Module 3

LEARNING AND PERCEPTION

Module Introduction
Learning is a continuous and never ending process. This is a lifelong process. To be
competitive, organizations must also take into account that people in the workplace have their
own behavior and perceptions on things based on what they have learned through experiences,
observations and others. Further, the management needs to understand the principles and
processes that govern an individual's learning. Effective managers acquire talents who are willing
to learn and grow. While relative to learning is the concept of perception. Using our senses, we
then process the ideas in our mind, create decisions and behave accordingly.
This chapter primarily deals with the concepts of learning and perception. We aim to lay
down conditions anchored from various theories which could be of help to learning. We shall also
focus on perceptions of people and different perceptions can indirectly create a firm's human
capital. Problems encountered regarding learning and perceptions are also important concepts to
look at.

Topic Outcomes
After reading and understanding this module, students will be able to:
1. Examine how contingencies of reinforcement affect organizations;
2. Distinguish other conditions for learning; and
3. Compare and recognize different perceptions of people in organizations.

LEARNING: DEFINITION, NATURE AND THEORIES

Learning is part of everyone’s human life. Everyday, people get to learn as they go along
their journey. In organizational behavior, the formula for learning can be written as Situation +
Behavioral Response + Consequence of Response = Learning. When a child sees a dog from
afar (situation), out of so much fear he runs away as fast as he could (behavioral response).
The dog then ran after him, till the child was chased and got bitten (consequence of response).
Now, how can the child learn from this experience? Will the child run again every time seeing a
dog?

Exhibit 3.3
Basic Elements of Learning (Hitt, Miller & Collela, 2012)
Definition and Nature of Learning
Learning can be defined as a process of changing one’s behavior as a result of a
previously encountered positive or negative situation. Learning is evident only if one exhibits
change of behavior. This change is relatively permanent and requires practice or experience.
Along the process of learning, one’s feelings can be too influencing. As some individuals earn,
their sense of achievement can boost their confidence. While for others, this can be frustrating as
changes also create new knowledge about things that they were not used to. Some see these
changes awkward to them. Generally, learning is powerful.
Most people think that learning comes from formal school, i.e. through teaching or training,
but learning can also occur from experiences and even observations. Learning in the workplace
occurs in day to day work demands that employees experience, e.g. creating solutions to
problems and dealings with the clients or customers.

Models of Learning: Theories and Conditions

The models of learning can be best understood through the development of modern
behavioral learning theory. This reflects the four stages of the development in research as regards
learning.

Exhibit 3.2
The Development of Modern Behavioral Learning Theory
(Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license)
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning was developed by a Russian classical behaviorist, Ivan Pavlov.
It was defined as a process in which S-R connection or stimulus-response connection shows that
when a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus, it becomes a conditioned
stimulus resulting in a conditioned response. Pavlov conducted this experiment with dogs. He
tried presenting meat powder (unconditioned stimulus) to the dog which eventually resulted in the
dog's salivation (unconditioned response). Next, when he rang a bell (neutral response), there
was no salivation. Pavlov tried associating the ring of a bell with a coming food. He rang the bell
with the accompanying meat. After being repeated several times, the dog salivated. The next time
Pavlov tried ringing a bell, he did not present any meat, but the dog still salivated. The ring of a
bell (now, a conditioned stimulus), classically conditioned the dog salivation (conditioned
response).
However, this theory has also been criticized by other psychologists as it only explains a
limited part of the total learning of individuals. B.F. Skinner argued that classical conditioning
cannot explain a much larger and complex learning. Thus, it led to some more theories relative to
learning.

Thorndyke’s Law of Effect

The Law of effect by Edward Thorndike suggests that those responses in a given
situation accompanied or followed by satisfying effect (reinforcement) will have more likelihood of
recurrence, while those accompanied or followed by discomforting effect (punishment) shall
reduce the likelihood that the said response will be repeated. This principle was noted by
Thorndyke in his experiment with animals. He found out that learning occurs through trial and
error. When one response results in a reward, there is a high chance of repeated behavior and
otherwise.
Thorndyke’s law of effect has led to the development of operant conditioning.

