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M.C.O.-1
Organisation Theory and Behaviour
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Attempt all the questions:

Q. 1. How does learning influence the performance of an individual? Discuss the different theories of
learning.
Ans. Learning experiences of various managers has shown a major revolution in the cognitive areas such as
strategic overview, thinking style, action orientation, reflection, personal style, self awareness and the way of dealing
with others. These changes often take place as a result of feedback from peers and subordinates. This learning
reproduces how knowledge is important for a group to develop successfully.
Various researches have proved the fact that concrete steps are in use by various corporations who are heading
towards the effective and better results. It is only possible through concrete learning process within the organisation
through superiors and the subordinates. Almost all the good organizations have inevitably formulated, reformulate
and achieve its image and developed the in-house organisation. It is believed that good organizations have been able
to control their in-house work and objectives and goals irrespective of any hurdles from the external forces.
They are paying more attention to achieve goals, learn, adapt and apply best methods and policies. They also
try to take conscious steps to make sure that the ideas and strategies are very well managed and placed to get the
desired output.
It is one of the best strategies to improve the overall functioning of the organization. These methods and policies
also enable to learn the most significant way of obtaining new facts and expertise.
Learning is defined as a permanent change in behaviour, which takes place as a consequence of knowledge or
practice. Therefore, we can say that learning is a change in behaviour. This change may be favourable or unfavourable.
Learning will help you to increase your output in an organisation or it may also make you learn how to decrease
output in the organisation. Secondly, as the change must be relatively permanent therefore, it should last for longer
duration. This refers to the fact that at times; the change may be due to tiredness, alteration, enthusiasm etc. which
may be a temporary change.
Thirdly, as learning involves the changes taking place through knowledge or performance. The changes through
expansion and maturation are not measured as well-read behaviour. The experience or practice is required for the
purpose of learning to take place. The experience can be attained through relations with the environment in the
forms of observation, personal exposure, repetition, etc. The strengthening of experience or practice enables proper
and permanent learning.

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 The different theories of learning are:
(i) Classical Conditioning
(ii) Operant Conditioning (Instrumental learning)
(iii) Cognitive learning
(iv) Social learning
(i) Classical Conditioning: Classical conditi-oning is an important learning theory where the learning that takes
place through the connection between unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus. These two stimuli are
paired to bring out the desired response. The mental stimulus that does not elicit the response is conditioned stimuli.
The response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus can be termed as conditioned response. The conditioned
stimulus also starts eliciting the response when it is paired with unconditioned stimulus. In this process, a stimulus–
response bond is developed between a conditioned stimulus and a conditioned response. It is done through the
repeated linking of a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.
A great researcher Pavlov conducted the experiment on the dog by providing him with the food. In this case, the
food is the unconditioned stimuli and the salvation of the dog is the unconditioned response. Pavlov used a bell as a
form of conditioned stimuli and when it rang, the dog never responded to it. Then he started pairing of conditioned
stimuli (bell) with the unconditioned stimuli (food). The food was presented to the dog and bell was also rung. It was
repeated several times and after some time, the bell also elicited the same response as the food. In this case, the
conditioned stimulus (bell) elicited the response of salivation even when the unconditioned stimulus (food) was not
present. Pavlov rung the bell and dog salivated without the presentation of food. It was observed that the dog learnt
the ringing of the bell with the salivation. The theory of classical conditioning focuses on the building up an association
between an unconditioned stimulus and a conditioned stimulus.
The classical conditioning theory has been criticised on the ground that it considers the learner to be a passive
element. According to this theory, the learner notices the connection between the unconditioned stimulus and the
conditioned stimulus and forms an association. It also explains the simple reflexive behaviour. In most of the
organisations, people are actively involved in executing their behaviour and are not passive. It was observed that
behaviours were not elicited but are emitted. These behaviours are under workers control.
(ii) Operant Conditioning: The learning theory of operant conditioning was given by Skinner. The operant
theory supports and believes that a learner’s response is instrumental in producing a reinforcing stimulus. It signifies
that the response that produces the reinforcement becomes stronger and the response that does not produce
reinforcement becomes weaker.
