PYRAMID IAS ACADEMY [KUD) STRENGTH OF MATERIALS Direct stress and strain - elasticity - Hook's law - Poisson's ratio - bulk modulus. Shear stress-modulus of rigidity. Analysis of stress and strain compound stress. Strain energy, resilience and strength theories. Bending moment anid shearing forces. Bending stresses in beams, shearing stresses in beams, deflection of beam, fixed and continuous beams. Combined direct a ending stresses. a struts, terion of ‘shafts, springs, thin and thick cylindrical and spherical shal, Reed ots. an SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS 4a) Strength: The ability of a part or element of a structure to resist failure, 1b) Stiffness : The ability to resist deformation. Assumptions made in strength of Materials: ‘)The material of a body has a solid continuous structure, ») Within limits of the part of the body the material is homogeneous and isotropic. Homogeneous: A body is said to be homogeneous if it has identical properties at all points in identical directions, Isotropic: A material is said to be isotropic, if at any point it has identical elastic properties in all directions. «) There are no internal forces in a body prior to Toading. 4d) Principle of super position is valid. (itis valid only when the deformations are small compared to dimensions of body and deformations are linear functions of acting force.) ¢) Saint Venant's principle is valid. 3, Stress : The internal resistance offered by the body against the deformation is called stress ‘mathematically . ‘Stress = Force/Area (i) Normal or direct stress: The stress due to an axial force. It may be either direct tensile or compressive. o=p/A (ii) Shear stress : The tangential force per unit area T=E/A > shear force applied CODE: SOMMECH2OI3 Bearing Stress: It is the contact pressure between separate bodies. Bending Stress: Can be Bending (flexural) tensile or compressive stresses. Bending Stress fi= M/Z where Z - Section Modulus Stress due to Torsion : Torsion or twisting moment results in torsional shear stress. fom] Zywhere 2, is polar modulus 4. Strain (i) Longitudinal Strain (or) Direct Strain ( ‘The deformation per unit length caused by normal force in its direction. (i) Shear Stean(y: Cry In case of tangential force (shear force on a plane), ‘change in angle measured in radius is called shear (ii) Volumetric Strain : Ratio of change in volume to the original volume. Iti also known as Dilation. B= VV 5. Hooke's Law ; Stress is directly proportional to strain, within elastic limit (strictly speaking, upto limit of proportionality) oae , o=Ee The above is valid for uni-axial force only. 6, Stress Strain Diagrams = TI FLOOR, BER COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD SRIRAM NAGAR TKARAIKUDE CONTACT. 94864 31610a) For ductile materials : A ductile material is one having a relatively large tensile strain up to the point of rupture. () Mild steel: It has a specific yield point. Stan —> Proportional limit Elastic limit : Upper yield point D: Lower yield point DE: Yielding or plasticity zone EF: Strain hardening zone FE Ultimate stress FG: Necking zone G Rupture stress (or) breaking stress EG’: Truestress strain curve corresponding to EG - Upper yield pointing unreliable. It varies with the shape of specimen rate of loading, Hencegenerally not considered as yield stress. ~ Lower yield stress isa reliable one and hence considered as yield stress of mild steel. ‘Nominal stresses strain curve : The curve based on. original area of cross section of specimen while calculating various stresses ‘True stress strain curve : Curve based on actual area ‘of specimen at the same instant, a force is applied to calculate stresses. Gauge Distance : While a specimen is being tested to an increasing force a change in length between two points ‘A’ and ‘B’ on the specimen is observed the intial distance between the two points is called ” Gauge Length “ (ji) For Tor steel : Tor steel and aluminium do not have specific yield point . The stress strain diagrams is as follows : When a material such as Tor steel does not have an. obvious yield point and yet undergoes large strains after the proportion limit exceeded an ordinary yield stress may be determined by the offset method. ‘A line is drawn on the stress strain diagram parallel to the initial linear part of the curve (seeing) but is offset by some standard amount of strain, such as 0.002 (or 0.2%). The intersection of the offset line the stress-strain curve (point A in the fig) defines the yield stress. Since this stress is determined by an arbitrary rule and is not an inherent physical property of material, it should be referred to as the offset yield stress, a PYRAMID ADEMY 1 CODE: SOM/MECH2O13 t ‘mom oe o> = ‘b)Brittle Materials: Materials that fail in tension at relatively low values of strain are classified as brittle materials. Examples are concrete, stone. cast iron, glass, ceramic materials and many common metallic alloys. These materials fail with only little elongation after the proportional limit (point A in fig) is exceeded, and the fracture stress (point B) is the same as the \ ultimate stress. High carbon steels be have in a brittle manner, they may have a very high yield stress, but fracture occurs at an elongation of only few percent. Ordinary glass is a nearly ideal _ because it exhibits almost ductility whatsoever. The Stress - strain curve for glass intension is essentially a straight line, with failure occurring before any yielding takes place. 