Operant Conditioning
While classical conditioning is dependent on the development of associations between
situations (stimulus-response bond), learning that occurs from the consequences of behavior is
the idea of operant conditioning (response-stimulus bond). In operant conditioning, there must be
a positive response in a given situation to lead to a reward. Learning by consequence was
developed by B.F. Skinner. He has proven this with his experiment on animals whereby animals
have associated a positive or negative response to a reward or punishment respectively.
When a given behavioral response results in a pleasant consequence, the tendency that
the said behavior will be repeated is high. For instance, an employee who gets rewarded for a job
well done or reports submitted ahead of time is more likely to repeat the behavior in similar
situations. This is the concept of positive reinforcement. It is a reinforcement contingency
whereby a behavior in a particular situation is followed by a positive consequence, thus,
strengthening the probability that the behavior will be repeated. In a similar way, negative
reinforcement is also effective in increasing the likelihood of repeated behavior. Negative
reinforcement is another reinforcement contingency in which a behavior is followed by the
prevention or withdrawal of a previously encountered negative consequence, thus, strengthening
the probability that the behavior will be repeated. Employees who report to work early (behavior)
removes the employer's habit of nagging all day long in the office (withdrawal of the negative
consequence). Ergo, employees try to go to work everyday to minimize the unpleasant
consequences.
On the other hand, punishment exists to stop the repeated behavior for similar
situations by introducing a negative consequence. An example of this is an employee who gets
a salary deduction everytime he comes to work late. The negative consequence, i.e. salary
deduction will lead to a lesser frequency of reporting to work late. Punishment, however, must
be utilized appropriately by the organizations in particular situations. As punishment gives
negative consequences to individuals, it creates various impressions to those who experienced
being punished and those who have seen the process of punishing others. Since punishment
seems to be challenging for some to implement, another reinforcement contingency was
developed. This is known as extinction. It refers to the procedure whereby a behavior is followed
by the withdrawal of a previously encountered pleasant consequence, thus, reducing the
probability that the undesirable behavior will be repeated. For example, employees are used to
sending emails to the employer anytime they have personal issues and concerns, not considering
whether this is within office hours, early in the morning or late at night. This has been habitual to
most of the employees since the employer regularly sends responses. Eventually, it becomes a
bit cumbersome to the employer. To cease this behavior portrayed by the employees, it began to
be no longer reinforced. The employer stopped responding to emails, until the employees
themselves withdrew the said behavior.
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule is used to control the frequency of
reinforcement for the desired behavior. Generally, there are two types of reinforcement schedule.
Continuous reinforcement is a schedule in which the reward immediately follows a given
behavior. This is the simplest type as it is very easy to understand. After the performance of each
desired behavior, the reward is given. This is an easy and effective tool when teaching anew
behavior. On the other hand, intermittent reinforcement is a schedule in which the reward does
not immediately follow after each behavior, but only after a certain ratio or interval of responses.
Shown in Exhibit 3.3 are the four intermittent schedules.
Type of Nature of Reinforcement Example
Intermittent
Schedule

1. Fixed Interval Behavior is rewarded based on a Daily pay, Weekly pay,

Schedule fixed amount of time Periodical examinations of
students

2. Variable interval Reinforcement is made available Random monthly observation

Schedule based on unpredictable time and performance monitoring as
part of employee recognition
program, unannounced quizzes
in class

3. Fixed ratio Reward is based from the set or Piece-rate pay

schedule fixed number of times that a
behavior is done

4. Variable ratio Reward is based on the Lottery, gambling activities,

performance of the desired rewards given unpredictably,
behavior an unpredictable number often applicable to business
of times organization particularly in giving
sales bonuses
 Exhibit 3.3
Types of Intermittent Schedule

Each of the reinforcement schedules is advantageous. Ratio schedules are more on

response-contingent while interval schedules are time-contingent. This means that when rewards
are given based on time (interval : hourly, monthly) and independent of the employee behavior, it
would often result in a weakened desired behavior. An employee who is paid based on the number
of outputs he/she produces is more likely to perform better.

Social Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory, developed by Psychologist Albert Bandura, suggests that
individuals learns through observations as they interact with others. This theory argues that the
learning process does not require one to experience a given situation for them to learn and change
his behavior. While other psychologists explain that the concept of learning from consequences,
this theory focuses on learning from others which results to imitated behaviors. Further, social
learning theory acknowledges cognitive process and refuses to agree on the idea that higher
mental process is irrelevant in learning process.