Skinner explained the theory of operant conditioning with the help of simple box where liver was fitted at its
ends. The liver is like a switch that operates as food-delivering mechanism. A hungry rat was placed inside at the
box. It was observed earlier that the rat is sitting idle in the box. Gradually, he starts exploring for food inside the
box. While searching for food inside the box, he presses the liver (food -delivering mechanism). A piece of food was
released at the press of a liver. The rat repeated the same act of pressing liver and food started coming in the box. He
eats the food every time it cames in the box. In this case, the delivery of food constitutes the reinforcement and
reinforcement is dependent upon the operation of the lever. The box was arranged in such a way that every response
i.e., pressing of liver, may not release the food. There were occasions when some response may release the food and
some may not release. It was termed as partial reinforcement. The arrangements can be made in such a way that
pressing of lever may result in a shock to the rat. It was termed as negative reinforcement. The response that fulfils
the desired need of the rat is termed as positive reinforcement. At the same time, the response may also lead to escape
from the painful situation that is known as negative reinforcement.

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 The operant theory of learning focuses on the fact that reinforcement follows a response. It means that response
becomes instrumental in achieving the appropriate goal. It also suggested that the manipulation of response and
reinforcement may increase or reduce or can lead to the extinction of the behaviour.
Tolman proposed the theory of cognitive learning. According to this theory, learning takes place by thinking
about the problem, from insight of the individual and from integrating different cues or pieces of information.
In learning process, the acquisition of information plays vital role and so cognitive theory advocates that the
association between cognitive environmental clues and expectations leads to learning.
Cognitive theory explains that learning takes place as a result of stimulus–stimulus association. In this theory,
two stimuli are repeated paired. The presentation of one stimulus produce an image, idea or some process representing
the second stimulus, even if it is not presented. When there is presence of more than two stimuli, the whole stimuli
may become associated.
Organization of individual directs towards the formation of cognition. Cognition is particularly related to the
knowledge of spatial associations of matter in a particular situation. Tolman concluded this theory with the concept
of the relationship between cue and expectation which got toughen and thus formed a cognitive structure. The
formation of cognitive structure was the outcome of the knowledge.
(iii) Social Learning: Social Learning theory supports the fact that group learns in the course of study and
straight understanding. It highlights communication between the cognitive, behavioural and environmental
determinants of behaviour. Group learns through observations from the behaviour of others in their group and
individuals around them. They form those actions to be the guiding factors which might lead them towards favourable
outcomes. Similarly, they tend to avoid the behaviours which are not expected to give favourable outcomes.. While
analyzing your behaviour, you will discover that your behaviours are based on the behaviour noticed by you of your
parents, friends, teachers, movies, television, achievers, successful persons, etc. All these observations tends you to
imbibe their behaviour because their behaviour lead to positive consequences. Thus, we can say that social learning
theory spotlights on the learning consequences of behaviour and self reinforcement.
Q. 2. ‘A host of factors influence the personality development’ Discuss and explain the different personality
types.
Ans. Personality is a significant feature to understand the human beings as they are the most important wealth of
an organisation. They offer existence to other possessions for the achievement of goals and objectives.
An individual’s energy creates all the disparities in organisations. Personality determines the energy of a person.
It gives a chance to recognize the persons, appropriately directing their power and motivate them in a proper manner.
Personality is the learning of the featured behaviour of an individual, the inter-relations between them and the way
in which a person responds and adjust to other people and situations. Gordon Allport has described personality as
the active organisation within the individual of those psychophysical systems that decides his exceptional adjustments
to his environment. Kolasa has defined personality as a wide, formless title relating to fundamental approaches of
persons to others and themselves. It is the study of the characteristic traits of a person, relationships between these
qualities, and the way in which a person alter to other people and situations. Stephen P. Robbins has defined
personality as the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others.
These definitions reveal that the personality has the following characteristics:
(i) Personality relates to both substantial and emotional qualities of an individual.
(ii) It is exclusive in the sense that no two persons are same in terms of their personality.
