pit and is only
as a function of its geo-metallurgical attributes. The used for the calculation of the NPV estimates (e.g.,
value is commonly calculated by NPV Scheduler annual discounting to 15%, average ore output rate
as part of the definition of the economic model, to 6,000,000 tons per 365 days, etc.). Pit optimizer
but values can also be imported as an attribute of generates an ultimate pit, LG phases, and optimal
a block model if it has been calculated externally extraction sequence. . Figure 8.21 shows the chart
in another system. The parameters used to calcu- for the LG phases report.
late the block value are (a) the selling price of any
commodity recovered from processing where the Generating Pushbacks
recovery is defined as a mathematical expression of In simple terms, a pushback (also called stage,
values in the block, (b) a unit cost of mining (ore phase, and cutback) refers to a designated zone
and waste) and a unit cost of processing (ore) and representing an area to be mined as a single
636 Chapter 8 · Mining Software
LG phases report
Economic model 1+ultimate pit 1
1.1e8
1.05e8
1e8
9.5e7
9e7
8.5e7
8e7
7.5e7
7e7
6.5e7
6e7
5.5e7
$
5e7
4.5e7
4e7
3.5e7
3e7
2.5e7
2e7
1.5e7
1e7
8 5e6
0
1 3 5 7 9 1113151719212325272931333537394143454749515355575961636567697173757779
pit
NPV@Cumulative data
meet the requirements of pushback definition. pushback generator selects blocks for the push-
Thus, the basic objective is to create a pushback back, joins them together to form contiguous
shape that meets some primary targets, namely, shapes, takes the remnant blocks into the push-
the ore tonnage to be won from each pushback as back shape, and then joins the two pushbacks so
well as its minimum mining width. that they form practical mining strategies. For
The other parameters that can be set include example, PB2i represents a grouped sequence
mining constraints on the maximum number of of blocks established by the optimal extraction
8.5 · Questions
637 8
.. Fig. 8.22 Steps of the
pushback generator (Dat-
amine)
PB2i
PB2ii PB2ii
PB2i
PB2iii
PB1ii
PB1i
PB1i
sequence. These groupings are expanded to create project NPV by increasing mining rates without
PB2ii by including late-sequenced blocks so that costly expansion of processing capacities. Higher
a specific ore tonnage condition for the second mining rates result in higher ore production, and
pushback is achieved. The further addition of the excess ore that cannot be processed by the
blocks to create PB2iii successfully joins second optimal method is processed by another (subop-
pushback to the previous pushback and creates timal) method, stockpiled for later processing,
smooth edges. The importance of the pushback or dumped as waste. In some cases, where mine
shapes therefore is that rather than being the flow optimization succeeds, it generates higher
physical stages in a mine design, they form eco- NPV, lower life of the mine profits (some wasting
nomic boundaries about which management of resources is inevitable), and shorter mine life.
decisions must be made regarding the mine life For a more complex scenario, other topics such
as assigning capital costs or assessing geological
Other Options risk can be used in the NPV Scheduler.
Once an extraction sequence has been calcu-
lated, it is possible to schedule the pushbacks.
It is possible to schedule either NPV Scheduler- 8.5 Questions
generated pushbacks (default) or another pit
sequence, for example, imported pushbacks. ??Short Questions
With any pushback file, the default topography 55 What are the main types of mining software?
specified by pit optimizer settings can be used 55 List some examples of inexpensive mining
or to designate any other surface as topography. software.
Mine flow optimization is also included in the 55 What is the most famous public domain
NPV Scheduler. It explores the ways of increasing geostatistical software in the history?
