Ch: 4

Learning
Concept
Learning can be defined as the permanent change in behavior due to
direct and indirect experience. It means change in behavior, attitude due
to education and training, practice and experience. It is completed by
acquisition of knowledge and skills, which are relatively permanent.

Learning is not changes in the behaviour due to the effect of drug or due
to accident. learning is not caused by biological maturation.

For example, a child does not learn to walk, it is a natural biological

phenomenon. We do not learn to eat or drink.
Learning Cont...
● Learning involves a change in behavior, though this change is not necessarily
an improvement over previous behavior. It has the connotation of improved,
but bad habits, prejudices , stereotypes and work restrictions are also learned.
● The behavioral change must be relatively permanent. Any temporary change
due to fatigue or any reason is not a part of learning.
● The behavioral change must be based on some form of practice or experience.
Thus, any behavioral change because of physical maturation is not learning.
● The practice or experience must be reinforced in order for learning to occur. If
reinforcement does not accompany the practice or experience , the behavior
will disappear.
Definition
Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a
result of experience.
- Stephen P. Robbins
Learning can be defined as relatively permanent change in behaviour
potentially that results from reinforced practice or experience.
- Steers and Porter
Learning is the process of having one’s behaviour modified, more or less
permanently, by what he does and the consequences of his action, or by
what he observes.
- Munn N.L
Learning and Conditioning
Learning:
relatively permanent change in behavior or mental processes resulting
from practice or experience

Conditioning:
process of learning associations between environmental stimuli &
behavioral responses
Classical Conditioning
The Classical Conditioning Theory was proposed by a Russian Physiologist
Ivan Pavlov. According to this theory, behavior is learnt by a repetitive
association between the response and the stimulus. The classical
conditioning theory is based on the assumption that learning is developed
through the interactions with the environment. Also, the environment
shapes the behavior and internal mental state such as thoughts, feelings,
emotions do not explain the human behavior.
Here, an organism learns to transfer response from one stimulus to a
previously neutral stimulus.
Classical conditioning is comprised of four elements:

1. Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Which invariably causes to react in a way.

2. Unconditioned Response (UR): Takes place when the US is presented.
3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The object that does not bring about the desired
response
4. Conditioned Response (CR): a particular behavior that an organism learns to
produce, when the CS is presented.
Pavlov Experiment
Pavlov conducted an experiment on a dog and measured the amount of
saliva secreted by a dog, with a use of a surgical procedure, when it is
exposed to different stimulus or object. At first, when Pavlov presented a
piece of meat (US) to the dog, he noticed a great amount of salivation (UR)
whereas, in the second time, when he just rang the bell, he observed there
was no effect of a bell on the dog’s salivation.
After this, Pavlov rang the bell accompanied with meat and noticed the
salivation of a dog. He repeated this process several times, and finally, one
day he just rang the bell without meat and observed that dog still salivated
to the bell alone which was originally a neutral stimulus.
Pavlov’s Original Experiment