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
Knowledge is often defined as “justified true belief” based from the old traditions in the
philosophy of knowledge. According to Plato, Knowledge is the set of beliefs that are true and
that we are justified in believing.
Peter Drucker, management guru, on the other hand, defined knowledge as “information
in action, information focused in results.” The way knowledge is important in everyday usage,
knowledge is vital in every organization. Gained knowledge provides value in the businesses. In
the context of organizational behavior, knowledge needs to be managed properly since it is
acquired and transmitted by individuals and groups in the organization.
First, knowledge is classified into three : explicit, tacit and implicit. Explicit knowledge
includes words and statements which can be documented. Thus, this type of knowledge is easy
to share with others. Examples are company policies and procedures, written company reports,
and researches. Knowledge that is difficult to articulate and be presented in tangible or written
form is known as tacit knowledge. It is also referred to as knowledge of experience or the “know-
how”. This tends to become subjective and personal. On the other hand, implicit knowledge is
application of explicit knowledge. Skills that can be transferred from one job to another are
considered implicit knowledge. Knowledge is anywhere in the organization. Management must
understand that knowledge can be found in individuals and groups, systems and structures.
Hence, they need to ensure that knowledge is retained and utilized in the organization.
Knowledge management as defined by Tom Davenport is the process of capturing,
distributing, and effectively using knowledge. It involves processes, strategies and systems of
knowledge acquisition, creation, refinement, storage, transfer, sharing and utilization. Through
knowledge management, organization’s knowledge assets are improved and made available for
greater productivity and organizational performance. Moreover, knowledge management is an
organizational activity wherein the management is tasked to ensure employee participation in
achieving the goals and purpose of knowledge management. Ikujiro Nonaka, one of the early
founders of the concept of knowledge management explains that knowledge is “one sure source
of the lasting competitive advantage” of the organization.
Human resources as organization’s assets are likewise associated with the term
knowledge management. It encompasses the individuals’ knowledge acquired and made
available for the organization. Hence, it is crucial for the management to create a culture where
learning and knowledge sharing is a priority of its people.

ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING: TYPES AND PRINCIPLES

Organizational learning is viewed as one of the goals of knowledge management.
Researches have shown that a relationship between the two concepts exists. Organizational
Learning is a process whereby knowledge is created, utilized and transferred within the
organization. Ergo, an organization that is able to create, use, share knowledge and make
necessary changes to arrive at a new knowledge is coined as a learning organization.

Types of Organizational Learning

James March, an American sociologist, proposed two principal types of organizational
learning strategies that management may consider. (1) Exploration of new possibilities involves
searching, experimenting, innovating and developing new routines and behaviors to increase
effectiveness. Under this type of organizational learning, organization members invest resources
looking and taking risks to try new alternative ways and practices; although returns are uncertain,
it’s benefits are long-term in nature. (2) Exploitation of old certainties, on the other hand, focuses
on the existing routines and procedures for efficiency and productivity. Returns are more
predictable since exploitation looks at the existing competencies, and simply, concentrates on
refining and improving them. Thus, it involves total quality management. Exploration and
exploitation are equally important in the organization, however the managementis responsible in
keeping a balance between the two organizational learning strategies.

Principles of the Learning Organizational

Peter Senge, in his book “The Fifth Discipline” developed the five principles of the learning
organization.
Systems Thinking. This principle stresses on looking at a big picture of the organization
as a whole. It focuses on a larger system where individuals and groups interact, thus, affecting
one another. The management must put emphasis on understanding each action and
consequences as it observes the processes in the entire system. This results in more appropriate
solutions and sound decisions. Senge further argues that outside forces, e.g. economy,
environment, etc., should be considered in arriving at a long term systemic solution.
Personal Mastery. Individuals of high level of mastery, i.e. with clear vision and goals,
and aware of their capabilities, tend to become creative in the workplace. Senge suggests that
since there is a need for the individuals to develop their personal mastery, management must
take part in empowering them to create and explore what they can and what they want.
Mental Models. Senge defined mental models as the process of challenging one’s
personal assumptions about the others. In the process of developing personal mastery, it goes
hand in hand with organizations using mental models to provide individuals the opportunity to
assume more responsibility in decision making. Indeed, those organizations who are able to adapt
to new models become successful organizations.
Building a shared vision. Senge believes that paying attention to a well established and
clear vision is part of creating a learning organization. This principle emphasizes that building a
shared vision provides a guide to managing employee behaviors. When personal values jibe with
the organizational vision, it fosters a greater possibility of goal achievement.
Team Learning. This principle values the importance of groups in the learning process.
It involves collective and shared learning as groups interact and eventually learn from one
another. Team learning also depends on mental models and personal mastery.