638 Chapter 8 · Mining Software
8
639 –
Supplementary
Information
Index – 641
Index
B
–– chemistry of 561 Biogeochemical sampling 168
–– formation 561–563 Bituminous shales 73–74
–– impacts 563–564 Bit wear index (BWI) 184
Backfilling process 378
–– management of 565 Black powder 397
Backhoe configurations, hydraulic
–– prediction and mitigation 564–565 Black smoker 58
excavators 329
Acid rock drainage (ARD) 560 Blasting
Ball mills 452–454
Acoustic televiewer probe 161 –– cast 348, 349
Bamboo Pavilion 592
Adits 366 –– cushion 411
Banded iron formation (BIF) ores 53,
Aegis 624 –– dangers 413
111
Aerial photographs 139, 140 –– delay 411
Barrick Gold 44
Aeromagnetic interpretation 149 –– sampling grid 229, 230
Base metals 78
Aggregates 84–85 –– surface (see Surface blasting)
Bathopele mine 370
Aguablanca mine 91–92 –– underground 412–413
Bench compositing 247
Aguas Teñidas Block caving 313, 314, 316, 388–391
Beneficiation method
–– polymetallic sulfide mine 378–380 Block kriging 280
–– concentrate stream 467
–– processing plant 425, 426, 489–494 Block matrices 268, 269
–– dense medium separation 434–435,
–– underground mine 359, 360, 364, Bond’s theory 442
481–483
365 Bond Work Index 442
–– electrostatic separation 435,
Airborne contaminants 569–570 Borehole
498–501
Airborne geophysics 158–159 –– geophysical logging 159–161
–– froth flotation 483–484
Aitik mine 394 –– probers 325
–– bubbles in 435
Albazino-Amursk gold processing –– surveying 192, 194–195
–– circuits 488–494
plant 506–508 Borehole Manager 619–622
–– column flotation cells 494–495
Alkali-vapor sensors 151 Bouguer anomaly map 148
–– designs 495–496
Alpine type 53 Box and whisker plot 175
–– impeller 494, 495
ALS CoreViewer 619 Bre-X Affair 21–22
–– Jameson cell 495
Aluminum 79 Brine deposits 112–113
–– mechanical cells 494
Ambatovy nickel mine 345–346 Broken Hill-type deposit 152
–– modeling and simulation
–– biological monitoring 604 Brownfield exploration 123
methods 496
–– high-biodiversity area 602, 604 Brundtland Commission 542–543
–– principles 484–486
–– mine site 604 Bucket wheel excavator (BWE) 328–329
–– reagents 486–487
–– physical environmental monitor- Bulk density 260–261
–– stages 488
ing 602, 604 Bulk sampling 235–236
–– gravity concentration 434
–– pipeline 604 Butterfly park 591
–– centrifugal gravity concentra-
AMD. See Acid mine drainage (AMD) BWE. See Bucket wheel excavator (BWE)
tors 481
American Mineral Security Act By-products 253
–– concentration ratio 473
(2015) 36 –– density 473
Ammonium nitrate and fuel oil
(ANFO) 398, 400–402
–– flowing film 473
–– history 473
C
Amulsar deposit evaluation 283–287 –– jigging 473–475 Cabárceno natural park (Santander,
Anchored rockbolts 369 –– Los Santos scheelite processing Spain) 539–540
ANFO. See Ammonium nitrate and fuel plant 478–481 Caliper geophysical borehole
oil (ANFO) –– shaking tables 473, 476–478 logging 159
Aqueous extraction 352–356 –– spiral concentrators 474–476 Canopy jacks 372
ARD. See Acid rock drainage (ARD) –– stratification 473 Carbonate rocks 85, 87–88
Asbestiform minerals 565–566 –– hydrometallurgy 501 Carbon Leader Reef (CLR) 386
ASTER imaging 208 –– leaching 503–508 Cash flow analysis
Atacama copper project explora- –– metals, examples of 502 –– components 296
tion 208–210 –– SX/EW process 509–512 –– inflation 298–299
Atmospheric leaching 503 –– magnetic separation 435, 496–498 –– IRR method 297, 298
Atomic absorption spectrophotometry –– ore sorting 467 –– money, time value of 295–296