(iii) Personality is the way of modification of individual to the organisation, environment and the group.
(iv) It is a qualitative aspect but some of the techniques reveals that it needs to quantify indirectly.
(v) Personality is dynamic as it modifies with the time and situation.

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 (vi) Personality is a system because it has input, processing and output mechanisms.
(vii) Personality persuades goal achievement and performance of an individual.
Personality is a complex set of various factors and is also an intangible concept. It is complex because it is
related to the cognitive and psychological process. It is believed that a man is born with certain physical and mental
qualities but the environment in which he survives and excels shapes his personality. The characteristics of personality
are as follows:
(i) Personality is referred to both physical and psychological qualities of an individual.
(ii) Personality is counted as unique concept as no two individuals are same in terms of their personality.
(iii) Personality can be explained as the manner of adjustment of individual to the organisation, environment and the
group.
(iv) Personality is a qualitative aspect as certain techniques exist to enumerate it indirectly.
(v) Personality is dynamic as it changes with the time and situation.
(vi) Personality is a system and comprises of input, processing and output mechanisms.
(vii) Personality makes strong influences on goal achievement and also on the performance of an individual.
There are number of factors that determines the personality of individual i.e., biological factors, family factors,
environmental factors and situational factors. It’s the biological factors that are related to human body. There are
three biological factors such as heredity, brain and physical features that are considered as relevant:
(i) Heredity: Heredity is referred to those qualities that are transmitted by the parents to the next generation.
These factors are determined at beginning and certain factors of personality inherited are: physical stature, facial
attractiveness, gender, colour of skin, hair and eye balls, temperament, muscle composition, sensitivity, skills, abilities,
intelligence, energy level and biological rhythms.
(ii) Brain: The structure and composition of brain plays an important role in shaping the personality of an
individual. It is influenced by the biological factors. There are few empirical conclusions that state that the brain
influences the personality to large extent.
(iii) Physical Features: Personality is influence by the physical features and the rate of maturation. The rate of
maturation refers to the maturity in an individual and is related to the physical stature. It is believed that an individual’s
external apperance makes a strong impact on his personality. The physical apperances can be of height, colour, facial
attraction, muscle strength, etc.
Personality behaviour gives a considerate idea about the personality types. There are various types of personalities
being recognized they are:
(i) The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator: It is known as MBTI structure. It has given some basic personalities out
of which some of them are extroverted vs. introverted, sensing vs. intuitive, thinking vs. feeling, and perceiving vs.
judging etc.
The nature of a personality type ‘introverted, intuitive, thinking and judging’ possess certain qualities which can
be to possess vision, thinking with original mind, to have original ideas, to have great drive and skeptical, critical,
independent, determined and stub-born.
(ii) The Big Five Personality Types: This type of personality dimension is recognized in terms of the big five
factors. The types included under this category are:
(a) Extraversion: It means to give importance to relationships.
(b) Agreeableness: It is related to the thinking in a different manner.
(c) Conscientiousness: It means the possession of reliability.
(d) Emotional stability: It means to have ability to withstand stress.
(e) Openness to experience: It means those who are interested and fascinated by novelty.

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 (iii) Physiognomy Personality Types: William Sheldon has given three types of personality based on the
human anatomical or physical structure of persons and psychological characteristics. Physical size of the body persuades
the human behaviour and temperaments. The personality types are:
(a) Endomorph: The various characteristics of personality and behaviour related with the body type are friendly,
concern to people, helping others in troubles, very slow reaction to stimuli. They seek comfort; have strong inclination
to delicious food, etc. The persons who have these personality characteristics, are appreciated and accepted easily by the
society or a group.
(b) Mesomorph: Those people who have reasonable physical characteristics are known as Mesomorph. The
body of such persons are strong and tough. The personality characteristics of this type are: seeks physical adventure,
enjoys body building, feels restless, shows high aggression and self-assertiveness, likes to take risk and develops
competitive spirit. The person is similar to by having good and attractive physique.