All these principles are interrelated although these are a bit challenging for the
organizations. Implementation of the five principles results in a continuous learning process and
a competitive business organization.

LEARNING STYLES
Learning styles vary from one person to another. Each individual has his preference on
the methods, approaches and ways of learning.

David Kolb’s Model of Learning Style

One of the most known theories on learning styles was developed by Davis Kolb. He
suggests that learning is a cycle having four stages. He likewise proposes four independent
learning styles.

Kolb’s Learning Cycle

The four stages include:
1. Concrete Experience. This is the first stage in which it involves having a new
experience is introduced or encountered by the individual. It could also be a
reinterpretation of an existing experience.
2. Reflective Observation. This stage is the beginning of one’s reflection of his
experience to have a greater understanding.
3. Abstract Conceptualization. After reviewing the encountered experience, the
individual concludes and eventually comes up with a new idea or concept. This
stage is known as abstract conceptualization.
4. Active Experimentation. This stage involves the application or practice of the new
concept. The outcomes are then observed and tested.

Generally, learning according to Kolb involves experiencing, reflecting, conceptualizing

and testing.

Kolb’s Learning Styles

Based on the four stages of learning, Kolb arrived with the four independent learning
styles.

Active Experimentation Reflective Observation

(Doing) (Watching)

Concrete Experience Accommodating Diverging

(Feeling) (CE/AE) (CE/RO)

Abstract Conceptualization Converging Assimilating

(Thinking) (AC/AE) (AC/RO)
Exhibit 3.4
Matrix of Kolb’s Learning Styles

1. Accommodating (Feeling and Doing). This learning style corresponds to the first and
 fourth stages of learning. Individuals who prefer this learning style are “hands-on”
Accommodating learners rely on gut-feel and are open to new experiences. Their actions
are based mostly on intuition rather than logic.
2. Diverging (Feeling and Watching). Diverging learners prefer concrete experiences and
are able to reflect on various perspectives, as based on the first two stages of learning.
Individuals using this learning style are good at imagination and generation of new ideas.
They are good at brainstorming and are generally artistic.
3. Converging (Thinking and Doing). This learning style is based from the third and fourth
stages of learning. It enables individuals specialist and technical abilities. People with this
learning style best perform in solving problems and finding solutions to practical issues.
They prefer experimenting, simulating and applying ideas to practical, “hands-on
solutions. Their actions focus on technical tasks and not so much with interpersonal
aspects.
4. Assimilating (Thinking and Watching). This corresponds to the second and third stages
of learning. People with assimilating learning styles are logical. To arrive with ideas, they
follow logic in processing information. Similar to convergence, they also do not focus on
people and interpersonal aspects.However, they require a clearer and logical explanation
than a practical opportunity. They are primarily focusing on ideas and concepts. They
prefer to learn through lectures, reading and analyzing. This learning style is significant
to the field of science.

The Seven Learning Styles

The Memletic Learning Styles Inventory by Sean Whiteley includes seven learning styles
and thus more popularly known as The Seven Learning Styles. This was based on the multiple
intelligence theory of Howard Gardner.
Exhibit 3.5
The Seven Learning Styles
Learning Style Nature of Learning Skills Learned

1. Visual (Spatial) Individuals prefer to learn through Drawing, painting,

images and are good at imagining designing, sense of
different physical configuration. direction

2. Aural Individuals prefer to learn through Singing, playing musical

(Auditory/Musical) sounds and tend to think in instruments, understanding
rhythms and patterns. music

3. Verbal (Linguistic) Individuals prefer to learn through Speaking, explaining,

words and language. writing, persuading,
listening and storytelling

4. Physical Individuals prefer to learn through Dancing, acting, physical

(Kinaesthetics) sense of touch, balance and coordination, using body
coordination, and are good at language, playing sports
controlling their bodies.
 5. Logical Individuals prefer to learn through Problem solving, drawing
(Mathematical) the use of reasoning and logic. logical conclusions, doing
mathematical calculations,
experimenting