(AAS) 171, 172 –– handpicking 434, 468 –– net present value 296–298
Attrition 441 –– sensor-based ore sorting 468–472 –– PP method 298
642
Index
Cast blasting 348, 349 Continuous miners 369, 377, 385 Cushion blasting 411
Cause-effect models 136 Contour methods Cut and fill method 381–384
Cavex hydrocyclone 466 –– graticule method 270–271 Cutoff grade (COG)
Caving methods –– grid superimposition method 268– –– definition of 254
–– block caving 388–391 269 –– geological/technical measure 255
–– longwall mining 384–387 –– magnesite average thickness 268, –– in gold 256
–– sublevel caving 387–388 270 –– maximum NPV 256
Cement 85–88 –– moving window method 270 –– minimum mining grade 256
Centrifugal classifiers 465–466 Contour mining 349, 350 –– operating costs per ton 256
Centrifugal gravity concentrators 481 Conveyor belts 376, 386, 390 –– ore and waste, discriminating
Ceramic tiles 88–89 Cooljarloo heavy mineral sand mine between 254, 255
Chandala heavy mineral sands –– native seed distribution 593–594 –– sustainable development 257
processing plant 499–501 –– rehabilitation monitoring 593, 595 –– underground mining method 255
Channel sampling 231–232 –– subsoil reconstruction 592–593 Cyclic excavation systems 327–328
Chip sampling 233 –– tailings landforming 592–593 Cyprus type 53
Chi-square test 248, 249 –– topsoil
Chromite deposits 90–91
Chuquicamata copper mine 97–98
–– placement 593
–– stabilization 593–594 D
Classifiers 463 Copper assays 216 Data interpretation
–– centrifugal classifiers 465–466 Copper concentrates –– bivariate methods 177
–– gravitational classifiers 464–465 –– grade and recovery 429, 430 –– box and whisker plot 175
Clay rocks 88–89 –– penalties 427–429 –– cluster (dendrogram) analysis 181
Closed-basin lithium-brine deposits 113 Copper open-pit mine 336, 358 –– contoured plans and profile 176–177
Cluster analysis (CA) 179, 181 Coproducts 253 –– correlation coefficients 177–179
Coal 74–75 Core Shed Management 624 –– cumulative frequency plots 175–176
Coalition for Eco-Efficient Comminution Coringa gold project 226–228 –– discriminant analysis 181–182
(CEEC) 441 –– drilling 206–208 –– factor analysis 180–181
Coal strip mining 349 –– geophysical surveys 206 –– geostatistical techniques 176
Coarse kimberlite rejects (CKR) 599 –– rock and soil sampling 206 –– histograms 175, 176
Cobalt 79 Crack width meters 325 –– multi-element indices 179–180
Cobre Las Cruces copper mine 344–345, Cretaceous granites 209 –– multiple linear regression 179
509–512 CRIRSCO International Reporting –– multivariate methods 179
Codelco 45 Template 22–24 –– multivariate statistical tech-
Coefficient of variation (CV) 174 Critical Material Stock Piling Act 34 niques 173
COG. See Cutoff grade (COG) Critical raw materials –– non-mineralized Earth materials 173
Cokriging 281 –– definition 36 –– PCA 180
Column flotation cells 494–495 –– demands and prices, increase in 34 –– probability plots 175–176
Commercial software 618–619 –– dramatic changes 34 –– Q-Q plots 175–176
Comminution –– EU list 36–37 –– regression analysis 178
–– crushing (see Crushing) –– EU report 36 –– SPSS 174
–– energy for 441–442 –– increased vulnerabilities 34 –– Statgraphics 174
–– fracture and breakage 440–441 –– primary supply 34 –– summary statistical tables 174–175
–– grinding (see Grinding) –– structural scarcity 34 –– threshold values 174
–– objective of 440 –– technical scarcity 34–35 –– triangular diagrams 179
–– purpose of 432 –– volatile markets and pricing 34 –– univariate methods 174