6) Stress - Strain Curve for an Ideal Plastic Material 7. Mechanical Properties of Materials : 4) Elastic Material: A material which regains its ‘original size and shape on removal of stress is said to be clastic material b) Plastic Material: A material which can undergo permanent deformation without rupture is said to be plastic material. This property of the material is known as plasticity. Plasticity is important when a ‘material is to be mechanically formed by causing the material to flow. ©) Ductile Material: A material which can undergo considerable deformation without rupture is said to be ductile material. The major portion of deformation is plastic, 4) Brittle Material : A material which ruptures with little or no plastic deformation is said to be brittle material 4) Set or Permanent set: The deformation or strain remaining in a body after removal of stress is known as permanent set. This is due to plastic property of material ) Elastic Limit : The greatest stress that a material can lake without permanent set on the removal of stress is known as elastic limit. ‘TTFLOOR, BAK COMPLEX, MAIN ROADSRIRAMNAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 54866 31610£) Proportionality Limit : The greatest stress that a material can take without deviation from straight line relation between stress and strain is known as proportionality limit. g) Endurance limit or Fatigue limit : The greatest stress, applied infinite number of times, that a ‘material can take without causing failure is known as endurance or fatigue limit. 1h) Ultimate strength : The maximum stress, a material can take is known as ultimate strength. ‘This is equal to maximum load divided by original area of cross-section. i) Modulus of resilience : The max energy stored per unit volume at the elastic limit is known as ‘modulus of resilience. j) Modulus of toughness : The amount of work required per unit volume to cause failure, under static loading, is called modulus of toughness. The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy without causing it to breakIt is the entire area of stress strain curve upto failure. ) Modulus of rupture: The ultimate strength in flexure tension is known as modulus of rupture. 1) Strain hardening: The increase in strength after plastic zone due to rearrangement of molecules in the material. 1m) Proof Stress: stress which is just sufficient to cause a permanent set (elongation) equal to a specified percentage of the original gauge length. nn) Elastic strain : It is the dimensional change that occur in a material due to the application of loads and disappearance completely on the removal of the Toads. 6) Plastic Straimlt is the dimensional change that occurs in a material due to the application of the Toads and does not disappear after the removal of the loads. p) Ductility and Malleability : The plastic response ‘of material to tensile force is known as ductility and plastic response to compressive force is known as malleability. The elongation and reduction of area of a test piece tested to failure in tension are generally taken as measures of ductility of material. 4) Creep :The long term deflection due to sustained, (constant) loads. 1) Factor of safety : It is defined as follows For Ductile materials, FOS= working stress For Brittle materials, working stress, yield stress / F.OS = ultimate stress / Elastic constants and their relationships: 41) Young's Modulus (B) :The ratio of direct stress (0) to direct (with in limit of CODE: SOMMECH2013 = The slope of straight line part of stress strain curve. = Young's modulus value of few materials: Steel 200GPa; Aluminum 70 GPa ; Brass : 100 GPa; Bronze 80 GPa; Copper 120 GPa; Diamond 1200 GPa 2) Modulus of Rigidity (C, N or G) :The ratio of shear stress to be shear strain C= 1/4 3) Bulk Modulus (K) : When a body is subjected to like and equal direct stresses along three mutually perpendicular directions, the ratio of this direct stress to corresponding volumetric strain is called Bulk Modulus 4, Lateral Strain ; When a structure is subjected to ‘axial load, besides the strain in axial direction there will be lateral strain of opposite nature, in all directions at right angles. ‘Poisson's Ratio When a bar is subject to a simple tensile loading, there is an increase in length of the bar in the direction of the load, but a decrease in the lateral dimensions perpendicular to the load. The ratio of the strain in the lateral direction to that in the axial direction is defined as poison's ratio. Itis denoted by the Greek letter u, For most metals it lies in the range 0.25 to 0.35. One new and unique material, so far of interest only in laboratory investigations, actually has a negative value of Poisson's ratio; ie., if