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Resident attitudes toward sustainable

community tourism
a a
Hwansuk Chris Choi & Iain Murray
a
School of Hospitality & Tourism Management, University of
Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G2W1, Canada
Published online: 22 Apr 2010.

To cite this article: Hwansuk Chris Choi & Iain Murray (2010) Resident attitudes toward
sustainable community tourism, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 18:4, 575-594, DOI:
10.1080/09669580903524852

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 Journal of Sustainable Tourism
Vol. 18, No. 4, May 2010, 575–594

Resident attitudes toward sustainable community tourism

Hwansuk Chris Choi∗ and Iain Murray

School of Hospitality & Tourism Management, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario,

N1G2W1 Canada
(Received 10 June 2009; final version received 29 November 2009)

This study examined, using social exchange theory, a range of variables involved in
determining resident attitudes toward tourism development and the adoption of sustain-
able tourism. After a comprehensive review of the literature on the role of residents in
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tourism development, and of the use of social exchange theory, 430 completed ques-
tionnaires obtained in a Texas town involved in tourism were analyzed. A structural
equation model was utilized to understand the effects of selected components of sus-
tainability on the attitudes of the respondents about future tourism development and
to test hypothesized causal relationships among the variables. The findings revealed
that three major components of sustainable tourism, namely long-term planning, full
community participation and environmental sustainability within tourism, are critically
related to support for tourism and to the positive and negative impacts of tourism. The
paper uses the findings to suggest critical implications that local governments need to
consider when developing tourism.
Keywords: sustainable tourism policy; community development; resident attitudes;
planning; structural equation modeling

Introduction
This paper reviews the role of residents in the tourism development process, and using
social exchange theory (SET), a questionnaire survey and a structural equation model
seeks to determine the major variables involved in determining residents’ attitudes toward
sustainable community tourism. The questionnaire survey was carried out in a small Texas
town heavily involved in the tourism industry.
The tourism industry is one of the largest- and fastest-growing sectors of the Texas
economy. The state’s natural beauty and rich culture are of great value to tourists and
to Texans, both for personal enjoyment and for economic benefit. In 2005, tourists spent
about $49.2 billion, generating $3.4 billion in tax revenue to the Texas state and local
governments, and Texas became the third most visited state in the United States, after
California and Florida (Texas Tourism, 2006). In 2005, the estimated number of personal
stays to Texas reached approximately 203 million (D.K. Shifflet & Associates Ltd., 2006).
For many Texas communities, tourism is the means by which they can strengthen their
economy, and with proper foresight and enlightened public policies, Texas may be able to
sustain these benefits.
The Berlin Declaration on Biological Diversity and Sustainable Tourism issued in 1997
states the following:

∗
Corresponding author. Email: canadatourism@gmail.com
ISSN 0966-9582 print / ISSN 1747-7646 online
C 2010 Taylor & Francis

DOI: 10.1080/09669580903524852
http://www.informaworld.com
 576 H.C. Choi and I. Murray

Tourism should be developed in a way so that it benefits the local communities, strengthens
the local economy, employs local workforce and wherever ecologically sustainable, uses local
materials, local agricultural products and traditional skills. Mechanisms, including policies and
legislation should be introduced to ensure the flow of benefits to local communities. Tourism
activities should respect the ecological characteristics and capacity of the local environment
in which they take place. All efforts should be made to respect traditional lifestyles and
cultures. (Biodiversity and Tourism, 1997)

If Texan communities are to maintain their long-term viability through tourism, the tenets of
the Berlin Declaration will have to be carefully observed. Unfortunately, today’s inorganic
development is actually detrimental to communities (Sirakaya, Jamal, & Choi, 2001).
Emphasizing the impact of tourism, Murphy (1985) argues that tourists are harmful to the
environment at their destination.
Such views challenge governments, planners and tourism researchers to rethink current
tourism development. The sustainable development of community tourism has emerged
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as an alternative management philosophy. Within the sustainability paradigm, the role

of residents is crucial and it is important to understand and assess their perceptions of,
and attitudes toward, development (Allen, Long, Perdue, & Kieselbach, 1988; Johnson,
Snepenger, & Akis, 1994; Pearce, Farrell, & Klitzke, 1980; Sheldon & Abenoja, 2001).
Getz (1994) argues that people’s attitudes are strengthened by their experience, and have
strong associations with their values and personality. Gunn (1994, p. 111) agrees that
“development plans would bear little fruit unless those most affected are involved from
the start”. Long and Richardson (1989) claim that maintaining a level of support and
involvement entails the monitoring of residents’ reactions toward tourism, since people’s
attitudes do not change quickly. “If residents resent or fear tourism, their resistance and
hostility can destroy the local industry’s potential” (Murphy, 1985, p. 153). Consequently,
understanding their perception of tourism policies is a part of the planning process for
sustainability and a key indicator of the successful development of local tourism.
Sustainable tourism research has raised several issues pertaining to community par-
ticipation, planning activity and environmental sustainability. Many of these issues are
associated with attitudes toward tourism development. The objectives of this study are to
develop a theoretical model that shows how the above factors affect their attitudes in the
context of a tourism destination and to test the proposed model to determine the relative
influence of each of the factors involved in explaining resident attitudes toward sustainable
community tourism development.