6. Social Individuals prefer to learn through Good public relations,

(Interpersonal) sensing and relating with others, listening, conflict
and seeing things in multiple resolution, empathy,
perspectives. communication

7. Solitary Individuals prefer to learn through Self analysis and

(Intrapersonal) self reflection. awareness, evaluating
one’s thoughts

Honey and Mumford Learning Styles

Inspired by Kolb’s Learning Styles, Peter Honey and Alan Mumford developed Honey and
Mumford Learning Styles. This learning style is a simplified model of Kolb’s Learning Styles.
The four learning styles are:
1. Activists. These learners prefer new challenges and experiences. They enjoy learning by
doing. They are good at brainstorming, role playing and competitions. Activists are flexible
and open-minded.
2. Reflectors. These individuals learn by watching others. They are keen observers and
gather enough information before arriving into conclusions. Reflectors prefer coaching
sessions, observations, self analysis and paired discussions.
3. Theorists. These are logical individuals and have the tendency of being perfectionists.
They value rationality and objectivity and they enjoy assimilating disparate facts into
coherent theories. They prefer models, theories, statistics, storytelling, quotes and
systems thinking.
4. Pragmatists. These learners prefer to try new experiments and apply the learning into
practice as they want to see things put in actions and know if they work in the real world.
Pragmatists act quickly on ideas, however, they easily get bored in long-term discussions.
Case studies and practical problem solving are suited to them.
 Exhibit 3.6
Honey and Mumford Learning Styles

BASIC CONCEPTS OF PERCEPTION

People may like or dislike others whom they met the first time because they may be
perceived of having the same or different characteristics respectively. Perhaps, perceptions of
individuals really create the first impressions. And these perceptions often result in judgements
and behaviors. While humans think and see others in different perspectives, it is important to
study and analyze perceptual processes. Thus, when we solely use our senses without looking
at the full range of data, there comes inaccuracy in our perceptions about and towards other
people.
Perception refers to the process by which an individual senses the environment,
interprets and transforms the inputs to meaningful information for appropriate behavioral
response. This is how people interpret sensory data. Perceptual process includes receiving,
selecting, organizing and interpreting the inputs through a person's senses. In organizational
behavior, there is really a need to understand the role of perception. The three components of
perception includes (1) the perceiver or the person who interprets the inputs from his/her senses,
(2) the target, anyone or anything that a person focuses on and (3) the situation wherein the
perception is taking place.

Selective Attention
With the voluminous information that goes through our senses, we get bombarded with
lots of thoughts and stimuli, and emotions as well. Hence, we fail to look at much important
information. Theorists have explained that individuals are actually capable of screening and
selecting objects that vie attention. This is known as perceptual selectivity or selective attention.
 Selective attention is the process in which individuals select and direct attention to
specific objects in the environment. Thus, it leads to what a person opt to learn and remember.
A person who watches a demonstration does not mind the noise of people chatting around nor
the sound of the vehicles passing by. This process then allows individuals to direct and focus their
attention to achieve target learning. It also suggests that the limited capacity of people to focus
their attention can be conceptualized as a bottleneck that restricts the flow of information. Ergo,
the narrower the bottleneck, the lower the rate of flow of information.

Factors Affecting Perception

The way an individual perceives is affected by several factors. Even if there is one and
the same stimulus, people may perceive it differently.
1. Sensory Limits or Thresholds. Individuals vary on the limits of their sensing capabilities.
For some, watching a TV show on a bigger screen with loud sounds seems to be enjoyable
and exciting, while for others it is irritating and unpleasant. Further, a person’s readiness
to sense input can also affect his perception. When people expect and prepare for a
stimulus, attention and focus is given.
2. Psychological Factors. These factors include personality, motivation, needs and
expectations, interests and others. For example, when one is motivated to work for him
to receive the needed bonus, his focus will be on the tasks among any other things around
him in the workplace.
3. Perceptual Learning. This refers to the process by which one’s ability to sense and
respond to stimuli is enhanced through experience. Example of perceptual learning is a
full-fledged teacher in classroom performing than a common teacher who was not
exposed to training and teaching pedagogy. Another is a person who is able to distinguish
differences between shades of color blue.
4. Cultural Differences. Culture and diversity also affect individuals’ perception. This
becomes a problem when stereotyping occurs.