(c) Ectomorph: Ectomorph body type is defined and recognized by a thin and flat chest. Usually, the person
under this type or category is intelligent, feels shy and avoids social contact. This type of persons are usually found
to be anxious, ambitious, and dedicated to his work. They are quick to react and overs-ensitive to pain and pleasure.
(iv) Extrovert-Introvert Personality Types: Carl Jung is advocated this theory. This theory is used to analyze
the psychological approach of a person. According to this theory, personality is developed as a process of creativity.
It consists of four stages: thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition. A person’s personality is a combination of these
factors. This theory has projected two personality characteristics on two extreme ends. They are extrovert and
introvert type personality. While extrovert people are more sociable, introvert people are self-confident and they are
directed by their own personal thoughts. Extroverts are friendly and reality based persons.
They are performing the functions accordingly. On the other hand, introverts are less risk taking and directive
oriented. They need strong motivation and specific directions. While extroverts think in terms of objective and
interactive relationships, the own philosophy and ideology guide the thinking of introverts.
This theory is very practical in the management of organisational behaviour. Job design, motivation, leadership
styles, career development, training, organisational change, organisational development and organisational
effectiveness are based on the personality characteristics. Introvert performs better in monotonous jobs. Extrovert
performs better in dynamic and environmental centred jobs. Similarly, extrovert needs independent style of leadership
and introvert needs directive oriented leadership. Thus, the theory is used in developing organisational strategies to
deal with individual employees for increasing organisational effectiveness.
(v) Type A and Type B Personality: Type A personality is given by Friedman and Rosenman. It is forcefully
concerned in a continual, non-stop struggle to achieve more in less time and if necessary to do so, alongside the
opposing efforts of other things or other persons. They have defined Type B personality as infrequently harassed by
the desire to obtain a wildly increasing number of things or participate in an endless mounting sequence of proceedings
in an ever declining amount of time.
Q. 3. Write short notes on the following :
(a) System theory
Ans. System can be defined as a place of mutually dependent parts that forms an organised unit of entity. It
enables us to interact with each other and is the issues to changes and so they are also known as sub-systems. They
are interdependent and interrelated and so changes in any sub-system leads to the change in others. There are three
types of sub-systems that are in an working organisation. They are as follows:
(i) Technical sub-system representing the formal relationships among the members of an organisation;
(ii) Social sub-systems that provides social satisfaction to members through informal group relations, and

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 (iii) Power sub-system that reflects the exercise of power or influence by individual and groups.
The system approach includes the following features:
(i) System is a group of interrelated but separate elements.
(ii) The arrangement of all the elements must be orderly.
(iii) There must be proper communication facilitating interaction among the elements.
(iv) Finally, the interaction should lead to achieve a common goal.
The operations taking place at the enterprise are visualized in terms of basic elements engaged in procuring and
transforming inputs into outputs. The parts of the systems also include money, employees and the managers. Materials,
information and energy, flowing into the organisation are considered to be inputs. Products, services, and satisfaction
provided by the organisation are evaluated as the outputs. Finally, the organisation transforms inputs into a variety of
outputs that are in the form of products, goods and services and offers the same to the external environment. It
provides the necessary energy that is provided through the sale of the outputs. It is called feedback and works to
repeat this entire system cycle.
The organisation systems are considered to be cybernetic in their behaviour with regard to the external environment.
It signifies the fact that they are self-steering and using feedback to guide and control their behaviour.
Organisation system is like a social system which is considered to be cybernetic in their behaviour with regard
to the external environment. It states the fact that they are self-steering, using feedback to guide and control their
behaviour. They develop method to collect, interpret and apply feedback in their decision-making process so that it
enables to obtain the capacity to adapt, evaluate, perform and to correct errors.
The systems approach to management analysis organisations as exceptionally multi-faceted entities subject to
changes. In order to meet a variety of needs of such an organisation, a balanced and integrated approach to management
is required.
It emphasizes more on the importance of decision-making and the chief way of balancing the different parts of
the organisation. Management is reviewed as a sub-system of the social system. As a sub-system management is
required to adjust and manage with environmental changes.
