PYRAMID IAS ACADEMY KARAIKUDI IRRI JN ENGIN] ‘Soil plant water relationship-water requirement of crops-irigation methods. Imigation efficiencies, Water logging — The total quantity and the way in which a crop requires water ,from the time it was sown to the time it is harvested Depends on climate , type of soil , method of cultivation and useful rainfall Crop period (or) base period: > Crop period - Time period from instant of sowing to instant of harvesting, > Base period -Time between first watering, of crop after sowing to its last watering > Quantity duty : Expressed in hectares /million cubic metre of water available in reservoir Discharge values : Branch canals Q>30 Distributary Q<30 Minor Q<25 Importance of duty : > Helps in designing an irrigation system icient canal Seasonal Crops: ‘Two principal croppi ere in India: before harvesting apes inter crops Duty and Delta: 18 October to 31+ march > Delta: Total depth of water required by > Wheat barely gram , linseed , the crop for its full growth. mustard , potatoes > Duty-Aren irrigated per cumec of Kharf crops requites about two to three discharge running for base period of ey Ce CS required by i crops i A” + cmtpatna tc extending over both the season. Rice Definitions: Sugarcane re, 1. Kharif -Rabi ratio: The area to be Wi irrigated for rabi crop is generally more than that of kharif crop . Relation between di Ratio : 1:2( generally) A= 8.64B/D metres’ Duty at, pl ay Order of 2 Main sail rs in hectares/cumec Paleo irrigation : ‘Moistening with water when soil may be too dry to sown easily 3. Kor-watering: First watering given to a crop when is a few centimeters high. Rice -19 cm Wheat -13.5.m Sugarcane -16.5 cm Kor-period : Limited period for kor-watering, Rice-2 to 4 weeks Wheat- 3 to 8 weeks 5. Crop rotation: TI FLOOR, BRK CONTE ROADSRIRAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 94864 31610,99521 60010, Emalpyrami_academyayahoncom sw ptamidiasacadery Blogspot com.@ > Cultivation of different crop varieties in rotaion to increase the fertility of soil and the overall crop yield. Consumptive use (CU) or Evapotranspiration : Total amount of water used by plant in transpiration and evaporation from adjacent soils. Effective rainfall(Re): Precipitation falling during growing period of crop available to meet the evapotranspiration needs of the crop is. effective rainfall > Does not include percolation losses and surface runoff Leguminous crops: > Leguminous crops are those which help in giving nitrogen content to the field ‘and hence used in crop rotation Eg. Gram,Hemp etc ‘Cosumptive irrigation requirements (CIR): Amount of irrigation water required to ‘meet the evapotranspiration needs of crop. CIR=CU-Re Net irrigation requirement(NIR): Irrigation water required to meet evapotransiration as well as leaching NIR=CU-Re+water lost as percolation Field irrigation requirement : FIR=CIR/ma ne application efficiency Gross irrigation requirements : GIR=FIR/n tle conveyance efficiency ctiddle equation eaves class A pan evaporation method () Blaney criddle equation: Cu= (KP/40)[1.8t*32] K-crop factor temperature p-monthly percent of annual day light hours (Gi) Hargreaves class A pan evaporation method : Cu=KE, E,-{pan evaporation) metres Ya-dry unit weight of soil d-depth of root zone Fefield capacity Yo-Unit weight of raw water Permanent wilting point: > Water content at which plant can no longer extracsufficient water for its growth Available moisture : = field capacity ~permanent wilting point Readily available moisture : = 75 to 80 % of available moisture Soil moisture deficiency : > Water content required to bring soil moisture content to field capacity . TITFLOOR, B&R COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRIRAMNAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 9486 31610,99521 60010, Email pyramid academy @ yahoo.com wo pamiinseadem blogspot,METHODS OF IRRIGATION Surface Subsurface Sprinkler irrigation irrigation irrigation Flopding. Furrowing fone Wild Flooding Controfled Flooding Etee) Contour Border Check Basi Zig-zag Flooding laterals Strips flooding flooding Surface irrigation method sh other by low levels or bunds and each tis the common type of irrigation. surface irrigation method, since wate i applied to the field in varied quantities ant different times, the flow remains yastegdy. ‘The method involves dive Yom of water from the head of the t = iNQur) ws or borders. Wild flooding: ‘Also call fed flooding; In this method water yer the smooth or flat field wi \trol over the flow or prior pi 1 is allowed either on Eontoyr ohup vlled ling: Frodqooding: tis