Proposed conceptual model

Since the early 1990s, conceptual models and theories have attempted to explain the
relationship between community residents’ perceptions of tourism and its impact (Teye,
Sirakaya, & Sönmez, 2002). These models include the Irridex (Doxey, 1975), the resort
cycle (Butler, 1980), play, compensation and conflict (Bystrzanowski, 1989), value–attitude
and value–attitude–behavior models (Lindberg & Johnson, 1997; Madrigal, 1995; Madrigal
& Kahle, 1994), attribution (Pearce, 1989), social representation theory (Madrigal, 1993;
Pearce, Moscardo, & Ross, 1996), SET (Andereck, Valentine, Knopf, & Vogt, 2005; Ap,
1990, 1992a, 1992b; Jurowski, 1994; Jurowski, Uysal, & Williams, 1997; Madrigal, 1993;
Pearce et al., 1996; Perdue, Long, & Allen, 1990; Teye et al., 2002; Yoon, Chen, & Gursoy,
1999), growth machine theory (Madrigal, 1995) and dependency theory (Britton, 1989).
Among these, the most popular is SET, first applied to tourism by Ap (1990, 1992a, 1992b).
SET has been used in sociology (Wallace & Wolf, 1995), anthropology (Levi-Strauss,
1969), social psychology (Kelley & Thibaut, 1978), marketing (Bagozzi, 1975, 1978),
 Journal of Sustainable Tourism 577

communication (West & Turner, 2000) and information science (Hendriks, 1999). The
theory proposed by Thibaut and Kelley (1959) was originally posited by John Stuart
Mill (1806–1873), the philosopher, political theorist and economist, in his famous book
Utilitarianism (1863). The central tenet of SET is that a basic form of human interaction
is the exchange of social and material resources and that people always want to maximize
the value of their exchange outcome (Kelley & Thibaut, 1978).
This study adopted SET as a conceptual framework to explain community residents’
perceptions and attitudes toward future tourism development. SET has received a great
deal of attention in social science and has become a major theoretical perspective in
explaining residents’ behavior toward tourism development over the last three decades.
SET is based on a central premise with three major components of rewards, costs and
resources: human behavior or social interaction is an exchange of social and material
resources (Homans, 1961). In particular, individuals engaged in the exchange interaction
tend to seek mutual benefits which maximize their rewards and minimize their costs. In
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this conceptual framework, according to Ap (1992b, p. 21), “residents seek benefits of

tourism in the exchange process for something they consider to be approximately equal to
the benefits they received”. Therefore, residents who opposed tourism development reacted
differently from those who supported it.
To date, only a few studies have used the SET framework to examine the direct and
indirect relationships between resident attitudes toward tourism and the components of
sustainability (Deccio & Baloglu, 2002; Gursoy, Jurowski, & Uysal, 2002; Jurowski et al.,
1997). This study contributes to the current body of tourism literature by exploring the
relationship between support for tourism and positive and negative impacts of tourism,
using the existing SET framework (see Figure 1). Three sustainability-related variables,
environmental sustainability, planning activity and community participation with commu-
nity attachment, were added to the framework to extend the current SET application. These
components of sustainability have been frequently mentioned and reported in the litera-
ture (Bramwell & Lane, 1993; Gunn, 1994; Hall, 2000; Hall & Lew, 1998; Hunter, 1995;
Inskeep, 1991; Jamieson & Jamal, 1997; Middleton & Hawkins, 1998; Sharpley, 2000;
Swarbrooke, 1999), but have rarely been tested in tourism impact studies.

Research hypotheses
The development of tourism in order to generate economic benefits has been supported
by residents (Gursoy et al., 2002). Many researchers have found that residents’ perceived
impacts are strongly related to support for tourism (Ap, 1992a, 1992b; Deccio & Baloglu,
2002; Gursoy et al., 2002). More specifically, favorable perceptions of tourism imply support
for more tourism.
Impact studies have often argued that tourism can generate jobs, income, tax revenue,
stronger infrastructure, an improved standard of living, business opportunities and hard
currency (Gursoy et al., 2002; Hsu, 2000; Jurowski et al., 1997; King, Pizam, & Milman,
1993; Lankford & Howard, 1994; Liu & Var, 1986; Milman & Pizam, 1988; Ross, 1992).
The literature also identified the benefits arising from the social, cultural and environmental
aspects of tourism. These benefits include renovated recreational facilities, and a wider
offering of leisure activities, a cleaner community appearance, more events, shopping
opportunities, better preservation of historical buildings and other cultural assets and a
better quality of life in general (Ap, 1990, 1992a, 1992b; Gursoy et al., 2002; Jurowski
et al., 1997; Madrigal, 1995; McCool & Martin, 1994; Perdue et al., 1990; Ross, 1992).
 578 H.C. Choi and I. Murray
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Figure 1. Conceptual model of residents’ attitude toward support for tourism.

In short, studies confirmed that residents who benefit most from economic gains and
sociocultural improvements are more likely to support tourism.
In a contrary view, Murphy (1981) asserts that community residents perceive tourism
from two perspectives: visual aesthetics and physical condition of community. In other
words, residents who can see the damage that tourists cause to the community in the
forms of litter, noise, vandalism, traffic, crime and the like are less likely to be enthusiastic
about tourism. Numerous studies reported the ways in which traffic congestion, individual
and organized crime, vandalism, crowding, prostitution, littering, alcoholism, public
intoxication, disruption of residents’ daily life, commercialization of cultural events and
parking problems diminish the quality of life for residents in the destination community
(Ap, 1992a; King et al., 1993; Lindberg & Johnson, 1997; Liu, Sheldon, & Var, 1987; Liu
& Var, 1986; McCool & Martin, 1994; Milman & Pizam, 1988; Pizam, 1978; Ross, 1992).
Some studies found that tourism not only brings economic growth but also imposes an
economic burden upon destinations in less industrialized countries, including the lack of
compensation for skilled workers, the inflated price of imported goods, franchise loyalty,
payment for nonlocal transportation, foreign investment, higher cost of living and inflated
prices for land and housing (Belisle, 1984; Benavides, 2002; Chamberlain, 2002; Cooper,
1980; Gibson, 1993; Hudman & Hawkins, 1989; Husbands, 1989; Williams & Shaw,
1988). Other negative indicators of tourism include environmental degradation, conflicts
among stakeholders, change in language usage in the destination and transformation of the
 Journal of Sustainable Tourism 579