stretched in one direction it expands in every other direction. = lateral strain/linear strain Note: * The maximum possible value of Poisson’s- ratio is 05, for an ideal elastic incompressible material whose volumetric strain is zero. Poisson's ratios for important materials; cork =0; conerete 0.1 to 0.2; glass=0.2 to 0.27; cast iron = 0.2 to 03; steel =0.27 to 0.3; aluminum= 033; brass= 0.34;gold = 0.44; incompressible ‘materials, clay, paraffin and rubber 0.5 Relation between Elastic cons IK(1-2n) AGAR. KARAIKUDL CONTACT 98864 31610E=9KC/(3K+C) u=@K-2CV(6K+C) Foran isotropic material E>K>C_( if u=0.25) Lens 1/3; BK, If wos; EK 7. Number of elastic constants: 4) Isotropic Material : The number of independent elastic constants are TWO (ie, E 1) ») Orthotropic Material : Ifthe material has three ‘mutually perpendicular planes of elastic symmetry itis said to be orthotropic . The number of independent elastic constants is NINE in this case ©) Anisotropic material: Ifa material does not possess any kind of elastic symmetry itis called an isotropic (or) alcotropic It has TWENTY ONE clastic constants. Linear Volumetric Changes of Bodies : Elongation of Bodies : |) Due to external loads : a)Due to direct load-on a prismatic bar (self weight ignored) Biz (PL / AB) byVarying cross section (Composite Beams) : late [(1i/ Av Es) + (2/ Aa Es) + (1b /A0 Bs)] (self weight not considered) TF amt, ME: F uf bea ie EHO ,PePeyts E l=Elongation Zh= Compression Eh= Compression 81 =5ls+B+Bh Algebraically) 4) Tapered Body: ‘Tampering from dia ‘D' tod’ : 81 = (4pL /nE.Dd) (self weight not considered ) P= external load Elongation due to self weight CODE: SOMMECH2O13, (@) Prismatic bar: Elongation of a uniform rod due to Self Weight (W) = (WL / 2 AE) ©) Cylindrical rod:Elongation of a cylindrical rod of dia '‘D'and length ‘L’ due to self weight (yL?/2E) (© Conical rod:Conical rod of diameter 'D' at support and length 'L' and density ‘y= (yP/6E) Volumetric Strains : 4) Rectangular Bar =(61/1) + (6d/d) + (6b/b) ev=eteates ») cylinder rod of diameter ‘d’ and length e=(6/1) + 264/¢) = +20 ©) sphere of diameter a” e1=3. (6d/d)=3.04 ‘Thermal stresses : +t 4)When temperature ot a material changes there will be corresponding change in the dimensions . Temperature stresses are induced only if the deformations are prevented. P=aTE, Where Coefficient of linear expansion ‘T= Change of temperature E= young’ modulus of material b)Compound bars : Let a compound bar consist of two different metal bars ‘A’ and ‘B’. If both are rigidity connected both will be subjected to common deformation Let aA and aB be their due to temperature fall. Ifa > as Due to temperature fall Part A. tension Part B - compression Due to temperature rise Part A - compression Part B - tension General values of ‘at For steel =12 x104/8C Brass = 21 x 10 /2C Copper =17.2x 104/9C ‘Aluminum = 28 x 108 /2C COMPLEX STRESS AND STRAINS (COMPLEMENTARY SHEAR STRESS: For equilibrium t=1’ without ‘Y’ the element will not Element subjected to shear as shown above. As a result of pure shear, one diagonal (AC) will be ‘TTFLOOR, BEK COMPLEX, MAIN ROADSRIRAMNAGAR— KARAIKUDL CONTACT 9486431610subjected to compression and other (BD) tension of ‘same magnitude as that of pure shear stress (t). Note : Linear strain of diagonal is equal to half the shear Strain ie. 1/2C. pu IRE SES ‘APLANE INCLINED AT 8 WITH THE VERTICAL: (Uniaxial Loading) Pa=Peost0— pr=P/2sin20 P= ViR.2+P2) =P cosd 1f8= 45° tangential or shear stress will maximum ‘Maximum tangential stress = P/2 at 0=45" te PI = 0 , when 0= 45° (@i-axial Loading) )When both are like stresses (Ps> y= Pi cost0 + Pasin’0 = (Pr+ Pa)/2 + (Pi-P:)/2 Cos 28 P.= (PIP: )/2sin ‘Maximum shear stress = (Pi-P2 )/2. at 0=45" ‘Across the plane of maximum shear Pa= (Pi+P2)/2 When st cos? 0+ Pisin’ (Pr#P2)/2 sin20 Pras = (PrPa)/2 ike Note: A principal stress (max normal stress on a plane ) is associated with zero shear stress whereas fa plane having max shear stress will have normal stress which is equal to the avg of the applied normal stresses. (PERPENDICULAR L. 4 IMI EAR: (Ci .ESSES eP2)/2 + (PrP2)/ 2 cos20 +q sin 20 »-P2)/ 2 sin2B - q cos28 Gis angle of P, with P, is called obliquity PRINCI vais AND PRINCIPAL PLANES : YRAMID ae ih mH 1 ACADEMY CODE: SOMMECH2013, + Planes across which only normal stress act and no shear stress ‘© The normal stress across the principal plane is. principal stress. Atany point three such planes and corresponding principal stress will be there. Only major and minor principal stresses are generally considered and third. is neglected for 2 D case. ‘© General case : Let 6; and 02 be two normal stresses, (both tensile) and ty be the shear stress. ‘Then principal stresses are o}- maximum principal stress ; o2= minor principal stress oxt oy xt oy |(ae-sy\? . 