Spcalled ordinary flooding, When water is in ‘abundance and cheap this flooding method is adopted. The irrigation operation begins at the higher area and proceeds towards the lower levels. This is suitable for high value crops and used for crops like cotton. ips is supplied water by the field channel. Flooding from field channels : > Land is divided into strips by series of channels or laterals and the strips are supplied water form these field channels it 4e > Suitable for flat as well as relatively steeps slopes or levees method: Most common method ‘Also called method of irrigation by plots. Land is divided into small plots surrounded by checks or levees. Checks Basin method: > Suitable for fruit trees 111 FLOOR, BRK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD. SRIRAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 94864 31610,99521 60010 mail pyramid_academy@yaboo sien ‘woe poramifasiadem/blopspoteon> a basin is created surrounding each tree and field channel supplies water to the basin. Sis 2D vasin x Figure ‘Basin Method Zig-Zag Method: It is a special method of flooding suitable for level fields. In this method, land is divided into square or rectangular plots and further subdivided with low level bunds. Water enters at the upper end of plot and follows circuitous route to reach the tail end of the plot when the supply is cut off Furrow method: It is the common method of growing row crops. A furrow consists of narrow ditch between rows of crops. Water is applied in small streams between rows of crops grown on ridges or in furrows. For distribution of water to the furrows, the main ditch is placed on the higher side of the field. Contour farming: It is adapted to hilly areas with steep slopes and quickly falling contours. Also controls erosion due to rain. Sub surface irrigation method: = water is applied below the ground surface directly to the root zone of the plant, by pipe network. - evaporation losses are reduced. eg: Drip or trickle irrigation Drip or Trickle irrigation: latest method of irrigation, getting popular -water is applied to the land surface near the base of the plants by a network of plastic pipes (PVC pipes)and drip nozzles called emitters or drippers. require a pumping unit, pipeline and emitters has highest water application efficiency( as = suitable or areas where there is water scarcity and salt problems (salinelands) evaporation loss is reduced and deep percolation is avoided. Sprinkle irigation method: Water is applied in the form of spray by pipes and nozzle system. Erosion of soil is eliminated. Uniform application of water is possible No land preparation is required. Wind may distort the application of water. Power requirement is more for constant pumping of water. vy vy Irrigation efficiency: a) Water conveyance efficiency (7, itis the radio of quantity of water delivered to the field to the quantity of water diverted into the canal system from reservoir. +b) Water application efficiency (1,); Itis the radio of quantity of water stored in the root zone of the plants to the quantity of water delivered to the field c) Water use efficiency (77,): It is the radio of the quantity of water used beneficially including the water required for Teaching to the quantity of water delivered. d) Water storage efficiency (7, ): radio of quantity of water stored in the root zone during irrigation to the quantity of water needed to bring water content of the soil to field capacity. ©) Consumptive use efficiency: Ratio of normal consumptive use of water to the net amount of water depleted from the root DIVE RKS 1) Diversion Head works: Works constructed across the river to raise water level and to diver into the canal and also. for other purposes 1 FCOOR, EK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD SRIRAM NAGAR. KARAIKUDL CONTACT 94864 31610,99521 <0010, Email pyramid ecademy@yaboe com ww: ppramiasaeademybogspt com2) Weir: structure constructed across a river to raise its water level and divert into the canal. Usually shutters are provided to increase the storage. Fig 9:18 Pare of weir level(ponding) is accomplished mainly by means of gates. A barrage provides better control on the water level. "| [oe 8 tap 8 areata d 4) Under sluices: Openings provided in the weir wall, located on the same side of the off taking canal. The discharge capacity of the under sluices is greater of i. 2 times maximum discharge of off taking canal ii, Maximum winter discharge iii, 10 to 15% of maximum flood discharge. 