material and nonmaterial forms of local culture (Hsu, 2000; Hudman & Hawkins, 1989).
Some studies indicate that the size, location and economic base of a destination may be
key indicators of negative effects of tourism.
The first two hypotheses, based on the above arguments, were derived from the literature
and used 10 items representing the positive and negative impacts of tourism.
Hypothesis 1 (H1): the negative impact of tourism is negatively related to community
residents’ support for tourism development.
Hypothesis 2 (H2): the positive impact of tourism is directly related to community
residents’ support for tourism development.
Leading to hypotheses 3a, 3b and 3c, Brackenbury (1993, p. 17) insisted that “the
end of the environment is the end of tourism”. Sustainable tourism needs to protect
local and national cultures, improve social and individual welfare and preserve its en-
virons for the long-term viability of the community and the survival of the tourism
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industry.
One popular concept used in resident attitude studies is the New Environment Paradigm
(NEP) scale (Dunlap, Van Liere, Mertig, Catton, & Howell, 1992). This scale examines
the ecocentric value of community residents. It taps the four elements of an ecological
worldview: the reality of limits to growth, the fragility of nature’s balance, a rejection
of exceptionalism and the likelihood of an ecological catastrophe (Deccio & Baloglu,
2002; Gursoy et al., 2002; Jurowski et al., 1997). These studies used the NEP scale to
measure ecocentric value and to examine the relationship between ecocentric value and
positive and negative impacts of tourism. However, many studies have reported inconclusive,
unsupportive or ambiguous results (Lovelock, 2008). Thus, the NEP scale was not utilized
in this study. No known studies have explored the association between attitudes toward
environmental sustainability within the context of tourism’s positive and negative impact
and support for it. This study utilized the four items tested in the previous resident studies
(Deccio & Baloglu, 2002; Gursoy et al., 2002).
Hypothesis 3a (H3a): residents’ attitudes toward environmental sustainability are di-
rectly related to the negative impact of tourism development.
Hypothesis 3b (H3b): residents’ attitudes toward environmental sustainability are neg-
atively related to the positive impact of tourism development.
Hypothesis 3c (H3c): residents’ attitudes toward environmental sustainability are neg-
atively related to community residents’ support for tourism development.
Doxey (1975), Butler (1980) and Pearce (1989) warn that shortsighted approaches
to tourism lead to the degradation of the natural, cultural and social environment of the
community. Attitudes toward planning were tested in a few studies (Allen et al., 1988;
Madrigal, 1995; McGehee, Andereck, & Vogt, 2003; Murphy, 1985). Madrigal (1995)
found that haters and lovers of tourism have stronger opinions about the development
process, while a majority of residents, realists representing the silent majority, have less
interest in tourism. McGehee et al. (2003) note that the benefits of tourism are positively
related to support for planning. They also found that support for more tourism has strong
positive association with support for planning. Four studies used a single-item measure to
examine attitudes toward long-term planning. These included the following items as part of
the scale measuring perception of the industry: “My community should plan and manage
the growth of tourism” (McGehee et al., 2003); “importance of long-term planning for
tourism” (Madrigal, 1995) and “happy with local tourism planning” (Murphy, 1985). Most
recent studies developed or adopted a series of agreement scales (Ap, 1992a; Lankford,
 580 H.C. Choi and I. Murray

1994; Lankford & Howard, 1994; Liu et al., 1987; Long, Perdue, & Allen, 1990; McCool
& Martin, 1994; Perdue et al., 1990). Little research has been conducted investigating
the relationship between planning and the relative impact of tourism and support for
additional tourism (McGehee et al., 2003). As a result, this study contains three original
hypotheses.
Hypothesis 4a (H4a): there is a positive relationship between residents’ attitudes toward
planning activity and the negative impact of tourism.
Hypothesis 4b (H4b): there is a negative relationship between residents’ attitudes toward
planning activity and the positive impact of tourism.
Hypothesis 4c (H4c): there is no relationship between residents’ attitudes toward plan-
ning activity and community residents’ support for additional development.
Nelson (1993) found that resident involvement in decision-making is a key indica-
tor of sustainable community tourism. Since the early 1980s, numerous studies have
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been conducted on the importance of community participation in decision-making (Allen

et al., 1988; Ap, 1992a; Gunn, 1994; Haywood, 1988; Keogh, 1990; Lankford & Howard,
1994; Madrigal, 1993; Murphy, 1985; Pearce, 1989), and all have concluded that residents
should be involved in community-based planning (Keogh, 1990). In other words, successful
community-based tourism should allow for greater participation of destinations’ residents
if planning is to be effective. Lankford and Howard (1994) and Ap (1992a) note that the
level of influence in decision-making and control of the development process may affect
the outcomes of planning results and behavioral controls for future tourism. There is an
association between positive perceptions of tourism and the degree of participation in the
development process (Napier & Wright, 1974). Accordingly, the following three hypotheses
were developed to examine the relationship between support for tourism and its positive
and negative impacts.
Hypothesis 5a (H5a): residents’ attitudes toward community participation are negatively
related to the direct positive impact of tourism.
Hypothesis 5b (H5b): residents’ attitudes toward community participation are positively
related to the direct negative impact of tourism.
Hypothesis 5c (H5c): residents’ attitudes toward community participation are directly
and negatively related to community residents’ support for tourism development.
Research interests of community attachment were identified in a variety of disciplines,
including sociology (Greider & Garkovich, 1994), anthropology (Gupta & Ferguson, 1997),
geography (Relph, 1997) and recreation (Williams & Vaske, 2002). Several researchers have
used local bonds and sentiments as major predictors of attachment (Cowell & Green, 1994;
Goudy, 1990; Riger & Lavrakas, 1981). Other researchers have investigated community
attachment in terms of satisfaction (Austin & Baba, 1990), social interactions (Brown,
1993), physical rootedness (Riger & Lavrakas, 1981) and friendship density (Goudy, 1990).
In tourism studies, attachment to community has been a popular concept and one that is
frequently used to investigate the relationship between community attachment and support
for tourism (Deccio & Baloglu, 2002; Gursoy et al., 2002; Jurowski et al., 1997; Liu & Var,
1986; Um & Crompton, 1987).
Davis, Allen and Cosenza (1988) found that residents who had been born in or had
lived longer in a place had positive views of tourism. Conversely, Um and Crompton (1987)
and Deccio and Baloglu (2002) reported that highly attached residents had a less positive
attitude toward tourism. Gursoy and his colleagues (2002) reported that no relationship
was found between community attachment and support for tourism. This study utilized the
 Journal of Sustainable Tourism 581