PERCEPTUAL DISTORTION AND ERRORS

Social perception is the process through which sensory data are interpreted to create
impression towards other people. When we misjudge and conclude wrongfully, they are likely to
persist.Problems and biases occur because selectivity exists in the perceptual process. There is
a need to address these perceptual distortions and errors to reduce inaccurate perception and
judgements.
1. Attribution Theory. Attributions are explanations of what have caused events and
behaviors. Attribution theory is concerned on how people explain the causes of behaviors.
People's attributions can be internal or external. Internal or dispositional attribution relates
people’s behavior to the characteristics and traits of an individual. While external or
situational attribution relates the causes of behavior to external forces and environment.
Attributional biases include (1) Fundamental Attribution Error - perception problem
wherein the person tends to over attribute the behavior of others to internal causes rather
than external and (2) Self-serving bias - a perceptual error in which the individual
attributes success to internal factors but blame others for failures.
2. Selective Perception. Since people selectively interpret what they see, hear or feel,
especially from the basis of what they need or have interest in, they tend to ignore other
viewpoints, consciously and unconsciously.
3. Halo Effect. Thorndike has first used the term “halo effect”. It is a perception problem in
which people are assessed based solely from one positive or negative trait or
 characteristic they possess. This leads to a general impression of individuals while their
specific characteristics are missed and overlooked. This cognitive bias tends to create
inaccurate perceptions. Often, physical attributes of a person become part of the halo
effect. When one is seemingly of good posture, nice and well-dressed, people perceive
him/her as a smart person. In contrast (usually known as “horn effect”), a student who
comes to school late is perceived by his teacher as a lazy poor performer in class. This
is a big problem when the interviewer during the selection process gets impressed by a
single trait and the applicant gets hired without being evaluated for his specific
qualifications.
4. Contrast Effects. It is a perceptual error in which the person’s perceptions of others affect
his perception of an individual that he is trying to assess. The evaluation then is influenced
by the comparison with persons who were previously encountered. For instance, a
manager is rating his employee based on the performance of the recently evaluated
employee. Instead of looking at the standard criteria, the manager tends to compare the
performance of the employee with the other. So if one is rated A+, and the following
employee is seemingly on the average, he will be graded very low since the previous is
outstanding.
5. Projection. This is a common perceptual error in which people assume that their own
characteristics are shared by others. Projecting people think and attribute others’ values
and beliefs to themselves. For example, a student who studies very well thinks that others
do the same way and that he must double his effort to be competitive. While a student
who gets low scores in examinations tends to think that those who score high are
wasting their time and efforts because at the end of the day, the bottomline is they will
both graduate from the same degree. Projecting people often overestimate or
underestimate the projection itself. It follows the saying, “to an honest man, everybody is
honest.” This can be addressed through empathy and self awareness.
6. Stereotyping. As discussed earlier, stereotyping is a set of generalized and inaccurate
beliefs about the characteristics of a certain group. It is already understood that this is one
of the roadblocks to diversity. Stereotyping occurs when individuals meet a person
belonging to a particular group and perceive that this person has the same and general
characteristics attributed to the group. Stereotypes then miss the unique characteristics of
a person leading to inaccurate perception.
7. Self-fulfilling Prophecy. It is also known as “phygmalion effect”, a psychological
phenomenon in which high expectations results in greater performance. Self-fulfilling
prophecy predicts that something will come true because the perceiver expects and
believes it to come true. The failures of bank during the Great Depression is a classic
example of this perceptual error.
End of Chapter Test

Case Study
CASE: A BAD DAY IN BOONETOWN
Source : Retrieved from file:///HBO%20syllabus:module%20making/Chapter4-Perception.pdf, August 5, 2020.