2 NG) ty ed 1f0,,0;, and os are three principal stresses and all are alike, the principal strains are ea StS VE mE O2_ tos eye Bt eg mE Os _atoe gS me Pmax = Emax — Emin Greatest shear strain is equal to the differenc ‘of major and minor principal strains. MOHR’S CIRCLE: It is a graphical representation for analysis of stresses , strains , moment of inertias I or moh citcle of stress on positive X-axis and normal stress . Sign convention , Normal tensile stress on. positive X-axis and normal compressive stress on negative X-axis. Y- axis represents shear stress ‘Sign convention Clockwise shear on positive Y-axis, side . Anticlockwise shear on negative MOHR’S CIRCLE OF STRESS : A) like stress (P:>P:) Radius of Mohr circle (Pi~ Ps) as i tan DSRIRAMNAGAR, RARAIKUDL CUSTACT $4864 316101b) Unlike stresses ( P;> Pa) Radius= (PitPay2 For Pare shear Condition Dom a ft A a ‘Two perpendicular direct stresses with stat of simple shear : (Piand P; both tensile ) OB=P; OP =P; op=P, DF=% OA=o, OF=o a= (Pi +P2)/2)°+ G2) Note : a) The extremes of Moht's circle on the normal stress axis are the principle stresses. ‘At the centre of Mohs circle angle 20 must be defined with respective the base line on which the dia of Mohr’ circle is defined. ‘The direction of 28 must be similar to that of 8 of the chosen plane . ‘THEORIES OF FAILURE 1. Maximum Principal stress theory or Rankine’s theory onty FOS: ¢HS/LHS Itis valid for Brittle materials like cast iron. Failure envelope is in square shape. 2. Maximum Principal strain theory or St.Venant’s The shape of the failure envelope is Rhomboid, 3.__Maximum Shear _stress__Theory _or Guest,Coulomb tresca’s theory CODE: SOMMECHDOI3, 7% SG 2 2° “The shape ofthe failure envelope is Hexagon and is valid for ductile materials. 4, Maximum Strain Energy Theory or Beltrami and Haigh Theory bees? =z Pee 20s Do chape f the failure envelope is elliptical and is valid for ductile materials. faxim theory _or twa ele eos, ‘The shape of the failure envelope is elliptical [stretched on longer side] and is valid for ductile materials. SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENTS 1. Types of supports ) Movable hinged support (or) simple support (or) Roller support = Support ‘B’ of the fig, shown a side -No bending moment - Free to rotate - Horizontal displacement possible - Only vertical reaction or reaction normal to plane of rolling - Number of independent reaction components =1 +) Immovable Hinged support - Support ‘A’ of the fig. shown above + Free to rotate .. No translation ~ Both vertical and horizontal reactions = No bending moment = Number of independent reaction components =2 t {TER MAIN ROADSRIRAMNAGAR ‘ARAIRUDL CONTACT 9486431610PYRAMID IAS ACADEMY Most Successful Institute in TNPSC AE Exam Total AE selections from Pyramid Academy 2007 Exam -130 2008 Exam -178 2010 Exam -395 In 2010 Exam, 47 selections in Top 50 & All top 20 students are from Pyramid Toppers — 2010 Exam Rank 1294 Rank? 2865 28358 2335 Nimes Aue Unamagewas—-Mutkumar—Moanskth v7 yf 2 a9 ‘Tamlrasn Dera ms” 216 Ranjhkmar Perumal De 276 mas ‘eramainn Natarajan mS a ms m3 Ashok panian Saravana Marup Sesiumat " ©) Fixed Suppo “Support ‘C’ of the fig . Shown a side - Neither rotation no translation Vertical and horizontal reactions and B.M [Number of independent reaction components =3 2. a) Shear f Algebraic sum of all traverse forces ef tor right hand side of a section, (CODE: SOMMECH2013 ») Bending Moment (M) : Algebraic sum of moment of all traverse forces either to the left or right of section SF Left T Left | positive —+Negative Right | Right BM Hogging # ve Sagging = Ve 3. Relation between load SF and BM: a)We dF/dx or F= a widx DFeaM/ax or Formaximum BM., dM/dx =0 Conclusions: 4) Rate of change of SF.D and hence slope of S.D.) is equal to intensity of loading ii)The rate of change of BM (and hence slope of B.M.D) is equal to shear force iii)The change of BM. from ‘O' to to the area of SED. from'O' to's! iv)BM is maximum; when SF,, is zero or changes sign +) Point of contraflexure Point where BM. changes sign and is equal to zero is proportional 5. Variation of S.F and BM for different loadings ‘on spans of beam: ‘Sino | Type Variation | Variation Joading of SF of BM. T | Point toad Rectangle | Inclined line for linear 2 (UDL Linear ‘Square parabola_| 3 (uve ‘oF | Parabolic | Cubic ‘Triangular parabola 7 | Parabolic Cubic Fourth degree of polynomial 3 | Bending couple [No shear [A _vertical variation | step at the point of L __| application 6. Inclined loading : If the external load is not at right angles to the axis of the beam, the loading can be resolved axially and transverse to the beam 4 Transverse : Components (sin 4) produces BM, and. SE, Axial: Component (cos) produces pull or push TEFLOOR, BAK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD SRI RAM NAGAR KARAIKUDL CONTACT 98864 31610‘THEORY OF SIMPLE BENDING: 1. Pure Bending : Only B.M but no S.F Tv Q 2. Neutral layer: The layer does not under go any change in length (na) 3.Neutral Axis: Line of intersection of Neutral layer with plane of cross section -ltpasses through center of gravity of cross section, = The axis where the strain changes its sign 4. Equation of pure bending M/I=F/y =E/R El = Flexural rigidity ‘Curvature = (1/R)=(M/EI) fap™ (M1). ye, fron (4/1). Jo Assumptions: (@ The transverse sections which are plane and rormal before bending remain plane and normal to the longitudinal