community attachment items used in the previous studies (Deccio & Baloglu, 2002; Gursoy
et al., 2002; Jurowski et al., 1997). Hypotheses 6a, 6b and 6c were based on the findings and
propositions of recent studies (Deccio & Baloglu, 2002; Gursoy, et al., 2002; Jurowski et al.,
1997) and suggestions by McCool and Martin (1994) that residents’ attachment to place is
positively related to the perceived positive impact of tourism while negatively related to its
perceived negative impact. Moreover, highly attached residents are more likely to support
future tourism.
Hypothesis 6a (H6a): community attachment is negatively related to community resi-
dents’ perceived positive impact of tourism.
Hypothesis 6b (H6b): community attachment is positively related to community resi-
dents’ perceived negative impact of tourism.
Hypothesis 6c (H6c): community attachment is negatively related to community resi-
dents’ support for tourism development.
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Methodology
New Braunfels, population 39,000, is located 46 miles south of Austin and 30 miles north of
San Antonio in southwest Texas. The city was named after Prince Carl of Solms-Braunfels,
who sent German settlers into the area in 1845. One third of the population consists of
fourth-, fifth- and sixth-generation Germans.
Tourism is one of fastest-growing sectors of New Braunfels’ economy. In 2008, New
Braunfels’ visitors spent $202.2 million (Texas Tourism, 2009). New Braunfels is rich in
natural, cultural and man-made resources. As a historical German town, New Braunfels
has a long German heritage and abundant cultural resources, including historic buildings,
festivals such as the annual Wurstfest, museums and antique shops in the downtown historic
district. Physical resources in New Braunfels include 13 parks and one lake near the city.
The Guadalupe and Comal rivers provide fishing, tubing, rafting, kayaking, swimming,
scuba diving, water skiing and other recreation activities. The Schlitterbahn is the largest
water park in Texas and the fourth largest in the United States. This attraction drew nearly
1 million people in 2007. New Braunfels has 2877 hotels, motels and bed-and-breakfast
rooms available and six conference facilities. It is an attractive setting as well as a place for
small- and medium-sized conferences.
The data for this study were collected from residents of New Braunfels, Texas. Eight
hundred self-administered surveys were distributed to household mail addresses from a
purchased list compiled from customer directories of New Braunfels’ utility company. All
respondents were 18 years of age and over.
The instrument was developed on the basis of the methods used in previous studies,
existing literature review and consultation with 37 experts. Prior to pilot testing, six aca-
demic experts were consulted to assess the clarity, ambiguity and generality of each item.
The pilot survey was conducted with 308 university students and staff. The final survey
instrument for this study comprised 52 items (30 items for the proposed model) including
respondents’ socio-demographic variables (age, gender, education, occupation and annual
gross income). Participants were asked to respond to and indicate the degree to which they
agreed or disagreed with each of the series of statements. For this study, an odd number of
degrees of agreement were used to provide the neutral (neither agree nor disagree) option
and not to force respondents to take a position. Thus, responses were made on a Likert-type
scale with the anchors being “strongly agree” at 5 and “strongly disagree” at 1. A copy of
the research instrument is available on the web-based version of this paper.
 582 H.C. Choi and I. Murray

Dillman’s (1978) modified Total Design Method was used to collect the data. The survey
questionnaire packet was mailed to respondents with a cover letter and a postpaid return
envelope. One week after the initial mailing, a reminder card was mailed to all households in
the sample. Three weeks after the initial mailing, a completely new questionnaire package
was mailed to those who had not responded to the initial mailing. Seven weeks after
the initial mailing, another follow-up mailing was sent to nonrespondents. Four hundred
forty-seven questionnaires (430 usable) were obtained, representing an overall response
rate of 58%. To determine the presence of a response bias, the first and the last 10%
of the responses received were selected and t-tests were conducted. The result showed no
systematic bias between the early (N1 = 40) and the late (N2 = 40) respondents for selected
key variables.
New Braunfels is an economically stable community with an average income of $60,000
p.a. Forty percent of the respondents reported incomes of over $60,000 and 40% reported
incomes of under $40,000. With a median age of 55 years, more than 60% of the re-
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spondents were older than 50 years of age, and 63.5% were male. Slightly less than 90%
of the sample is currently employed, and 67.5% have lived in the area for more than 10
years.

Data analysis
Exploratory factor analysis using a principal components analysis approach with a varimax
rotation was conducted to simplify the factor structure and to increase the interpretabil-
ity of the identified factors. The derived factor score was used in testing the conceptual
framework using multiple regression analysis. A Cronbach’s alpha was calculated to eval-
uate internal consistency. For this study, only individual items with factor loadings greater
than 0.5 with eigenvalues equal or greater than 1 were considered for inclusion in a fac-
tor. Because this study extends the existing theory of social exchange (Ap, 1990; Teye
et al., 2002), a factor analysis was performed for the following variables: support for
tourism; perceived negative and positive impact of tourism; planning, community partici-
pation and environmental sustainability; and sense of community. Twenty-four items were
saliently loaded as proposed, while six items (one item from community participation,
one item from community attachment, two items from perceived positive impacts, one
item from perceived negative impacts and one item from support for tourism) that did
not load as intended and loaded on more than two different factors simultaneously were
deleted.
The proposed framework was tested through the use of confirmatory factor analysis and
structural equation modeling analysis using the LISREL 8.2 program (Jöreskog, Sörbom,
Du Toit, & Du Toit, 1999). Structural equation modeling techniques have increasingly
gained popularity and acceptance in tourism and hospitality research, notably concerning
resident attitudes and tourist satisfaction since the mid-1990s.
Confirmatory factor analysis was selected to evaluate how well the theoretical model fit
the data. A summary of the confirmatory factor analysis results is given in Table 1. The ratio
(χ 2 /degree of freedom (D/F)) of 2.07 is below the desired value of 3.0 as recommended by
Chau (1997). The goodness-of-fit index (GFI) and adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI)
values are 0.915 and 0.890, respectively, indicating an acceptable fit. Further, normed fit
index (NFI) (0.956), non-normed fit index (NNFI) (0.972), comparative fit index (CFI)
(0.977), incremental fit index (IFI) (0.977) and root mean square error of approximation
(RMSEA) (0.050) are within the acceptable levels.
 Journal of Sustainable Tourism 583