Tom, plant manager of the
Boonetown facility, sat with his
elbows on his desk, holding his
head. "What a day! I've never
seen it like this," he said aloud,
though he was alone in his office.
He was relieved that in a few
minutes he could get into his car
and head for the golf course. He
couldn't remember when it all
began, but knew that Carl had
burst into his office before he'd
finished his first cup of coffee.
"Those guys in Production
wouldn't give you the right time
of day!" said Carl, sales manager.
"All I wanted was to get this big
order scheduled, andyou'd think I
was asking for the moon. Those
production people are all the
same. They hate to touch a thing
once a schedule is set." Tom tried
to calm him down, but Carl went
on. "I even tried to talk to
Cranston. I figuredmaybe a new
guy would help me out. But I
should have known better. Last
week at the welcoming party for
him, I sensed he wasn't any
different. I guess I was right. I
shouldn't
have wasted my time on him."
Tom told Carl he'd look into the
matter, though he knew this
wasn't anything new. He also
knew he needed to get
Production and Sales to
cooperate more. After answering
a few phone calls, Tom strolled
out to the Production area to see
what he could find out. He didn't
even have to let on the Carl had
come to see him. They were hot
under the collar in Production,
too. Peter Kenilworth, production
manager, and Bonnie Baines,
chief scheduler, were discussing
Carl's visit and turned to Tom for
counsel. Bonnie began: "I'm not
sure how concerned those sales
people are for production
schedules and costs. They all
think we can stop a run and set
up for a new order in five minutes.
I think they're conditioned to bark
three times every time a
customer calls. I'll bet half of them
let their kids tell them what to do!"
Peter had his own ideas as well.
He stood up and paced the floor,
yet in a controlled voice said,
"Sales
needs some appreciation for the
total company. I can't figure out
why they constantly tie us up in
knots. They make impossible
promises to customers. They
should know better. Where did
they get their training? Don't they
value what our situation is? I'm
pretty sure no one in this
company is forcing them to make
the delivery commitments they
make!" Tom did what he could to
soothe bad feeling, and promised
Peter and Bonnie he'd have a
meeting in a day or two to
discuss these issues. He was
particularly upset with Bonnie's
attitude. On more than one
occasion she had gotten very
critical toward other people. He
wondered whether she had what
it took to do the job. Much of her
performance was good, he
admitted. She certainly put in
enough hours trying to improve
and enforce the production
schedule. How many perceptual
and judgmental tendencies are
exhibited by Tom, Carl, Peter,
and Bonnie?

Chapter Review
I. Multiple Choice. Select the letter that best describes what is being referred to in the
following statements.
1. At 194gotten Antique Shop, hardworking individuals are given incentives for every fifth
piece of antique items sold per day to increase the rate of desirable behaviour during store
hours. What is being exhibited by the given statement?
A. positive reinforcement
B. punishment
C. extinction
D. negative reinforcement
2. In a coffee house like ESPRESSO-yourself Cafe, employees who frequently return to work
a few minutes late from lunch get reprimands and one-day suspension consequently. is
being exhibited.
A. positive reinforcement
B. punishment
C. extinction
 D. negative reinforcement
3. Which of the following is not a problem in person perception?
A. Implicit Theories
B. Halo Effect
C. Stereotyping
D. NOTA
4. n RIGHT-ur-idea Co., a publishing company, working harder and smarter removes the
frown from a manager’s face, thus the employees regularly submits the reports on time
to remove such negative consequence.
A. Positive Reinforcement
B. Negative Reinforcement
C. Punishment
D. NOTA
5. A schedule of reinforcement whereby the rewards immediately follows after each
behavior is known as reinforcement.
A. Continuous
B. Intermittent
C. Immediate
D. NOTA

II. Essay. Answer the following concisely based from the previous discussion.
1. Do reinforcement contingencies affect the employee performance? What are the effects
of these contingencies to the organization?
2. Explain the four stages of development of modern behavioral learning theory. Focus on
how each condition differs from the other.
3. Differentiate the two judgment errors according to attribution theory. Cite common
examples in the workplace.

References
Books
George, J. M., & Jones, G. R. (2012). Understanding and Managing Organizational
Behavior (6th ed.). Pearson Education Inc.

Hitt, M. A., Miller, C. C., Colella, A., & Triana, M. (2017). Organizational Behavior (5th
ed.). Wiley Global Education

Luthans, F. (2010). Organizational Behavior (12th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

Mullins, L. J. (2010). Management and Organisational Behaviour (9th ed.). Pearson

Higher Ed.

Electronic Sources
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https://hbr.org/1993/07/building-a-learning-organization W.R. King (ed.),
Knowledge Management and Organizational Learning, 3 Annals of Information
Systems 4, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-0011-1_1, © Springer Science+Business
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https://hrdailyadvisor.blr.com/2019/05/30/what-is-organizational-knowledge-and-where-can-
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