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2010

Classical Conditioning Examples
This stimulus-response connection (S-R) can be applied in management to
assess organizational behavior. Historically when a CEO visits an
organization, production charts are updated, individuals put on a good
dress, window panes are cleaned and floors are washed. What all one has
to do is to just say that the Top Boss is visiting.
You will find that all the above work is undertaken (response) without any
instructions. Because the people in the organization have learned the
behaviour (conditioned). It has caused a permanent change in the
organization (S-R connections).
 Operant Conditioning
• Operant
Conditioning:
learning in which
voluntary responses
are controlled by
their consequences
Meaning of Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a term derived from the word “operate”. When our
behavior operates in the outside world, it produces some kind of effect on
us and these effects determine whether we continue to engage in that
behavior. If the consequences are rewarding, the response will be
repeated and will grow in strength. This relationship between response
and reward is the essence of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is
also called instrumental conditioning because the organism is instrumental
in bringing about the change in the environment that makes the action
more or less likely to occur again in the future. If the behavior pays off, it is
likely to be repeated.
Cont…
It is B.F. Skinner, who had proposed the operant conditioning or
instrumental conditioning theory of learning. Here, the behavior is learned
through punishment and reward. The negative behavior leads to
punishment and the positive one leads to rewards. And, the punished
behaviors are likely to be reduced and rewarded ones are likely to be
repeated.
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning:
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990), the pioneer of operant conditioning, began his
experiments in the 1930s. He has been described as the most famous
psychologist who has ever lived (Fowler, 1990). Skinner was deeply
influenced by John B. Watson’s behavioral view of psychology and Edward
L. Thorndike’s “Law of Effect” which states that rewarded behavior is likely
to happen again. Using Thorndike’s law of effect as the starting point,
Skinner developed a “behavioral technology” that enabled him to teach
pigeons, animals, and humans the desired behavior, mitigating maladjusted
behaviors.
Skinner’s Experiment
During his studies around the 1930s, Skinner developed a special testing
environment called an “operant conditioning chamber” which is usually
popular as the “Skinner Box”. The box was a typically soundproof chamber
with a bar or keys inside, that an animal if pressed or pecked releases food
or water as a reward. The chamber was large enough to allow the animal
to move within the confined area and equipped with a device to reward the
animal’s responses.
Cont…
B.F. Skinner, an American psychologist/behaviorist, in the late 1950s is
regarded as father of Operant conditioning. The Skinner box is a small box
structure designed to block out light and sound to reduce external stimuli
and for the purpose of testing small animals and reinforcing their positive
behavior and minimizing their negative behavior. The box often holds a
small key, lever, or bar that is able to be manipulated by the animal. Other
needs of the animal are placed in the box, as well, for the well-being of the
animal. The animals are tested to perform the desired behavior and when
the desired behavior is achieved they then receive a reward, that is most
often food.
Cont…
Part of the testing process is to see how long it takes the animals to learn
the new behavior. The same can be seen with negative behaviors. For
example, if a rat in the Skinner box scratches the walls of the box, a loud
noise or a bright light may shine, thus creating a negative consequence of
the bad behavior. Operant conditioning, which is what the Skinner box was
testing, is just a way that individuals learn desired behavior through
consistent positive reinforcement, which is also a key component of
behaviorism. Behaviorism states that behaviors are learned through
conditioning and that people are conditioning by their interactions whether
those interactions are with their environment or with surrounding people.
Operant Conditioning (Continued)
• Thorndike’s Contribution
• Law of Effect: probability
of an action being
repeated is strengthened
when followed by a
pleasant or satisfying
consequence
 Operant Conditioning (Continued)

• B. F. Skinner: emphasized observable stimuli &

responses
Operant Conditioning Examples
This Response-Stimulus (R-S) can be applied in management to assess
organizational behavior. From an organisational point of view, any stimulus
from the work environment will elicit a response. The consequence of such
a response will determine the nature of the future response.
For example, working hard and getting the promotion will probably cause
the person to keep working hard in the future.
Factors Influencing Operant Conditioning
In operant conditioning, several factors affect response rate, resistance to
extinction and how quickly a response is acquired.
Magnitude of reinforcement
In general, as magnitude of reinforcement increases, acquisition of a response is
greater. For example, workers would be motivated to work harder and faster, if
they were paid a higher salary.
Immediacy of reinforcement
Responses are conditioned more effectively when reinforcement is immediate. As
a rule, the longer the delay in reinforcement, the more slowly a response is
acquired.
Level of motivation of the learner
If you are highly motivated to learn to play football you will learn faster and
practice more than if you have no interest in the game.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement in classical conditioning is the paired presentation of the
conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus. In operant
conditioning, reinforcement refers to the occurrence of an event, like the
reward of food, or water following the desired response. In other words,
reinforcement is known as a reward. A reinforcer is an event or stimulus
that increases the frequency of the response that follows.
• Primary Reinforcers:
normally satisfy an • Secondary Reinforcers:
unlearned biological learned value (e.g.,
need (e.g., food) money, praise)
 TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT
Positive reinforcement
Providing a reward for a desired behavior.

Negative reinforcement
Process of having a reward taken away as a consequence of a undesired behavior.

Punishment
Causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable behavior.

Extinction
An alternative to punishing undesirable behaviour – the attempt to weaken behavior
by attaching no consequences (either positive or negative) to it. It is equivalent to
ignoring the behavior.
 Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement
e.g.: you receive bonus after e.g.: scholarship is withdraw
Desirable successfully completing from the student who has not
Behaviour important task done well in examination

Punishment Extinction
e.g.: you are threatened with e.g.: mischievous student
Undesirable demotion or discharge after disturbing the class, asking for
Behaviour treating client badly. attention.