Table 1. Results of confirmatory factor analysis.

Standard Standard
Construct/item Parameter estimate error t-value α/CR/AVE
Environmental sustainability
Strong efforts for environmental λx11 0.854 0.041 20.733
conservation
The diversity of nature valued and λx21 0.765 0.043 17.736 0.82/0.85/0.66
protected
Wildlife and natural habitats protected λx31 0.749 0.043 17.235
Regulatory environmental standards λx41 0.672 0.045 14.918
needed
Tourism planning activity
Future plan of the tourism industry λx52 0.894 0.039 22.730
Successful advanced planning λx62 0.834 0.041 20.443 0.87/0.87/0.70
Tourism planning not shortsighted λx72 0.733 0.043 17.025
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Continuously improved tourism λx82 0.707 0.044 16.196

development plans
Community participation
Full participation in tourism λx93 0.821 0.044 18.547
decision-making
Tourism decisions made by all in the λx103 0.804 0.044 18.093 0.77/0.80/0.67
community
Involved residents in tourism λx113 0.626 0.047 13.289
decision-making
Community attachment
I like the community where I live. λx124 0.771 0.046 16.857
I feel safe here. λx134 0.742 0.046 16.136 0.70/0.81/0.69
This is a beautiful community. λx144 0.787 0.046 17.266
Perceived positive impacts
Improvement on infrastructure in our λx155 0.725 0.044 16.461
community
More events for residents λx165 0.890 0.041 21.740 0.78/0.83/0.72
Improvement of my standard of living λx175 0.751 0.044 17.233
Perceived negative impacts
Noise λx186 0.836 0.041 20.637
More crime λx196 0.840 0.040 20.779 0.88/0.88/0.72
Ruined cultural assets (historical icons) λx206 0.811 0.041 19.727
Loss of community character λx216 0.751 0.043 17.631
Support for tourism
New tourism attractions λx227 0.910 0.039 23.529
Attracting more visitors λx237 0.851 0.040 21.218 0.87/0.88/0.78
The use of local taxes λx247 0.753 0.042 17.765

Note: AVE = Average variance extracted.

χ 2 to D/F ratio = 2.07; GFI = 0.915; RMSEA = 0.050; AGFI = 0.890; CFI = 0.977; NFI = 0.956; NNFI =
0.972; IFI = 0.977.

To evaluate internal consistency reliability, Cronbach’s alpha was chosen because

the items are multidimensional and arguably the most flexible statistics used in social
science. For this sample, psychometric analysis revealed that the tested scale demonstrated
acceptable internal consistency, with all alpha coefficients reaching the acceptable level of
0.70 (Nunnally, 1978).
Convergent validity was tested using the factor loadings and t-values of each construct.
Most factor loadings were greater than 0.7, and all factor loadings were greater than the 0.5
 584 H.C. Choi and I. Murray

cutoff. The t-values of all the latent variables were statistically significant ( p < 0.05). These
results provide the evidences to conclude that the study measures have convergent validity.
Average variance extracted (AVE) was used to test discriminant validity recommended
by Fornell and Larcker (1981). The AVEs of all the constructs ranged from 0.66 to 0.77,
which exceeded the suggested 0.5 cutoff. In addition, the AVE for each latent factor was
computed with the respective squared correlation estimate (RSCE) between factors. The
result indicated that the AVEs of all constructs exceeded the RSCEs between factors,
providing evidence of discriminant validity.

Testing the proposed model and hypotheses

A structural equation model was used to understand the effects of selected components of
sustainability on the attitudes of the respondents for future tourism development and to test
hypothesized causal relationships among the variables. This model has been improved by
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specifying the relationships in the model, testing the model fit and improving, if neces-
sary, and estimating path coefficients for the final model. Table 2 shows the GFIs for the
hypothesized structural model. As indicated, the ratio of χ 2 to D/F is an acceptable 2.45.
The GFI was 0.901 and the AGFI was 0.872. Anderson and Gerbing (1988) recommended
a GFI of 0.90 or greater and an AGFI of 0.85 or greater. Gatian (1994) stated that a GFI
close to 0.90 is a strong evidence that the model being tested fits the data very well. Other
indices, CFI = 0.969, RMSEA = 0.058, NFI = 0.948 and NNFI = 0.963, are excellent.
Most indices exceeded the recommended values suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999) and
Anderson and Gerbing (1988).
The χ 2 goodness-of-fit statistic assesses a likelihood ratio test statistic that tests the
fit between the restricted hypothesized model and unrestricted sample data, and the χ 2
statistic value shows the result is statistically significant ( p < 0.01). However, this finding
is not unusual with large sample sizes (Doney & Cannon, 1997; Steenkamp & Van Trijp,
1991). When tested models use large sample sizes, they often produce a large χ 2 statistic
that could reject a good fitting model. More complex models are more likely to produce
larger χ 2 statistic (Maruyama, 1998). Discriminant validity was assessed by using all factor
loadings that were statistically significant at the 0.01 level. The test results indicated that
all the measures demonstrated adequate discriminant validity (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988;
Jöreskog, 1971).
While Table 2 and Figure 2 display the completely standardized path coefficients and
t-values for the relationships in the model, the estimated structural paths are visualized in
Figure 1. Perceived negative impact had a negative relationship with support for tourism
as hypothesized and can be considered an important factor (β32 = −0.378) in explaining
resident behavioral intentions to support future tourism development, while perceived
positive impact had a positive relationship (β31 = 0.424). Long-term planning activity
(γ 32 = 0.23) was positively related to behavioral intention to support future tourism. As
community attachment (γ 34 = 0.117) increases, resident support for tourism also increases.
The measurements for environmental sustainability and community participation were not
statistically significant. Additionally, the paths from environmental sustainability, long-term
planning, community participation and community attachment to positive impacts and
negative impacts were tested. The statistical results in the structural model showed that
environmental sustainability (γ 11 = −0.174), community participation (γ 13 = −0.199)
and community attachment (γ 14 = 0.300) are statistically significant to the perceived
positive impacts.
 Journal of Sustainable Tourism 585