fibres after bending (Bernoulli's ‘Assumption, (i) Material is homogeneous, isotropic and obeys Hooke's Law and limits of eccentricity are not exceeded (i) Every layer is fre to expand or contract (iv) Modulus of elasticity has same value for tension and compression, (0) The beam is subjected to pure bending, and therefore bends in an arc ofa circle (vi)Radius of curvature is large compared to the dimensions of the cross-section, Other Important Poin of a fibre is proportional to its distance fromneutral axis e= Y/R. (i ‘The sum of all the compressive forces above neutral layer must be equal to thesum of tensile forces below neutral layer. Section Modulus a)M=£0/ extreme fibre) = fz Z=(L/ Y) = Section Modulus ) Significance: It represents the strength the of section. Greater the value of 2" stronger will be the section, lustration :: Solid circular section of equal weight when compared to other section such as rectangle. [- section and hollow circular sections uneconomical in bending as its section modulus will be small and consequently strength in bending. 5. Beam of Uniform strength : Ifextreme fibre stresses (or maximum bending, stress) is samgjat every section along its longitudinal axis, itis sam of uniform strength. (Moment of inertia / Distance of CODE: SOM/MECH2O13 2) SS.Beam with point load 'W at centre To have uniform strength by (keeping width constant and varying the depth, é= oe yWififeacenen (ii) Depth constant width varying : baM b=GWL/2fd2) Note : Please workout the above value for ud.l 6. Beams of Composite Sections: 4) Section made of diferent materials. For determining ‘moment of inertia of composite section, the section is to be transformed into equivalent section using, modular ratio. ex. Let (Ex/Ea)=M ‘The equivalent width = (b+2m.t) (ii) Flitched beam : A timber beam strengthened by steel strips. wT Ar wt MR fy. (Zax) fo { (b-2mt)a? /6] f= mbw" f= E/E bye (Gtrain will be same in both the materials due to bending) “Important Practical Observations: (The rato of moment of resistance of a beam of Square section placed with two sides horizontal toa diagonal horizontal is V2 lL b Hint: (compare the section moduli) (i) A beam of rectangular section isto be cut from’ a circular lag of dia‘. The rato of depth to width for maximumstrength in pure bending is V21 ieh/bA2 ,b=d/AB b= VQ/3)d a (iil) (@) The MLR. of a beam of square section with the diagonal in the plane of bending is by flattening the top and bottom comers as shown in figure. ‘ITFLOOR, BAK COMPLEX MAIN ROADSRI RAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 94864 31610FO For this % increase in section modulus Z= 5.35 % Bending stress would be reduced by 5.35 % ) Circular section : Depth of cutting for improving Z-001d.. AZ=07% 800d (iv) Three beams have same length, same allowable bending stress and are subjected to same maximum bending moment. The cross section of the beams are a circle a square and a rectangle with depth twice the width. Ratio of weight of (rectangle square sirle )=(0.7936:1:1.118) (Hint: Compare section moduli) ‘SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN BEAMS. ‘The shear stress in any section at a distance 'y' from. neutral axis is given by q=(£AV// Ib )Ata distance 'y' from NA. © Where f= shear force at the given section Ay = moment of the area of the section above the level under consideration, b = width of the beam at the level under consideration 1=M. Lof the beam section about the N.A. Shear stress Distribution for Beam sections of various shapes: 4) Rectangular section: ‘Average shear stress qave = (F/bd) ous (4/2) Gave : v ») For Solid circular section goa (4/3) dave CODE: SOMMECHDOI3 qos 3F/bh= (/2)a02 (ahy2) PEAS —p- qatN.A = (@F/3bh) = (4/3) dave 4d) A Beam of square section is placed horizontally with one diagonal placed horizontally quae (9F/42) =9/8)4a04 At3d/8 from top and bottom qatNA=@f/4) «) For -section on™ (B/b) (F/81) (D™2) + (Fa2/81) (ALN.A) — ‘THEORY OF TORSION If moment is applied in a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam (or) shaft, it will be subjected to Torsion. Eg, 1 Shaft transmitting torque or power 2 Lbeams 3. Portico beams 4.Cuved beams 5, Closed coiled springs TORSION 2.TORSION FORMULAE : T/J=C8/I= fe /R Where T- Torque applied O-twist of cross section f- Maximum shear stress due to torsion R- radius of shaft length of shaft J; Polar moment of inertia circular shaft T(D,#-D2')/32 for hollow IIFLOOR, BRK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD; KARAIKUDI, CONTACT. 94864 31610Distribution of shear stress due to Torsion Assumptions: 1 Plane normal sections of shaft remain plane after twisting 2. Torsion is uniform along the shaft 3. Material of the shaft is homogeneous, and isotropic 4, Radii remain straight after torsion. 5. Stress is proportional to strain ic. all the stresses are with in elastic limit Note : 1. The stress setup at any point in a cross section is one of pure shear or simple shear. 