(b) Process of perception
Ans. Perception is the process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to
give relevance and significance to our environment.
This process includes:
(i) Perceptual inputs of stimuli: It is the first stage of perception which expresses perceptual inputs which
encompasses all stimuli which exists in our environment including information, objects, events, people, etc. The
perceiver has these inputs.
(ii) Perceptual mechanism: It is the second stage of perception which includes perceptual mechanism. It deals
with the transformation of perceptual inputs to outputs. It has three processes namely selection, organization and
interpretation of stimuli which are in the environment. Although every individual go through these steps but they
vary in their methodology of selection, organizing and interpreting the stimuli in their own way which is based on
their personality, pre-dispositions and biases.
(iii) Perceptual output: It is the third stage of perception. These outputs are derived from the process of
perceptual throughputs. It includes an individual’s attitudes, opinions, feelings, values and actions. Perceptual
errors can adversely affect the outputs therefore, managers should enhance the perceptual skills in their personality
to get the positive results.

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 (iv) Pattern of behaviour: It is the fourth stage of perception. It says that behaviour is the resultant factor of
perception. The behaviour of a perceiver enables in generating responses which give rise to a new set of inputs.
The factors which influence perception are:
(a) Factors in the perceiver: It includes self-concept, attitudes, motives, interests, experience and expectations
of the perceiver.
(b) Factors in the target: It includes physical appearance, verbal and non-verbal communication, status,
occupations, personal characteristics, novelty of the target, motion of the target, sounds of the target, background of
the target and proximity of the target.
(c) Factors in the situation: It includes social context, organizational role, work setting, location of event and
time.
All these factors help in determining the perceptions about others.
(c) Work related attitudes
Ans. Psychology deals with various types of attitudes. Organizational behaviour is related to the work-related
attitudes and behaviour. There are mainly three work-related attitudes which have important power on the organization
they are:
(i) Job Satisfaction: The range of attitudes group or individuals has towards their jobs are referred to as job
satisfaction. It is persons’ cognitive, affective and evaluative response towards their jobs.
(ii) Job Involvement: It specifies how far persons recognize themselves with the job, and whether outcome of
the work is emotionally involved to person’s importance.
(iii) Organizational Commitment: It clarifies that how individuals feel on the way to their organisations. It is
an attitude, which reflects the degree to which people recognizes with and are concerned with their organisations
and are reluctant to go away.
Organizations should try to endlessly measure the attitudes of employees at work place, so that remedial measures
may be taken in practical manner, for making certain pleasing behaviour at work. It is significant to learn attitudes,
as attitudes influence behaviour.
(d) Team Building
Ans. Team building means to shape the team for smooth functioning of an organization. Steven and Mary have
defined team building as any formal intervention that is directed towards civilizing the development and functioning
of a team work. The process of team building endeavours on the enhancing of efficiency of a team.
Pareek Udai has recommended following appro-aches for team building they are:
(i) The Johari Window Approach: This approach means to help the members in expressing their feelings,
opinions reactions and accept feedback from team members. This develops their understanding towards the team
members.
(ii) The Role Negotiation Approach: This approach spotlight on perceptive of the potential of the team members
and accepting their behaviour according to the opportunity. This enhances the joint effort of the team.
(iii) The Team Roles Approach: This approach believes that there are positive roles which each team member
is likely to perform. Belbin has recognized eight roles. They are: Chairman, shaper, plant, monitor/evaluator, company
worker, resource investigator, team worker and completer. The level performance of these roles conveys
synchronization in the attempt of the team.
(iv) The Behaviour Modification Approach: This approach spotlights on group member’s behaviour towards
the team. The individual member evaluates their behaviour and finds out the most appropriate behaviour. Then they
adopt the most appropriate behaviour for the presentation of the team.

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 (v) The Simulation Approach: In this approach a simulated team is shaped where members act together, discuss,
deliberate and learn from other members behaviour. In this state of affairs, the team member’s discover the most
efficient way of dealing with the disputes and meet the necessities and the prospect of the team.