1) no special device to control slit entering into the canal is provided, the crest of the under sluices should be at least 1.20 m lower than the crest of the head regulator. D)If the excluder is provided to reduce entry of slit into the canal, the crest of under sluices should be abput 1.80 to 2.0 m below the crest of the head 1. PYRAMID TAS ACADEMY 5) Divide wall: Constructed at right angle to the axis of the weir to separate under sluices form the rest of the weir, to provide clear water to the canal. 6) Breast wall: provided in a canal head regulator above the gates to prevent spilling of water over the gates into the canal during high floods. 7) Silt excluder: It excludes (prevents)silt from entering the canal. It is provided on the river bed in front of head regulator. 8) Silt extractor or silt ejectors: They remove the silt which has already entered the canal from the head. Itis provided in the canal. 9)Fish ladder: To allow migration of fish from U/s to D/s side. > Guide bund and marginal bund are river protection works. 10) Causes of failures of weirs: a. piping or under mining: Progressive erosion in the backward direction (ie.toward sup streamside) + Measures to prevent - Providing sufficient length of impervious _ floor so that path of percolation is increased & exit gradient reduced. ~ Providing sheet piles at U/S and D/S ends of impervious floor b. Uplift pressure: + Measure to resist uplift = Providing sufficient thickness of floor. - providing sheet pile at U/s end. Rupture of floor due to suction caused by hydraulic jump: 11 FLOOR, BER COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD SRIRAM NAGAR KARAIKUDI, CONTACT $3864 31610,99521 60010 mapa sw poramiiascademy Blogspot comRemedies: - providing additional thickness of floor Scour on U/s and D/s 0 weir due to heavy velocity of river flow: Remedies: - Providing sheet piles on U/sand D/s sides much below the calculated scour level - By providing launching aprons on U/s and D/ss0 that stones of aprons may settle into the scour holes. 11) Cross section of weir: 12) Impervious floor: To provide required creep length and to resist uplift pressure on D/sside = small thickness on D/sside. 13) Cut off: To increase creep length: 14) Inverted filter: consists of layers of materials of increasing permeability from bottom to top. It is provided on d/s, after the impervious floor to relieve uplift pressure 15) Launching apron or pervious apron: It is loosely packed stones, to protect the impervious floor and sheet piles scour holes progressing towards the impervious floor and piles. Provided on U/s and D/s sides. 16) Block protection: Provided on U/s side, immediately at the upstream end of impervious floor. ‘Silt Theories: i. Kennedy's Theory ii, Lacey's Theory Kennedy's Theory: i Silt is suspension by eddies formed over 4 channel y- depth of flow 1m crtical velocity ratio= B+ ai, V=-——X_S___ vfae Ss ( Kutters equation) V-- Velocity of flow R- Hydraulic radius S- Bed slop ( Usually 1\2 (HV) N- Rugosity coeff. iv, Garrets diagram for simplified design procedure. = Limitation of kutter’s equation is incorporated in kennedy’s theory. = No equation for bed slope. =Involves trial and error. Lacey’s theory: Lacey developed the regime theory. - Silt is kept in suspension by eddies generated from welted perimeter. ~ True regime, initial regime , final regime - To measure silt grade , Lacey introduced silt factor'f ‘True regime: ~ Channel flow should be uniform «silt grade & silt charge should be constant - Discharge should be constant. Initial regime: = Longitudinal slope, depth attain equilibrium Final regime: ~ Longitudinal slope, depth and width of channel reach equilibrium. Lacey's regime equation: i. Silt factor, f =1.76{d,, d,,~ mean soil particle size in mm. ii. Velocity, V 2% v2] 140 i Wet perimeter, P p=47510 onms iv, Longitudinal slope, $ _—P. 33409" 1 FLOOR, BRK COMPLEX, MAIN ROADSRIRAMNAGAR KARAIKUDL CONTACT $4864 31610,99521 60010 Emai-pyam_ seadem@yaton com ‘ww pyamiiaseademy bgp comvv. Scour depth, R=1. (2) f Limitations: -Regime conditions are theoretical - Equations are derived based on single factor’ = silt charge and silt grade have not been defined properly. - Lacey's equations are empirical. WATER LOGGING Water logging is a condition in which there is excessive moisture in the soil making the land less productive due to lack of circulation of air. ‘The land may be considered water logged when the water table is within 15 to 21m below the ground. Causes of Water Logging: Main causes of water logging are due to: Excessive rainfall in the area Improper drainage of surface runoff Flat ground profile High rate of inflation of water Seepage of water from canals, Excessive irrigation. SaeeNe fects of water logging: ‘Water logging has the following effects: 1. Tt causes anaerobic conditions near the roots of plants. Excess water prevents circulation of air and hence destroys bacteria which require aerobic conditions and other chemicals to live and produce nitrates required by plants. This reduces the yield of crops. 