2. The longitudinal axis is neutral axis. 3, The shear stress will vary linearly from zero at the centre to maximum at the outer surface (any point ‘on periphery) 3. (a) Torsional section modulus : Z,=J/R= polar moment of inertia / Radius of shaft Unitem? or mm’ As the value of Torsional modulus increases, the Torsional. strength increases. For Eg. A hollow circular shaft compared to that of a solid shaft of same area, will have more Torsional strength. Ti)=f/R — T=65J/R Fora solid circular shaft T=f,/Id}/16 Fora hollow circular shaft T= f,(Ds-Ds4)/16D, D;-Outer diameter D> Inner diameter () Torsional rigidity g Unitkg.em? or Nmm? (6) Angle of twist = T1/C} 4. Power transmitted by a shaft : In SI system (power (P) is measured in watts (W) P=27INT/60 watt where T. Average Torque in kN.m Nerpm P=QINT/45 HP watt =Tjoule/see Nam/see metric HLP =746 watts =0.75 kW Metric system P= 2/INT/4500 HP Where Tsaverage torque in kg.m 5. Design of shaft : To be safe against maximum permissible shear stress Diameter of shaft’d’ = [16T/71f,)"> 6. (a) When two dissimilar shafts are connected together to form one shaft, the shaft is known as composite shaft. (b) Shafts in Series : If the driving torque is applied resisting torque at the other end, ve been connected in series. D 10 CODE: SOM/MECH2013 @ 4 For such shaft (j) Both the parts carry some Torque Ti-lh (i) Total angle of twist at fixed end is sum of separate angles of twist of two shafts. 856482 = TLi/Cih + TLa/Gh (©) Shaft in parallel: (ety- © If the torque “T’ is applied at the junction of two shafts and resisting torque at their remote ends. The shaft are said to be connected in parallel For such a case 6-62; T= Tit Tr ie, 0 Tih/Gifi=T2ke/Caf2 If both the shafts are of same material Ty/Ts =Jila/hly—, O= TL/[Gihs+Cal 7. Combined bending and torsion : 2) Let a shaft be subjected to a bending moment of ‘Mi and twisting moment T” ata sector Now bending stress , f= M/Z = 32M/TId3 Shear stress , q=T/Zp = 16T/T1d? Principal stresses are O1= fu/2 + V{(Fb?/4)+qp) = 16/FId (M+V(M2+T?) ox fy/2 -\f(fo2/8)+q?) = 16/514 (M(NP+T?) tan20 = 2q/fy = T/M max = (01-02)/2 =16/T1d5 Yeers) (&) Equivalent Torque : Is the twisting moment, ‘Which acting along produce the maximum shear stress due to combined bending and Torsion. Te MT? (© Equivalent bending moment : The bending moment to produce the maximum bending stress ‘equal to greater principle stress'0;' Me 44(M VPM) 8. Comparison of Hollow and solid shafts : (@) When the areas of solid and hollow sections are equal. Thotow/Tsaa = (L4K2) / (LK) Where K=r/R of hollow shaft For eg: IfK=0.6 T/T 17 (©) When the radius of solid shaft is equal to external radius of hollow shaft Th/T= LK (©) The ratio of the weight of a hollow shaft solid shaft of equally strong is Wh/Ws = 1-K2/(1-K2)2 and 9, Strain energy due to torsion (a) Ina solid shaft:- U= T?1/2C] = £2/4C x Volume of shaft ‘TTFLOOR, BAK COMPLEX, MAIN ROADSRI RAM NAGAR KARAIKUDL CONTACT 94864 31610(b) For a hollow shaft Us TP1/2C} =( 62/40) (D2 +d 2}/D* shaft (©) The ratio of strain energy stored in a solid shaft and hollow shaft of external dia “D’ and internal dia “a having equal volumes is = D? /(D%-<) x Volume of ‘SPRINGS 1. Spring: A device for storing up energy in the form. of resilience (eg. A spring in a clock) or absorb excess energy (leaf spring). 2. Classification of Springs: a) Torsion Spring: A spring primarily subjected to Torsion or twisting moment. E.G: close coiled helical spring subjected to axial load. ) Bending spring: Primarily subjected to bending, Eg, Leaf or plate or laminated springs. ©) Combined bending and Torsional Spring: Open coiled spring, 3, Close coiled helical spring: Axial Pull (W) = '2)Assumptions: () each turn is practically a plane at right angles tothe axis. of helix {G) stresses in the material are due to ‘Pure Torsion’ ii) Bending couple _—is_ negligible (iv) axial force need not be considered ata section. by Stresses at a section of a rod:- A section of a rod is subjected to direct shear force (W) and a Torque (T=WR) Maximum shear stress (Tmax) = T/Ze + W/A = 6 WR/Nd) -AW/71e) sqewR/may(1+ 4/48} ——() R- Radius of coil, d= dia of circular wire of rod Note: If ‘a’ is small compared to ‘R direct shearing force may be neglected. wn 16WR/JId ©) Equivalent length of shaft of dia'd'=1=201Rn ‘Where n = total number of coils 4) Twist and deflection of free end: ‘Twist = 64 WR?n/cdt , deflection 5-64 WR'n/cd* Stiffness of spring : (6) :- Load required to produce unit deflection S=W/5=cd8 /64 nR the effect of 4, Close coiled helical springs:- Axial couple (M) i= ‘Assumption: The coil having considerable initial curvature behave like a beam of initial zero curvature. Total twist =128 MRn/Ed* Torsional stiffness = M/ = El /2/InR (kg/Cm per radians ) 5, Carriage springs springs) Consist of a number of parallel strips of metal of same width placed one above other . The plates are bent to sor Leaf Springs (Semi elliptic so that they contact only at their u (CODE: SOMMECH2013 Maximum BM = Wa/2_ In order that the radius of ‘each plate after bending may remain constant , bending stress M/I is constant. this is possible only if the ends of the plates are triangular in plan , th thickness being constant Deflection ‘6’ =3W1'/8Enb® Bending stress f= 3WI /2nbt* 