(vi) The Action Research Approach: In this approach, the entire range of behaviour is analyzed and assessed.
The investigator interact with the team members and evaluate their behaviour. The effort is prepared to discover the
most suitable behaviour of the team.
(vii) The Appreciative Inquiry Approach: This approach spotlights on the recognition of positive character in
the team members. The attempt is made to channelise these positive qualities towards the accomplishment of the
team goal.
Q. 4. Differentiate between the following :
(a) Project and Matrix structure of organisation
Project organisation: This type of organisation is suitable when an organisation undertakes specialised work
for a particular period as one time operation. In order to deal with such situations organisations develops a unit
which is specially designed to accomplish such project works without disturbing the routine jobs of the organisation.
The organisations engage their existing employees on deputation basis to deal with a particular project and then that
particular executive resumes to his parent department after the completion of the project. The advantage of such
organisations is that it does not disturb the regular work of the organisation. It enables the better control over the
project activities because the managers enjoy the authority to function the projects effectively. But at times these
organisations spoil the stability of the various departments as the personnel are shifted for the sake of the project and
thus disrupt the basic functioning of the parent department.
Matrix organisation: It aims to combine the advantages of autonomous project organisation and functional
specialization. In this structure functional departments are having full time specialised workers to accommodate and
are capable of handling more than one project at a time. This is found suitable as the organisation is most of the time
engaged in the project activities and the managers are also more in number and can accomplish the project work
effectively. It provides for the flexible system of working as it adapts the changes quickly. The demerit of such
organisations is that the employees are engaged in dual jobs and are burdened with more work which affects the
unity of command at times in the organisation.
(b) Rational economic man model and Organisational man model
Ans. Rational Economic Man Model: Classical theories have been able to formulate the balance of the economic
man model. It is the oldest model. It is the foundation on the principle of maximisation of self-interest.
According to this model, an individual makes steadiness between expenses and settlement of his proceedings.
He is more worried with computation of value for his attempt in terms of financial rewards and maximising it.
Economic rewards standardize the behaviour. Rational Economic model assume that man is forced by economic
rewards and his behaviour can be restricted by difference in economic rewards. Thus, it is pertinent to design the
appropriate strategies of motivation and control. It is helpful in formating reward systems. It suggests that human
energy is removed by providing more monetary rewards. As increased economic rewards persuade production, there
is no conflict between management and workers. This leads to creation of good industrial relations system. This
model measured as a practical depiction of human behaviour.
Organizational Man Model: William Whyte has given and explained the concept of organisational man.
An organizational man gives up for the sake of organisations’ interest. A person possessing an idea that social
contentment is influential tool to accomplish objectives instead of competitive struggle falls under this category.

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Organisational man model propose that individual behaviour is leaning towards loyalty, belongingness, conformity
and sacrifice of individual interest in the realisation of organisational goals.
Consequently, individual’s attitude is developed towards determination of conflicts. Organisational man model
is useful in formation of an organisational structure to provide satisfaction to individuals. Therefore, organizational
strategies take care of people’s interest. Leadership is extremely democratic. Communication is open and controls
are based on self-control rather than fact controls. Motivation is positive and assurance is guaranteed.
(c) Maslow’s and Herzberg’s motivation theory
Ans. Maslow’s theory of need hierarchy and Herzberg’s two-factors theories are similar and dissimilar in certain
respects.
The following points of similarities are observed in both theories.
(i) Maslow and Herzberg’s theories have recognized that motivation is a procedure and it results in to
presentation.
(ii) Both the theories have measured the entirety of needs. Herzberg measured positive needs as motivators.
Maslow measured the same needs as esteem and self-actualization.
(iii) Both theories have measured that requirements to establish the motivation and motivation determines the
behaviour of persons.
Difference between Maslow’s Theory of need hierarchy and Herzberg’s two factors is as follows:
S.No. Differences Maslow’s Need Herzberg’s Two
Hierarchy Factors Theory
1. Nature It is descriptive It is prescriptive.
2. Arrangement The needs are having There is no sequential
of Needs sequential arrangement. arrangement.