–– size reduction circuits 456–458 Cross-sectional methods 263–265 –– X-Y plots 177
Compositing 246–248 Cross-validation process 281–283 Data inversion 146–147
Compression 440, 441 Crown pillar 325, 359 Datamine 392, 618
Cone crushers 444, 448–449 Crushing –– fusion/geological database
Construction and demolition waste –– cone crushers 444, 448–449 management system 624–625
(CDW) 39 –– energy consumption 432 –– NPV Scheduler 634–637
Consumption –– gyratory crushers 444, 447, 448 –– studio OP 631–634
–– conflict minerals 33 –– impact crushers 449–451 –– studio RM 625–631
–– demand forecasting 31 –– jaw crushers 444, 446, 447 DCF. See Discounted cash flow (DCF)
–– fixed stock paradigm 31 –– metal detection 444 method
–– global material extraction 30–31 –– primary crushing 443 De Beers 44
–– Hubbert peak theory 32 –– roll crushers 449, 450 Declines 367
–– low-carbon mining technologies 33 –– secondary crushing 443–444 Deep-sea tailings placement (DSTP) 527
–– mineral depletion 31 –– tertiary crushing 444 Delay blasting 411
–– opportunity cost paradigm 31 Crustiform quartz 210 Dendrogram analysis 181
–– phosphorus and potassium 31 CSMine software 616, 617 Dense medium separation (DMS)
Continuous excavation systems 327, 328 Cullinan diamond mine 388–390 434–435, 481–483
643 C–E
Index
Densified tailings 525–526 –– diamond drilling 231, 237–239 –– business risks 299–300
Deposit density modeling 134 –– economic mineralization 182 –– economic risks 300
Deposit models –– exploration drilling 182 –– Monte Carlo simulation 302, 303
–– descriptive model 132 –– explosive initiating systems –– political risks 300
–– genetic models 134–135 –– detonators 404–405 –– scenario analysis 301–302
–– geoenvironmental models 136 –– initiation transmission line 403–404 –– sensitivity analysis 300–302
–– grade and tonnage models 132–134 –– industrial explosives types –– technical risks 300
–– occurrence probability models 135 –– ANFO 401–402 Economic model 635
–– quantitative process models 135 –– dynamites 400–401 EDA. See Exploratory data analysis (EDA)
–– utilization 131 –– emulsions 402–403 Efemcukuru gold mine 381–383
–– volcanogenic massive sulfide –– slurries and water gels 402 EIA. See Environmental impact
deposits 130 –– logging 195–197 assessment (EIA)
Descriptive-genetic models 136 –– production drilling 182 Ekati diamond mine 343–344
Detergents 82 –– properties, explosives –– annual cover crop trials 598
Detonating cord 403 –– density 400 –– drilling 201–203
Detonators 404–405 –– detonation velocity 398–399 –– geophysical surveys 201
Dewatering –– sensitivity 400 –– glacial till topdressing 599
–– filtration 436, 515–518 –– strength 399–400 –– indicator mineral 201
–– objective of 512 –– water resistance 400 –– LLCF 596
–– partial dewatering 512 –– reverse circulation drilling 183, –– natural colonization 599–600
–– sedimentation 436, 512–515 186–187 –– plant species trials 597–598
–– thermal processing 518, 519 –– rock drillability 183–184 –– soil amendment trials 598–599
DHLogger software 624, 625 –– rotary drilling 183, 187 –– vegetation/rock plots 597
Diagenetic deposits 113–116 –– samples 183 –– wildlife observations 600
Diamagnetism 149 –– selection method Electrical cable shovel 329
Diamond core (DC) drilling 183, 187–191 –– confidence factor 185–186 Electrical methods 153–155
Diamond deposits 93–95 –– cost factor 185 Electric detonators 404–405
Diamond drilling 231, 237–239 –– time factor 185 Electrodes arrangement 154
Digital survey instrument 216 –– sonic core drilling 191, 193–194 Electromagnetic (EM) airborne