2. It makes cultivation difficult as the water logged areas cannot be easily cultivated. 3. Itcauses growth of wild aquatic plants. 4. It causes salinity of soil 5. It lowers soil temperature which affects the activities of the bacteria It reduces the maturity period of ‘crop resulting in reduction of yield. ‘Measures for preventing water logging: 1. By. providing adequate surface drainage with open drains through which rain water could be quickly disposed off. 2. By providing efficient_under drainage with tile drains at suitable dgpths below the surface. > DR Lowering FS.L. © Using irrigation water reservoirs. 4. By preventing seepage from reservoirs. 5. Pumping surplus ground water from wells. 6, Changing the system of irrigation. Land Reclamation: Land reclamation is a process by which barren unproductive land is made productive ‘The following are the general methods of land reclamation. 1. Leaching: Leaching is a process for reclamation of the saline soil. Some portion of salt is then drained off through the sub- soil drainage system and some portion is removed by surface drainage system. 2. Addition of chemical agent: For improving the alkaline soil a chemical like gypsum is generally added with irrigation water. 3. Addition Waste products: Waste products like ground nut shells, saw dust, ete are added to the alkaline soil and these are very effective in removing g the salinity of the soil. Pumping the salinity of the soil. Some tube wells are sunk within the water logged area and excess water is pumped out CROSS DRAINAGE WORK + A cross drainage work is a structure which is constructed at the crossing of a canal and a natural drain so as dispose of drainage water without interrupting the continuous canal supplies. © Canals along the watershed line generally not require cross. drainge works. ‘Types of cross drainage works: i, Aqueduct (or) Syphonaqueduct: By passing the canal over the drainage. ii Super passage (or) canal siphon: By passing the canal below the drainage. iii. Level crossing & inlets and drainage. By passing the drain through the canal. » Aqueduct: When HEL of drain is below the bed of canal - water flows under gravity |W FCOOR, BRK COMPLE, MAIN ROADSRIRAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 94864 31610,99521 60010 na pyrami academy yahoo om ‘ww pyamidiasaradeny blogspot com> Syphon aqueduct: - When HEL of drain is higher than the canal bed. = water flows under symphonic action. Upstream slope =3:1 Downstream slope =5:1 Canal syphon: ~ FSL of canal is above the bottom of drain through. Bank of HEL, ‘canal Concrete oor Fig Siptien Super Passage Length of water way L=4.75./Q Level crossing/Inlets & outlets: crossing 1. Canal water and drain water are allowed to intermingle with each other. 2. Used when the high flood drainage is large but short lived. 3. Drain & canal is at same level. Inlets & Outlets: = Used when high flood discharge is small- level of drain is equal or slightly higher than the canal ‘ls yi Aqueduct types r -Sides of aqueduct are earthen banks. Type: Sides of aqueduct are earthen banks and are supported on outer sides by retaining wall. Type lll - Canal water carried through masonry (Gr) concrete trough. Hydrological cycle: Hydrological cycle has no beginning or end as the water in nature is continuously kept in circulation. Y The hydrological cycle is the process of transferring the moisture from the atmosphere to the earth and again back to atmosphere by evaporation it as vapour, SUN is the main source of energy for this cycle, The total water resource of the earth is constant Rainfall: > The evaporated vapour may get condensed in different forms such as mist, rain, snow etc., Thus it returns to the earth surface in any one of the these forms. > The water which falls from the atmosphere to the earth surface is called ‘rainfall > Rainfall or precipitation is often classified in accordance with the conditions that produce it. ‘Types of precipitation A) Cyclonic precipitation: It results from lifting of air masses converging into low pressure area B) Convective precipitation: Due to heat, warmer air rises, undergoes cooling and gives precipitation. ©) Orographic precipitation: Moist air mass gets lifted up due to presence of mountain barriers and consequently undergoes cooling and gives precipitation. > The windward side gets heavy rainfall and leeward side gets light rainfall. 