3. Classification It has both higher order It is more based on the
and lower order needs. hygiene and motivators.
4. Relationship Due to unsatisfied needs It has satisfied needs
it causes behaviour and which gives positive
behaviour leads to performance.
performance.
5. Motivation It has satisfied need It has higher order
which is not a needs are motivators.
motivating factor for the
organisation.
6. Financial factors The pay and financial The financial benefits
benefits are motivators. are not motivating.
7. Applicability It has a macro view and It considers micro view
applicable to general and applicable to work
motivation. motivation.
8. Relevance It is relevant to all It is relevant to white
individuals. collar and professional.

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 (d) Job enrichment and Job enlargement
Ans. Job Enrichment: Job Enrichment is a process that contains certain activities and is not a single time
activity. The activities comprises of combining tasks, creating natural work units, establishing relationships among
personnel, expanding job vertically and providing feed-back channels. The advantages of job enrichment are:
(i) Increase in quality and productivity
(ii) Enhanced motivation and job satisfaction
(iii) Development of additional skills
(iv) Less work load on employees
(v) Enhanced creativity in employees
(vi) Increase in pay and perquisites
(vii) Decreased absenteeism and turnover
(viii) Less number of grievances
(ix) Optimum use of human energy
(x) Increased social benefits due to increase in quality and productivity.
Job Enlargement: Job enlargement can be termed as complementing variety of tasks in the job. Job enlargement
refers to the horizontal expansion of jobs. It is expansion done to include more variety of tasks within the scope of
the job. Job enlargement works effectively when an employee feels his job to be less challenging and desires for
something that is more adventurous and challenging in his job. It can be also due to less diversity and unsubstantial
professional satisfaction where an employee might feel dissatisfied. Job enlargement provides variety of tasks that
can be performed within his job.
For example, if a worker is designated with the job of counting the finished products and predictably he finds it
boring and repetitive. Then the job can be enlarged by including certain tasks connected to the job. It can be checking
the products before counting, packing and delivering the products at the finished goods warehouse. etc.
Q. 5. Comment briefly on the following statement :
(a) The impact of departmentation is a delineation of executive responsibilities and a grouping of operating
activities.
Ans. Departmentation: It is the process by which efficient functioning of organisation is achieved by forming
departments or grouping activities into a number of separate units. The concept of departmentation can vary from
organisation to organisation. It is directed towards delineation of executive responsibilities and grouping of operating
that are below the apex are departmentalized. The levels at succeeding lower levels involves further departmental
differentiation experimentalization has its major benefits in the structuring of the organisation. It leads to the benefits
of specialization. It is because as various organisational activities are grouped as per their relations with the specified
functions or objectives. It helps in the effective managerial control in the organisation. The expenditure of each
department has a specific objective. Departmentation helps to fix the performance of various tasks. It facilitates
freedom or autonomy as every head of departments is given a sufficient degree of authority. It helps in the development
of managerial personnel as it provides those opportunities to take independent decisions and initiative.
(b) Attribution is an important concept for understanding perception.
Ans. Attribution is a significant theory for understanding perception, because it is connected to judging the
causes of others’ behaviour. An inexact attribution may guide to inexact perception. Our perceptions of what is
taking place in the surroundings depend very much on our attributions. Attribution theory explains that when persons
examines behaviour, they endeavour to establish whether it is caused due to internally or externally factors. Internally
caused behaviour is when persons are believed to be under the individual control of the person. Externally caused
behaviour is seen while ensuing from outside causes over which the individual has no control.

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 (c) Stress is both negative and positive
Ans. A person experience stress through psychological emotions and is developed through physiological
breakdown or biological changes. Nevertheless, stress is not always negative. Stress also has some positive
consequences, and this type of stress is known as eustress.