Table 2. Results of LISREL parameter estimates.

Standard Standard
Paths Parameter estimate error t-value
Structural model
Perceived positive impacts (η1) → support for β31 0.424 0.052 8.206
tourism (η3)
Perceived negative impacts (η2) → support for β32 −0.378 0.049 −7.706
tourism (η3)
Environmental sustainability (ξ 1) → perceived γ 11 −0.174 0.072 −2.426
positive impacts (η1)
Tourism planning activity (ξ 2) → perceived positive γ 12 0.095 0.062 1.524
impacts (η1)
Community participation (ξ 3) → perceived positive γ 13 −0.199 0.073 −2.743
impacts (η1)
Community attachment (ξ 4) → perceived positive γ 14 0.300 0.057 5.290
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impacts (η1)
Environmental sustainability (ξ 1) → perceived γ 21 0.207 0.069 2.990
negative impacts (η2)
Tourism planning activity (ξ 2) → perceived negative γ 22 −0.152 0.060 −2.516
impacts (η2)
Community participation (ξ 3) → perceived negative γ 23 0.285 0.070 4.060
impacts (η2)
Community attachment (ξ 4) → perceived negative γ 24 −0.236 0.053 −4.430
impacts (η2)
Environmental sustainability (ξ 1) → support for γ 31 −0.070 0.057 −1.221
tourism (η2)
Tourism planning activity (ξ 2) → support for tourism γ 32 0.203 0.050 4.020
(η2)
Community participation (ξ 3) → support for tourism γ 33 −.096 0.060 −1.613
(η2)
Community attachment (ξ 4) → support for Tourism γ 34 0.117 0.048 2.455
(η2)
Measurement model
Environmental sustainability (ξ 1)
Strong efforts for environmental conservation (X1) λx11 0.851 0.041 20.622
The diversity of nature valued and protected (X2) λx21 0.765 0.043 17.754
Wildlife and natural habitats protected (X3) λx31 0.749 0.043 17.246
Regulatory environmental standards needed (X4) λx41 0.673 0.045 14.950
Tourism planning activity (ξ 2)
Future plan of the tourism industry (X5) λx52 0.895 0.039 22.759
Successful advanced planning (X6) λx62 0.832 0.041 20.388
Tourism planning not shortsighted (X7) λx72 0.734 0.043 17.046
Continuously improved tourism development plans λx82 0.707 0.044 16.199
(X8)
Community participation (ξ 3)
Full participation in tourism decision-making (X9) λx93 0.817 0.044 18.464
Tourism decisions made by all in the community λx103 0.796 0.045 17.875
(X10)
Involved residents in tourism decision-making (X11) λx113 0.636 0.047 13.545
Community attachment (ξ 4)
I like the community where I live. (X12) λx124 0.769 0.046 16.836
I feel safe here. (X13) λx134 0.738 0.046 16.054
This is a beautiful community. (X14) λx144 0.787 0.045 17.288
Perceived positive impacts (η1)
Improvement on infrastructure in our comm. (Y1) λy11 0.731 0.053 14.217
More events for residents (Y2) λy21 0.883 0.056 15.761
Improvement in my standard of living (Y3) λy31 0.752 0.052 14.555
(Continued)
 586 H.C. Choi and I. Murray

Table 2. Results of LISREL parameter estimates. (Continued)

Standard Standard
Paths Parameter estimate error t-value
Perceived negative impacts (η2)
Noise (Y4) λy42 0.844 0.041 20.409
More crime (Y5) λy52 0.843 0.041 20.408
Ruined cultural assets (historical icons) (Y6) λy62 0.807 0.042 19.252
Loss of community character (Y7) λy72 0.742 0.043 17.179
Support for tourism (η3)
New tourism attractions (Y8) λy83 0.872 0.034 23.481
Attracting more visitors (Y9) λy93 0.815 0.038 21.636
The use of local taxes (Y10) λy103 0.721 0.040 17.988

Note: χ 2 /df = 2.45; GFI = 0.901; RMSEA = 0.058; AGFI = 0.872; CFI = 0.969; NFI = 0.948; NNFI = 0.963;
IFI = 0.969.
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X1 Y1 Y2 Y3

X2 Environmental
−0.174
sustainability Positive
(−2.426)
X3 0.095 impacts
(1.524)
X4 0.207 0.424
(2.990) (8.206)

X5 −0.070
(−1.221)
Tourism Y8
X6 planning 0.203
(4.020) Support for
−0.152 Y9
(−2.516) -.096 tourism
X7
(-1.613)
−0.199 Y10
X8 (−2.743)
0.117
(2.455) −.378
Community (−7.706 )
X9 participation

X10 0.300 0.285

(5.290) (4.060) Negative
impacts
X11
−0.236
(−4.430)
X12 Community
attachment Y4 Y5 Y6 Y7
X13

X14

Figure 2. Results of LISREL parameter estimates.