Digital terrain model (DTM) 629, 633–635 –– surface blasting survey 158
Dilution 317–319 –– blast design, pit walls 411–412 Electromagnetic (EM) induction 155
Direct measurement techniques 325 –– blasthole angle 408 Electromagnetic (EM) methods 155–157
Discounted cash flow (DCF) –– blasthole diameter 407 Electromagnetic (EM) survey 123, 201
method 295, 296 –– blasthole pattern 410–411 Electronic detonators 404–405
Discriminant analysis (DA) 179, 181–182 –– delay times and blast timing 411 Electron microprobe 172
Dishaba mine 371 –– free faces 407–408 Electrostatic plate separators (ESP) 499
Dispatch System 326, 327 –– spacing and burden 408 Electrostatic separation (ESS) 435, 498–501
Distribution, mineral resources –– stemming 409–410 Emulsions 402–403
–– average crustal abundances and –– subdrilling and decking 408–409 End-of-life scrap 40
concentration factors 27–28 –– underground blasting 412–413 Energy
–– ECR 29 Drilling rate index (DRI) 184 –– for comminution 441–442
–– element abundance 27 Drones 140, 141, 159 –– commodities
–– Lasky’s law 29–30 DTH method 395 –– bituminous shales 73–74
–– McKelvey reserve-abundance DTM. See Digital terrain model (DTM) –– coal 74–75
relationship 28–29 Dust generation control 335 –– natural gas 71–72
DMS. See Dense medium separation (DMS) Dynamites 400–401 –– petroleum 68–71
Dow Jones Sustainability World Index –– tar sands 72–73
(DJSWI) 543 –– uranium 75
Downhole composites 247
Down-hole electromagnetics
E Energy resources of Australia (ERA) 595
Enhanced Production Scheduler 624
(DHEM) 156 Earth Resources Technology Satellite Environmental impact assessment
Dredging process 352, 353 (ERTS) 138 (EIA) 21
Drillhole data 625–628 Economic evaluation, mining project –– assessing environmental impacts
Drilling –– cash flow analysis methods 582–583
–– auger drilling 191, 192 –– components 296 –– definition 581
–– blasthole –– inflation 298–299 –– global decision-making proce-
–– percussive drilling 395–396 –– IRR method 297, 298 dure 581
–– rotary drilling 396–397 –– money, time value of 295–296 –– government agency 585
–– blasting instruments 406 –– net present value 296–298 –– impact analysis and prediction 582
–– borehole surveying 192, 194–195 –– PP method 298 –– interdisciplinary and multistage
–– dangers, blasting 413 –– Matawinie project 303–306 process 581
–– DC drilling 183, 187–191 –– risk analysis –– matrix method 583–584
644
Index
Hazardous substances management Indicator kriging (IK) 280–281 Iron oxide-copper-gold (IOCG)
(cont.) Induced polarization (IP) 145, 154, 204 deposit 103
–– radioactive minerals 566–567 Inductively coupled plasma mass IRR. See Internal rate of return (IRR)
–– silica minerals 566 spectrometry (ICP-MS) 171, 172, 201 ISO 14001 standard 541–542
–– sodium cyanide 567 Inductively coupled plasma optical Isosurface diagram 623
–– solvents 567 emission spectrometry (ICP- ITL. See Initiation transmission line (ITL)
–– thiosulfates and polythionates 567 OES) 171, 172
J
Health impact assessment (HIA) 588 Industrial explosives
Heap leaching 505–506 –– ANFO 401–402
Heave/gas energy 393 –– dynamites 400–401
Jabiluka uranium mine reclama-
Heavy media separation (HMS). See –– emulsions 402–403
tion 595–596
Dense medium separation (DMS) –– slurries and water gels 402
Jameson flotation cell 495
Heavy mineral sands dredging 352, 353 Industrial minerals
Jaw crushers 444, 446, 447
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) 84 –– applications 82–84
Jigging 473–475