Mild stress raises body metabolic and biological rates. The rise in the metabolism leads to secretion of fluid
from body glands that will add to the inner drive for attainment. Achievement motivation is the outcome of deep
intention, mild tensions, inner urge, fire and feeling of impatience to achieve objectives. Stress enables to develop a
person also. The mild form of stress enhances job presentation and leads to quality and provides momentum to work
hard and perform well. Persons concerned with the release of professional jobs such as jobs involving creativity,
challenge, interpersonal communications and certain managerial jobs, will be advantaged by stress, as it leads to positive
performances.
Though, jobs concerning physical effort do not get benefit out of stress. Mild levels of stress add to job presentation.
It stimulates body and increases reactivity. Therefore, persons perform better and in a fast mode.
Some of the positive consequences of stress are increased productivity, positive response to target, development
of proper perception in the decision-making, increased motivation and performance, increased adaptability to change
and increased quality of job performance. Stress also helps in promoting creativity in the workers.
Nevertheless, in the modern organizations the negative consequences of stress are creating more troubles.
According to Schuler, Khan and Byosiyere, stress leads to high blood pressure, ulcer, cancer, accident proneness
and irritation. Although there is no perfect relationship between stress and its consequences, stress itself reveals into
physiological, psychological, behavioural, job and organizational consequences.
The positive and negative consequences are discussed below:
(i) Physiological Consequences: Stress controls the biological system of the human being. Some of the forms
of stress are increased blood pressure, proneness to heart disease, cancer, sweating, dry mouth, hot and cold flashes,
frustration, anxiety, depression, increased level of cholesterol, ulcer, arthritis etc. Physical stress adds to the body
metabolic rate. This results into out of order of internal gland and as a result there is a body disorder. This is
experienced in the form of increasing heart beating, increase in breathing rate and headache. This leads to biological
sickness. The physical stress also leads to psychological troubles. In fact, physical stress and physiological disorders
are interrelated. Though, physical disorders and stress should not be associated positively. This is because of difficulty
of indication of physical stress and lack of objective dimension of force of stress on physical disorders.
(ii) Psychological Consequences: Psychological consequences are interconnected with biological consequences.
They are hidden, but affect the workers’ job performance. Psychological stress gives strain to human brain. This is
articulated in terms of certain psychological symptoms such as anger, anxiety, depression, nervousness, irritation,
tension, boredom, aggressiveness, moodiness, hostility and poor concentration. Tensions, anxiety, and emotions
lead to procrastination. Psychological stress leads to interpersonal aggressions, misunderstanding in communication,
poor interpersonal communication and low interpersonal attraction. This is established through violent actions like
sabotage, increased interpersonal complaints, poor job performance, lowered self-esteem, increased resentment,
low concentration on the job and increased dissatisfaction. Psychological stress produces roughness in the behaviour
and can lead to theory of dictatorial leadership style by the managers.
(iii) Behavioural Consequences: Stress has an impact on workers behaviour. An abnormal behaviour is
experimental in those persons who are lying on the front to stress. A change in eating habits, sleep disorder, increased

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smoking, alcoholism, fidgeting and aloofness are some of the behavioural changes observed in stressful employees.
At times stress leads to anxiety, apathy, depression and emotional disorder. This leads to spontaneous and aggressive
behaviour and frequent interpersonal conflicts. Some of the behavioural consequences are under eating, overeating,
drug abuse and sleeplessness.
(d) When there is a resistance to change, the management has to take appropriate steps to overcome the
resistance.
Ans. Resistance to change can be described as an attitude or behaviour that shows disinclination or reluctance to
approve a particular change. This resistance is to be overcome for successful change. There are occasions when
resistance to change serves as a feedback to reconsider the proposed change. As a result, resistance to change can
also be used for the benefit of the organisation. The real meaning of constructive approach to resistance is to consider
objections raised and make suitable amendments and educate the employees about the proposed change. Resistance
can be overt, implicit, immediate and differed.
When the resistance is overt and immediate, the management can take immediate remedial steps to deal with
such resistance. The implicit resistance may result in loss of loyalty, loss of motivation, increased mistakes, increased
absenteeism etc. When substantial amounts have already been invested in carrying out the change in due course of
time, differed resistance creates problem to the management. The resistance to change may be introduced by the
organisation, the individual or both.

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