6, Springs in series and parallel:- & Ww Paral Ww Series Series :-8=61+52 W/K = W/Ki + W/K 1/K=1/Ki#1/Ke Parallel: W= Wi+ Wa K*Ki+ DEFLECTIONS AND SLOPES 4. Relation between curvature , slope and deflection: a) Curvature = 1/R = M/EL = dy/dx? ~ for -ve BM or Eld’y/dx M —— for BMis +ve Slope O= dy/dx radians B10= ELdy/ dx =IM «) Deflection =y, Ely = [1 M a) Eldty/dxt= | -M /dx = +F ©) Eldly /dxt=dF/dx-+W {) Ifa beam is subjected to pure bending, it bends into an arc ofa circle. ‘8QR-6)=L/2.L/2 =L2/4 6 ML2/sEL @=%R 8=ML/2EI 2. Methods of determining slope and deflection : ‘a) Double integration method -Not suitable for objective type questions ») Area moment method ‘For cantilevers , slopes and deflections can be determined very quickly ©) Conjugate beam method -very much suitable for beams of varying sections , subjected to couples , for cantilevers of SS beams ) Macaulay’s method - Also successive integration method Note: In double integration or Macaulay’s method. two constants of integration C; and C2 will be obtained . These are determined using end conditions THFLOOR, BRK COMPLEX, MAIN ROADSRIRAM NAGAR 'KARAIKUDI CONTACT 94864 31610,3. Mohr's theorem’s : Moment area method : Theoret : The angle between tangents drawn at any two points on the deflected curve , is equal to the area of M/EI diagram between the two points. ie @= area of M /EI diagram = J M/EI dx = A/EL ‘A= area of bending moment diagram Theorem 2 : The intercept on a vertical line made by two tangents drawn at any two points on the deflected curve , is equal to the area of M/El diagram between the two points above the vertical line &= AX/EL BMD EG : (suitable for cantilevers ) - from objective point of view a) Step 1: To determine slope and deflection at any point say B. Step 2: Draw (BMD )/EI je. M/EL st Step 3: Slope = area of (M/ED diagram between fixed end point under consideration . Step 4: Deflection AX/EL, A= BMD area between fixed end point under consideration . [= distance of CG of M/EI from point under consideration . y= ML/EL Ya=M/EL xLxL/2 = 1 = distance of center of gravity of ML?/281 A Mw er 4. Maxwell law of reciprocal deflections: Consider cantilever beam AB. Let ‘C’ be an intermediate point . Then the deflection at ‘C’ due to a point load ‘Pat B say Ycs_is equal to the deflection at ’B’ due to appoint load ‘P’ at C i.e Yac Yec™ Yeu 2 CODE: SOMMECHDOI3 THIN CYLINDERS 1. Definition: Thin cylindrical and spherical shells Def: If the thickness of the wall of a shell (or) cylinder is less than 1/20 of the diameter of the shell vitis treated asa thin shell. 2, Assumption in the case of thin cylinders: 4) The normal stress (tensile or compressive ) ie, hoop stress and longitudinal stress are uniformly distributed over the thickness of wall b) Radial stress will be small and negligible «Thickness is small compared to radius. 4) There is no discontinuities in curves. ©) Bending of the wall of the shell is neglected 3. Stress in thin cylinders: Notations : p= internal fluid pressure ‘other end free 5 | One end fixed, at | L TREI/ other end only later displacement and no rotation @) Limitations of Euler’s Formula: () Buler’s formula can also be written as Fe= TPE/(L/1?= IPE/X? As F and E are constant for particular material Euler's Formula is valid for a particular range of slenderness ratio . for e.g for mild steel whose F = 3800 Kg/cm? and E= 2.1 x 10° kg/em? Euler formula is not valid for slenderness ratio less than 80 (ii) Euler's formula are valid only upto proportional limit ie inelastic zone , the formula are not valid Note : (The relation between slenderness ratio and corresponding critical stress is hyperbolic . (ii) According to Euler formulas the critical load does not depend upon strength property of material the only material property involved is the elastic modulus ‘E’ Which physically represents the stiffness characteristics of the material 7.Rankine’s Formula : itis an empirical formula = Takes into account both direct crushing (P,) load and Euler critical load Pe ie 1/Px=1/Pc +1/Pe Pas Pe-Pe/(Pc+Ps) Basic formula : Pa =fy.A /(1+ a(L/1)2) Where a Rankine's constant L= Effective length f, = Yield stress Rankine's coefficient is independent of geometry and end conditions , can be modified to in corporate imperfections Material Rankine’s constant 4 CODE: SOM/MECHRO13 2500 5500 Wrough iron Cast iron 1/9000 1/1600 Rankine's formula is valid for any type of column . ~ No limitations for slenderness ratio 11. Core/kernel of a cross section : The area within which a direct load to act , 0 as not to cause tension in any part of cross section 4) Rectangular or square : Middle third rule core is an thombus whose diagonals are d/3 and b/3 Area of core bd/ 18 i.e . 