High-gradient magnetic separators –– clustering of commodities 81
(HGMS) 497–498 –– fluorite 80
High-intensity magnetic separators
(HIMS) 497
–– mica 80
–– synthetic minerals 81
K
High-pressure grinding rolls –– talc mine at León (Spain) 80 Kazakhmys 44
(HPGR) 449, 450 –– trade value of 81 Kelsey jig 474, 475
Histogram 175, 176, 620, 622 –– valuable economic raw materials 80 Kieselguhr 400
Horizontal loop electromagnetic (HLEM) Industrial rocks 84 Kişladağ gold mine 347
survey 204, 212 –– aggregates 84–85 Kimberley mine 94–95
Hoskold method 295 –– carbonate rocks 85, 87–88 Kimberley Process Certification Scheme
Hubbert peak theory 32 –– characteristics of 84 (KPCS) 293
Hydraulic classifiers 464 –– clay rocks 88–89 Kimberlite indicator mineral (KIM) 201
Hydraulic excavators 329 –– ornamental rocks 85–86 Klaza gold-silver-(lead-zinc) project
Hydraulic fracturing 73–74 Inexpensive software 616–617 exploration
Hydraulic mining 352, 354 Infill drilling 392 –– drilling 199–200
Hydrocyclones 465–466 Infiltration mineral deposits 108–109 –– geophysical surveys 198–199
Hydrogeochemistry 167 Inflation 298–299 –– soil sampling 197–198
Hydrogeological model 322 Initiation transmission line (ITL) 403–404 Koh-i-Noor diamond 95
Hydrometallurgy 501 In-line pressure jig (IPJ) 474 Krige program 617
–– leaching 503–508 In-pit crushers systems 332, 333 Kriging 262
–– metals, examples of 502 In-pit tailings disposal 524–525 –– block kriging 280
–– method 316 In situ leaching (ISL) 75 –– BLUE, determination of 276
–– SX/EW process 509–512 Institute for Environment and –– cokriging 281
Hydrothermal ore deposits Development (London) 544 –– cross-validation process 281–283
–– gold deposits 103–104 Instrument calibration errors 244 –– estimation errors 278
–– IOCG deposits 103 Integration error 242 –– estimation variances 279
–– PCDs 97–99 Interest in in-pit crushing and conveying –– grade value 278
–– SEDEX deposits 101–103 (IPCC) 331, 332 –– implications 279–280
–– vein deposits 104–106 Internal dilution 318 –– indicator kriging 280–281
–– VMS deposits 99–101 Internal rate of return (IRR) 17, 297, –– lognormal distributions 280
Hydrothermal processes 66–68 301, 302 –– ordinary kriging 278
International Council on Mining and –– point kriging 280
Metals (ICMM) 537, 544–545 –– standard deviation estimates 279
N
–– visual impact 548–549 cycle 556–557
–– waste rock dumps 551 –– global responsibility 557
–– revegetation –– potential impacts 558–559
National Aeronautics and Space
–– biosolids 579 –– practices 559–560
Administration (NASA) 138
–– mine soil selection 575 –– precipitation 557
National Code 25–26
–– physical/chemical modifica- –– slurry transportation 556
National Environmental Policy Act
tion 575 –– surrounding surface and
(NEPA) 1969, 588
–– placement procedures 575 groundwater quality 557
Natural gas 71–72
–– planting techniques 576–578 Mining project evaluation
Neolithic flint mine, Casa Montero 7–8
–– prevent dust generation 574 –– geological/engineering and
Neptunism vs. plutonism 53–54
–– reclaiming mined lands 574 economic analysis
Nested pits 342
–– reduce erosion 574 –– cash flow analysis (see Cash flow
Net present value (NPV) 17, 256,
–– seedbed preparation 578–579 analysis)
296–298, 634–637
–– seed collection and purchase 578 –– feasibility study 289, 293–295
–– Monte Carlo simulation 302, 303
–– significantly increase evapotranspi- –– Hoskold method 295
–– sensitivity 301, 302
ration 574 –– Matawinie project 303–306
Net smelter return (NSR) 430, 431
–– species selection 575–576 –– Morkill method 295