10 FCOOR, REK COMPLEX, MAIN ROADSRIRAMNAGAR KARAIKUDL CONTACT 94864 31610,99521 60010 Emailpyramidscadeny@yahoo cor ve pyramidiasicadem blogspot omRunoff: > All the rain that falls on the lands does not flow as overland flow. A. part of it is lost by evaporation, infiltration etc. > The part of the rainfall that flows over the land is called runoff. Ground Water Hydrology: Definition: science that deals with the ‘occurrence, movement and circulation of water below surface of Earth. The water available below the surface of earth is called the “ground water”. AQUIFER It is a water bearing formation of the earth. Tt not only holds the water but yields it in sufficient quantity. Ex: Unconsolidated deposits of sand and gravel AQUICLUDE: It is a geological formation which is essentially impermeable to the flow of water. Te may contain large amounts of water but it will not allow movement of water through it. Ex: Clay AQUIFUGE It is a geological formation which neither contains water nor transmits through it Ex: Compact rock Well: ‘A well water is a hole usually vertical, ‘excavated in the earth for bringing ground water to the surface. Wells may be classified as two types: > Open wells or Dug wells > Tube wells (Open wells or Dug wells: Have comparatively large diameters but low yields and are not very deep. Usually constructed by digging. Walls may be built of brick or stone ‘masonry or precast concrete rings Shallow open wells : ‘These are wells which rest in the top water bearing strata and draw their supplies from the ee ne OK EE, ‘These rest on impervious strata and draw their supplies from the pervious formation lying below the impervious strata through bore holes made in the impervious strata. The yield of deep wells is more than that of shallow wells Yield of open well: The rate of withdrawal or pumping of water from a well without causing failure or drying of itis called yield of well ‘The following testis prepared to determine the yield from an open well: 1a) Equilibrium Pumping test or constant level test b) recuperation test Recuperation test Q, = Specific yield of well in m? per metre head ‘A= Plan area of well in m? T = Time in hours required by the well to recuperate from hy to he thy = Initial depression head in metres ihe= Final depression head in metres (Specific yield of a well is its yield per unit (meter) drawdown) ‘Tube wells: Tube well is a long pipe sunk into the ground intercepting one or more bearing strata, Classification of tube wells: > Cavity type tube wells > Screen type tube wells ‘+ Strainer tube well ‘Slotted pipe gravel packed tube wells > the yield of the tube well generally about 40 to 50 Ips. > A deep tube well may have a ‘maximum yield of 200 liters per sec. > The most commonly used type of tube ‘well in India is strainer type. Tank sluices: FLOOR, BERTON KARAIKUDL CONTACT. $4864 31610.99521 60010 mal psramid_cademy/@yahoo com ww pyramiiascademy Blogspot.+ A tank sluices is an opening in the ee ere eae PYRAMID IAS ACADEMY theough or under the tek bund. Most Successful Institute in In ordinary medium-sized sluice, TNPSC AE Exam masonry culvert with or without Total AE selections from arch roofs are generally Pyramid Academy constructed. 802 selections so far. % In case of very small sluices, 2007 Exam -130 earthen ware or cement orcas iron 2008 Exam -178 Pipes may be used to take the place 2010 Exam -395 ‘of masonry culverts. Such sluices 2013 Exam-94 are called pipe sluices. ‘Toppers ~ 2013 Exam ‘Tank sluices are two types: > Wing wall type > ‘Tower head type Spillways: “ A spillway is a structure Rank 1 M30 Raok3 4375 RankS43475 Rank 36 SovemtPratanhMabukunar constructed at a dam site for - effective disposing off the surplus water from upstream to downstream. 55 sas ahs se ALL THE BEST*** Ornitmior Heteaa Data gltly 41875 417-75 416.75. Feat ‘the Academ 4005 hae, chemeatl > v Extensive and Well Informative cat Classes by highly qualified(from IIT Madras) and experienced technical ~ experts we 1575 ‘ wit a3 43 a2 Complete guidance for written tests ame Ain Theta VAMRAVEL Timely completion of full syllabus = with stressing on vital areas + Well planned test series and regular assessment of performance ¥ + Previous year Question papers will co 1025 92s sons siti i 3 a beduconet Rajat dosnd Dhan Y Model exams will be conducted 11 FLOOR HK COMPLEX, MAIN ROADSRIRAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 94864 31610,99521 0010, Enaitpyeamidacademy@paoncom sew pyamidiaseadeny logspot con