1/184 of total area ) (i Solid circular section middle fourth rule = core dia is d/4 (ie , eccentricity limit is d/8 to avoid tension ) and core area is 1/16 of area of circular section (i) Hollow circular section External dia =D (Da9/4D e< (D%d2)/8D to avoid tension . STRAIN ENERGY AND RESILIENCE ‘Definition : If the proportionality limit is not exceeded (ie If hook’s law is valid ) , the work done in straining the material is stored in it, in the form of energy (U) Itis also called as resilience If the elastic limit is exceeded , the work done during non elastic strain is spend in over coming the cohesion of the particles of material , carrying them to slide one over another and the energy expanded 2. Resilience ~ deformation curve : strain energy : = upto proportionality limit deformation varies linearly with the load At time t0 load At time tt , load = Ry , deformation =6 Strain energy = work done U= xR x= %4(0A) cL =1/2 Px Since 6= PL/AE_ , U=P2L/2AE - as a function of tension Pin the bar = AEB?/2L_—- as a function of elongation 6 of the bar =% xstress x strain x volume @/2E x volume ie?/2 x volume (e=strains ) Strain energy is always a positive scalar quantity ie. , strain energy is +ve whether in compression ot tension 3, Proof resilience : ‘The strain energy (or) resilience stored at proportionality limit is called proof resilience (U;) , deformation =0 ‘TOR, BAK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD.SRIRAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 948631610,/2E xV =302/2 xv 4. Modulus of resilience: The proof resilience per unit volume. Itis a property of the material ‘Mod . of. resilience =o? /2E = Ee? /2 Ex. For steel proportionality limit of 2000 kg/cm? ‘modulus of resilience = 1kgem/cm? 5, Strain energy due to different type of loadings: a) Gradual loading : Work done by external load = %4 PS Energy stored in the body = % R5 = ¥2 (0A)6 Equating , stress o= P/A 4 —e 4 Bok ») Impact load ~ A weight ‘P starting from rest , falls through a height ‘hand strikes a flange at the lower end ‘B’ of a prismatic bar of length ‘L’ the upper end A of the bar being fixed “Assumption in the analysis: @) Self weight of bar is negligible compared with that of weight. (i) There is no loss of energy due to impact between the weight and the flange at B’ After striking the flange, the weight P continuous to move downward , stretching the bar fs it goes . However , due to resisting force offered by the stretched bar , Itdecelerates rapidly and soon comes to rest having stretched the bar , it decelerates rapidly and soon comes to rest having stretched the bar by the amount 5 . Neglecting minor losses , work done = P(h*6) Stress due to impact load: ‘Work done= strain energy P(h+8) = (62/28) x volume P(h+02/2E)= 02/28 x AL ‘Simplifying o= P/A [1+ V(1+2AEh/PL)] —() If Sis negligible , compared to’ o= V@Peh/ AL) ~~ Gi) Note : Due to impact loading , stress depends on modulus of elasticity length of bar , area of cross section and kinetic energy - “Due to static loading. stress is independent of “E” and I (no kinetic energy involved ) 9 Sudden loading: “Free fal'h’ does not exist. ie h=0 Toad ‘p’ is suddenly put on flanges without initial velocity {i) The maximum elongation for this condition is obtained by substituting v=0 in equation (i) CODE: SOMMECH2013 ie, A suddenly applied load (dynamic condition), produced a deflection which is twice as great at that obtained when the load applied gradually (i) Analysis in terms of stresses : Work done =P. Strain energy = ¥&RS =44(6A)6 = 20/A Stress due to sudden applied load is twice the stress due to gradual applied load 7. Shear resilience : Strain energy due to shear stress U=e/2C x volume 8, Strain energy due to volumetric strain : U=08/2K x volume 9, Strain energy due to torsion: U=tL/2C] Or ¥/2C x volume PYRAMID ACADE! Most Successful Institute in TNPSC AE Exam Total AE selections from Pyramid Academy 802 Selections so far... 2007 Exam -130 2008 Exam -178 2010 Exam -395 2013 Exam-94 | _ 20S Fra Jal Features of the Acader ~ Extensive and Well Informative Classes by highly qualified(from IIT Madras) and experienced technical experts / Complete guidance for written tests + Timely completion of full syllabus with stressing on vital areas / Well planned test series and regular assessment of performance Previous year Question papers will be discussed ¥ Model exams will be conducted ——— TTFLOOR BAK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD.SRIRAM NAGAR. KARAIKUDI CONTACT 98864 31610 15CODE: SOMMECH2OI3 PYRAMID IAS ACADEMY Most Successful Institute in TNPSC AE Exam Total AE selections from Pyramid Academy 2007 Exam -130 2008 Exam -178 2010 Exam -395 In 2010 Exam, 47 selections in Top 50 & All top 20 eau are from Pyramid ers — 2010 Exam PYRAMID IAS ACADEMY KARAIKUDI Most Successful Institute in TNPSC AE Exam Total AE selections from Pyramid Academy 2007 Exam -130 2008 Exam -178 2010 Exam-395+ 2012 Exam-94 ‘Dar student EMM Poongodi(PWD-WROT Rank is eeiving onde ‘fom the Honourable Minster ‘TOPPERS-2008 EXAM AT anki 294 Rak? 2865-298 as "Srectass Umagst Mafomar Meee om ty ” ° Dis) Maden Dim 275 ms 26 Rajon Pann En yg cman Vist Tj a Attpndin Nan Mngt MM Poongod 3 Solimuregan LWastlingam Over eank —WROTranke Bling rake 261 267 261 'y, ‘A Antogeetha ‘SElavarasan RAnbalagan 261 261 2395. A GKaldas 258) RSamuel 2565) NElnchalian 2565) 16 Malaise 535)_$ Panton 2535)_MSNanini 2335) ‘ITFLOOR, BRR COMPLEX, MAIN ROADSRI RAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 94864 31610