Newmont Mining 44
–– SIA –– pre-feasibility study 289, 291–293
New scrap 40
–– definition 587 –– risk assessment (see Risk analysis,
New York Mercantile Exchange
–– good practice 587 mining project)
(NYMEX) 43
–– Mackenzie Valley gas pipeline –– scoping study 289–291
Nickel (copper) deposits 91–92
case 588 –– mineral investments 288
NI 43-101 technical report 25–26
–– phases of 588–589 –– resource vs. industrial companies 288
Nitroglycerin 397
–– social license to operate –– risk 288
Noise management 571
–– definition 546 –– time, effects of 288
Non-electric detonators 405
–– exploration stage 546 Mining software
Nonferrous exploration 124, 125
–– normative components 546 –– datamine
Nongovernmental organizations
–– phases of earning 547–548 –– fusion/geological database
(NGOs) 537
–– site-specific basis 546 management system 624–625
Nonmechanical sedimentation
–– transcend approval 546 –– NPV Scheduler 634–637
classifier 464, 465
–– subsidence 571–573 –– studio OP 631–634
Norilsk Nickel 44
–– sustainable development –– studio RM 625–631
Normalized difference vegetation index
–– Brundtland Commission 542–543 –– RockWorks
(NDVI) 599
–– definition 542 –– Borehole Manager 619–622
NPV. See Net present value (NPV)
–– Equator Principles 543–544 –– utilities 622–623
NPV Scheduler 634–637
–– global review 544 –– types
–– GMI 544 –– commercial software 618–619
–– ICMM principles 544–545
–– optimum balance 543
–– inexpensive software 616–617
Minor metals 79
O
–– quality of life 543 Minor Metals Trade Association Obsolete scrap 40
–– web pages 544 (MMTA) 79 Oil shale 73–74
–– visual impact 573–574 Mirnyy (Yakutia, Russia) open-pit Old scrap 40
–– wastes mine 319 Olympic Dam mineral deposit 131, 152
–– environmental adverse effects 551 Mise-À-La-Masse survey (MALM) 204 Open bowl scraper 334
–– loss of productive land 551 Mississippi Valley-type (MVT) Open-pit excavation 320
650
Index
P mine 111–112
Precious metals 78–79
Reclamation. See Mine reclamation
Reconciliation 417–418
Page method 241 Pre-mining capital requirements 315 Reconnaissance exploration 126–127
Palladium (Pd) 79 Pressure leaching 503, 506 Recycling
Panasqueira tungsten mine (Portu- Preston uranium project exploration –– CDW 39
gal) 104–105 –– airborne geophysical surveys 210–211 –– industrial minerals 39–40
Papermaking additives 83 –– biogeochemical sampling 212 –– metals 40–42
Paste fill 379, 380 –– drilling 212 –– rates, USA 41
Payback period (PP) –– ground gravity surveys 212 –– three R’s 37–38
–– calculations 17 –– in situ radon-in-soil 212 Red waters 562
–– method 298 –– water, sediment and soil sam- Regional magnetic map 126
PCA. See Principal components analysis pling 211–212 Regression analysis 178
(PCA) Pre-stripping 338 Remote sensing 137–139
PCDs. See Porphyry copper deposits (PCDs) Principal components analysis Reocín Pb-Zn mine (Spain) 44, 45,
Pebble mills 455–456 (PCA) 179, 180 114–115
Pegmatite 53, 96–97 Prism monitoring 325 Report Manager 624
Penalty 427–429 Probability plots 175–176 Reserves classification system 4–6
Pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) 398 Process scrap 40 Residual deposits 107–108
Percussive drilling 395–396 Production drilling 182 Resistivity method 154
Petra Diamonds 390 Proton-precession 151 Revegetation
Petroleum 68–71 Pushback mining 342 –– biosolids 579
PGEs. See Platinum-group elements Pushback generator 635–637 –– mine soil selection 575
(PGEs) Pyrometallurgy 501, 502. See also –– physical/chemical modification 575