 Journal of Sustainable Tourism 587

Discussion
The current study investigated community residents’ perceptions of tourism development
in New Braunfels, Texas, and utilized SET logic as a foundation for the conceptual frame-
work. First, it tested the hypotheses, the association of the perceived positive impact of
tourism such as economic gains (e.g. employment opportunities, additional tax revenue and
improved standard of living) and other sociocultural benefits (more recreational facilities,
more events, shopping opportunities and preservation of cultural assets) and support for
tourism. This study confirmed the results of previous research (Allen et al., 1988; Belisle
& Hoy, 1980; Deccio & Baloglu, 2002; Gursoy et al., 2002; Jurowski et al., 1997; Liu et al.,
1987; Liu & Var, 1986; Milman & Pizam, 1988; Pizam, 1978; Yoon, 1998). The positive
perception of development had a strong impact on support for future tourism development.
In other words, as hypothesized, residents who saw tourism as a positive activity are more
likely to support additional or future development (β31 = 0.42; t = 8.206).
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The perceived negative impact of tourism (development) was found to have a significant
negative effect on support for future development (β32 = −0.38; t = −7.706), and the
proposed H1 is statistically significant. The greater the perceived negative impact of tourism
development is, the less positive the community residents’ behavioral intention toward
future tourism would be. Accordingly, H2 proposed that a negative relationship exists
between the perceived negative impact of tourism and support for additional tourism. This
finding confirmed the conclusion of most studies that the perceived negative impact of
tourism is inversely related to residents’ support for it (Keogh, 1990; Long et al., 1990;
Milman & Pizam, 1988; Prentice, 1993; Sheldon & Var, 1984).
This study tested the direct association between attitudes toward environmental sus-
tainability within tourism and support for tourism, and the impact of tourism in general.
The study result showed that attitudes toward environmental sustainability do not impact
support for tourism. From the initial examination of descriptive statistics, respondents be-
lieved that a community’s physical environment should be protected and that proper ethics
and standards should be upheld through training and education programs. The relationship
between environmental sustainability and support for tourism, however, was not statistically
significant.
Since the 1980s, several national and international governmental organizations (e.g.
United Nation Development Programme, United Nation Economic Programme, World
Tourism Organization, Organization for Economic Co-operation Development and Asian
Pacific Economic Cooperation) have recognized that a community’s immediate environment
is a critical base of tourism and thus tourism should be carefully planned and managed to
minimize potential costs and to maintain, improve, conserve and protect the quality of
community assets (Gunn, 1994; Inskeep, 1987, 1991; Jamal & Getz, 1995). The main
objectives of planning, however, are not only to protect and preserve community resources
but also to optimize their long-term economic viability. Some studies have measured
resident attitudes toward long-term planning.
Perdue et al. (1990) found a negative relationship between support for tourism and
planning, while McGehee et al. (2003) argued that support for tourism is a strong pre-
dictor variable in tourism planning. This study confirmed McGehee et al.’s 2003 findings
that long-term tourism planning is positively related to support for tourism (γ 32 = 0.20;
t = 4.02). Consistent with McGehee et al. (2003), long-term planning has an inverse re-
lationship to perceived negative impact (γ 22), while it has a positive relationship to the
perception of positive impacts of tourism (γ 12). However, these two hypotheses revealed
that those relationships were not statistically significant. This study assumed that long-term
planning activity is a positive reaction to past experiences of New Braunfels’ residents.
 588 H.C. Choi and I. Murray

According to a World Tourism Organization report (1993), residents expect tourism plan-
ning to foster and protect community surrounding environment protection as well as achieve
goals through appropriate strategies. However, in a local community context, planners and
decision makers need to introduce proper planning to residents and involve them in the
process. New Braunfels’ respondents who perceived planning as a critically necessary tool
for development are not, however, supportive of future tourism development.
The concept of community participation has been applied in a myriad of ways since the
first human settlements. Since the emergence of the sustainable tourism framework in the
mid-1980s, community participation has been considered “a process by which people are
enabled to become actively and genuinely involved in defining the [tourism development]
issues . . . [and] in making decisions. . . ” (World Health Organization, 1999, p. 8).
Hundreds of studies have proposed the importance of community participation, but
few have quantified the relationship between attitudes toward community participation in
tourism with key resident study variables. This study hypothesized (H5a, H5b and H5c) that
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community participation has a positive relationship with the level of support for current
and future tourism, while it is inversely related to the negative impacts of tourism. This
study revealed that attitudes toward community participation have a negative relationship
to support for future tourism (γ 33 = −0.10; t = −1.613) and perceived positive impact of
tourism (γ 13 = −0.20; t = −2.743), while it has a positive relationship to the perceived
negative impact of tourism (γ 23 = −0.29; t = −4.060). If a respondent had a strong
attitude toward participating in tourism development, he/she was less supportive of future
development and less likely to perceive positive impacts and was strongly opposed to
tourism because of its negative impact. This may explain how residents’ attitudes toward
community participation reflect their past experiences.
In the 1980s and early 1990s, numerous studies have reported that community residents
have often been marginalized in countries and regions in which the local authorities were
not interested in aiding “representational democracy” (Gill & Williams, 1994; Godfrey,
1998; Gunn, 1994; Haywood, 1988; Murphy, 1981, 1985; Ritchie, 1993). Haywood (1988)
stated that community participation might be considered an unnecessary, unwieldy and
overly idealistic approach. Consequences may include the fragmentation of power, demand
on people’s time and a lack of funding, leadership and expertise at the local level. The
findings of this study, however, reveal that full participation in tourism decision-making by
everyone in New Braunfels is necessary for successful tourism development (X = 3.83) and
the community’s residents should have the opportunity to be involved in tourism decision-
making (X = 4.23). Moreover, more than half of respondents (51.8%) are willing to serve
for more than 10 hours per month on the community tourism planning committee (X =
10.19; SD = 13.24).
Finally, this study examined the concept of community attachment (H6a, H6b and H6c).
While the results of previous studies are inconclusive on the association between community
attachment and key variables (Gursoy et al., 2002; Jurowski et al., 1997; McCool & Martin,
1994; Um & Crompton, 1987), results of this study indicate that residents who have strong
community attachments have positive relationships with the perceived positive impact
of tourism (γ 14 = 0.30; t = 5.290) but negative relationships with the perceived negative
impact of tourism (γ 24 = −0.24; t = −4.430). Highly attached residents appear to evaluate
additional tourism development positively (γ 34 = 0.12; t = 2.455).