Photogeology 139–141 Hydrometallurgy –– placement procedures 575
651 O–S
Index
V
Tumbling grinding mills 445, 450, 452 –– design 522
–– AG and SAG mill 454–455 –– downstream method 522–524
–– ball mill 452–454 –– upstream method 522, 523
Vacuum filtration 516–517
–– pebble mill 455–456 –– waste rock dumps 519, 520
–– disk filter 517–518
–– rod mills 452, 453 Water gel explosives 402
–– drum filter 517
–– tumbling action 452 Water management
–– horizontal belt filter 518
Tumela mine 372 –– AMD (see Acid mine drainage (AMD))
Vario program 617
Tungsten 79 –– beneficiation processes 556
Vein deposits 104–106
Tungsten carbide (TC) bits 188, 194 –– dust elimination 556
Venetia mine 365, 366
2D IP inversion model 214 –– employee requests 556
Venetia transition surface to under-
–– global hydrologic water cycle
ground mining 356–357
U
556–557
Ventersdorp Contact Reef (VCR) 386
–– global responsibility 557
Ventilation equipment 365
–– potential impacts 558–559
Udachny diamond (kimberlite) Ventsim 624
–– practices 559–560
processing plant 468–470 Versatile time domain electromagnetic
–– precipitation 557
Ultrafine grinding 446 (VTEMplus) 210
–– slurry transportation 556
Underground blasting 412–413 Vertical crater retreat (VCR) 378
–– surrounding surface and groundwa-
Underground grade control 416–417 Very low-frequency electromagnetic
ter quality 557
Underground mining (VLF) survey 201
Weighted average cost of capital
–– access Vibrating screens 462–463
(WACC) method 297
–– adits 366 Vibration management 571
Weighting techniques, grade estimation
–– declines 367 Visual resource management
–– compositing 246–248
–– raises 365–367 (VRM) 573–574
–– face sampling and zones of
–– shafts 365 Visual survey 325
influence 246
–– caving methods Volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS)
–– frequency weighting 246
–– block caving 388–391 deposits 99–101, 130
–– length-weighting 245
–– longwall mining 384–387 Volumetrics option 620
–– specific gravity 245–246
–– sublevel caving 387–388
Wet high-intensity magnetic separators
W
–– cutoff grade 255
(WHIMS) 497
–– drilling and blasting (see Drilling)
Wet reverse circulation drilling
–– geotechnical considerations 360,
Wall control blasting methods 344 method 218
362–363
Waste electronic and electrical Wheel tractor (open bowl) scrapers 334
–– load and transportation 367–368
equipment (WEEE) 41 Whittle software 618–619
–– maintenance equipment 363, 364
Waste impacts and management Wireline system 188–190
–– main terms used in 361
–– environmental adverse effects 551 Working benches 337
–– method 314–316
–– loss of productive land 551 World Nuclear Association (WNA) 75
–– at Mponeng 18
–– monitoring 555–557
–– optimization 392
X
–– potential impacts 553–554
–– rock support 368–372
–– sediment, acidity, and contami-
–– supported methods 381–384
nates 551
–– unsupported methods X-ray fluorescence (XRF) 171–172, 196,
–– site selection 554
–– room and pillar 374–377 470
–– surface area 551
–– shrinkage stoping 380–381 X-ray transmission diamond sorter 468
–– tailings management 554–555
–– sublevel stoping 377–380
–– types 552–553
Z
Union Européenne des Producteurs de
–– waste rock dump management 554
Granulats (UEPG) 84
Waste/tailings disposal
United Nations Development Pro-
–– densified tailings 525–526 Z-axis Tipper electromagnetic
gramme (UNDP) 545
–– features 520–521 (ZTEM) 218
United Nations Framework Classification
–– in-pit disposal 524–525 Zinc concentrate penalty 428, 429
(UNFC-2009) 24–25
–– objective 521 Zircons 170