Conclusion
This study examined resident attitudes toward future tourism development. Fourteen hy-
potheses were tested using a structural equation modeling analysis and 11 were accepted.
 Journal of Sustainable Tourism 589

The findings of this study revealed a major component of sustainable tourism is long-
term planning (H4a and H4c), while the other two major components are only indirectly
related to support for tourism via its positive and/or negative impacts. These findings
suggest some key implications that local government should consider when developing
tourism.
First, today’s residents appreciate the importance of their community’s environment and
tourism as a crucial economic activity. In particular, in community destinations in industri-
alized countries, residents request stakeholder collaboration in the planning process (Jamal
& Getz, 1995). This argument can be justified on the grounds that community stakeholder
groups are the ones most affected by the development. Therefore, they must be involved in
each stage of the development process: planning, implementing and monitoring. However,
in many communities, residents are often neither included in the decision-making process
nor even informed about it. In New Braunfels, however, residents not only understand the
importance of community participation but are also enthusiastic about it.
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Second, most community residents in New Braunfels fully understand the value of pro-
tecting the environment, upholding proper standards and regulations and creating positive
environmental ethics. Finally, long-term planning as a key element of success of sustainable
community tourism can both mitigate negative impacts and reinforce positive ones. To build
a better community, local governments need to involve residents and stakeholder groups in
the planning process. It is evident that this process is multisectoral and very complex; thus,
local government should play an integral role in determining and implementing current
and future tourism policies. Numerous studies have reported that community participation
programs in tourism planning are minimal, passive, partial, static and short-lived. In this
regard, governments need to create ways to empower residents rather than merely serve
residents. One governmental goal should be to increase the opportunity for residents to
control their own lives. Planners, developers and political leaders need to realize that the
full participation of community residents does not interfere with the planning process, but
enhances it. Involving residents in sharpening a community’s vision, goals and policy can
raise the quality of resident life. With this in mind, this process requires informing, educat-
ing and training the residents, government officials and local businesses to increase public
understanding and create the necessary technical expertise. If government fails to empower
residents, the success of tourism development and sustainability cannot be guaranteed. This
study may help governments, planners and political leaders understand current residents’
perception of tourism impacts, past experiences of community participation and attitudes
toward environmental sustainability.
The current study makes several contributions to understanding resident attitudes toward
support for tourism development. The first contribution was the confirmation of SET logic.
This theory views interaction from a cost/benefit perspective. The exchange process includes
both intangible and tangible social costs and benefits. Unlike economic exchange however,
social exchange does not operate according to any rules or agreements. People often rely on
their own perceptions, and their intentions vary. Thus, social exchange within the context
of community should be regularly examined as a subjective indicator if local governments
or private investors need to know how residents in an area react to development. This
study’s result confirmed that perceived positive and negative impacts are critical influences
on support for future tourism.
Lankford and Howard (1994, p. 133) made the seminal statement that “it is evident
that the attitude orientation of residents toward tourism development is a complex and
dynamic phenomenon in which a variety of factors exert a differential influence on local
residents”. The second contribution of this research is that it extended current discussions
 590 H.C. Choi and I. Murray

of resident attitude studies by including three major components of sustainable community

tourism (environmental sustainability, long-term planning activity and full community
participation) that have strong relationships with resident attitudes toward tourism impacts
and support for future tourism while some hypotheses (H3b, H4a and H5b) were not
statistically significant. In the case of community participation and community attachment,
residents are more likely to respond to the impacts of tourism when developing their
attitudes toward supporting tourism development.
The third contribution is the finding that community attachment can explain previous
findings that highly attached residents show more support than those who are less attached
(Deccio & Baloglu, 2002; McCool & Martin, 1994). Future research is needed to apply
a better defined and more rigorously tested place attachment to examine the relationship
between community attachment and other resident attitude variables.
This present study has several limitations. It examined residents’ attitudes in a single
and mid-sized urban-rural mixed setting. Second, the respondents consisted primarily of
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whites of middle- to upper-middle-class socioeconomic backgrounds. The generalizability

of these findings to other environments and to people from other socioeconomic back-
grounds is limited. Thus, further investigation is needed to test the proposed framework in
different settings (e.g. mega urban, urban or rural and different cultural settings) and also
at different levels of development, according to the type of resources a community has, its
socio-demographical characteristics (e.g. gender and ethnicity) and its level of economic
dependency on tourism.
The measurement and the understanding of residents’ attitudes in community tourism
literature have become top priorities since the early 1980s, as shown by the prolifera-
tion of literature on the subject. Few studies have investigated resident attitudes toward
tourism within a sustainability framework. The present study has demonstrated that the
three components of sustainable tourism can be critical predictors in understanding resi-
dents’ perceptions and behavioral intentions. It found the concept of community attachment
to be useful in examining the relationships between support for additional tourism devel-
opment and residents’ perceptions of tourism. The findings of this study indicate that the
sustainability component factors and community participation provide a strong foundation
to continue the investigation of resident attitudes.

Notes on contributors
Dr Hwansuk Chris Choi is an associate professor in the School of Hospitality and Tourism Manage-
ment at the University of Guelph, Canada. His current research interests concern tourism monitoring
systems, resident attitudes toward tourism development, tourist satisfaction and research methods in
hospitality and tourism.
Dr Iain Murray is also an associate professor in the School of Hospitality and Tourism Management
at the University of Guelph, Canada. His research interests are related to culinary tourism and rural
tourism.

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