Event is Event is
Added Removed
1. Both Positive and Negative Reinforcement results strengthen
responses and increases the probability of repetition
2. Both Punishment and Extinction weaken the behaviour and
tend to decrease its subsequent frequency.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement schedule – Continuous reinforcement is a
schedule when the participant is given reinforcement after every desired
response.
Partial reinforcement schedule – When the behavior is reinforced
occasionally the reinforcement schedule is called a partial reinforcement
schedule.
Fixed-ratio schedule – Fixed ratio schedule is a kind of continuous
reinforcement schedule, in which reinforcement is provided to the
organism after a specified number of correct responses is accomplished.
Cont…
Variable ratio schedule – In a variable ratio schedule, the exact number of
responses required in order to receive the reinforcement is not specified.
Fixed interval schedule – Under a fixed interval schedule, a certain fixed
lapse of time must be spent by the subject performing the positive targeted
behavior before a response is awarded to the subject.
Variable interval schedule – Variable interval schedule is also based on
passes of time, but the animal can not predict how long the time interval is,
which will bring it a reward.
 Social Learning Theory
The Social Learning Theory is given by Albert Bandura, who believed that
individual learns behavior by observing the others. Simply, by observing the
other person’s behavior, attitude, and the outcome of that behavior, an
individual learns how to behave in a given situation, depending on the
consequences observed.
The social learning theory acts a bridge between the behavioral and cognitive
theory, as it emphasizes the integrative nature of cognitive, behavioral and
environmental determinants. This means social learning theory agrees with
some part of behavioral and some part of cognitive theories. But however,
Badura felt that these theories are not sufficient in explaining the elements
therein fully and therefore, believed that learning can also take place via
vicarious or modeling.
What is Vicarious or Modelling?
The Vicarious or modeling is a process that essentially involves the
observational learning. It is based on the assumption, that discrete
stimulus-response consequences connections do not result in learning, but
instead learning can take place through imitating the behaviors of others.
Bandura believed, that most of the behavior displayed by the individual are
learned either deliberately or inadvertently through the influence of the
model, a person who is being observed.
Cont…
Thus, a social learning theory asserts that learning takes place in two steps:
1. The person observes how others behave and then forms a mental

picture in his mind, along with the consequences of that behavior.

2. The person behaves, what he has learned and see the consequences

of it, if it is positive he will repeat the behavior or will not do it again, in

case the consequence is negative.
The second point may be confused with the operant conditioning, but here
an individual performs as per the mental image acquired by observing the
others, instead of a discrete response-consequences connections in the
acquisition of new behavior. Thus, modelling is one step ahead of the
operant conditioning.
Cognitive Learning Theory
Edward Tolman has contributed significantly to the Cognitive Learning
Theory. According to him, individuals not only responds to stimuli but also
act on beliefs, thoughts, attitudes, feelings and strive towards goals.
In other words, An individual creates a cognitive map in his mind, i.e. an
image of the external environment, preserves and organizes information
gathered, as a result of the consequences of events encountered during
the learning process. Thus, the organism learns about the event and
objects on the basis of a meaning assigned to stimuli.
 Cont…

Tolman was the first behaviorist who challenged the conditional theory on the
belief that stimulus-response theory is unacceptable, as reinforcement was not
necessary for the learning to happen and asserted that behavior was mainly
cognitive. He believed that the environment offers several experiences or cues
which are used to develop the mental image i.e. cognitive map.
Thus, cognitive learning theory is based on the cognitive model of human
behavior, i.e. it emphasizes on the free will and positive aspects of human
behavior. Cognition refers to the individual’s thoughts, feelings, ideas,
knowledge and understanding about himself and the environment. Thus, an
organism applies this cognition in learning which results in not merely the
response to a stimulus, but the application of internal image of the external
environment, so as to accomplish the goal.
Cont…
Tolman has conducted an experiment to elucidate the cognitive learning
theory. He trained a rat to turn right in the ‘T’ maze in order to obtain food.
One day, he started a rat from the opposite part of the maze, according to
the operant conditioning theory, the rat should have turned right due to the
past conditioning, but instead, it turned towards where the food was kept.
Thus, Tolman concluded that rat formed a cognitive map in its mind to
figure out where the food has been placed, and reinforcement was not a
precondition for learning to take place.
 Principles of Learning
6 Most important principles for learning are:
1. Readiness
2. Exercise
3. Effect
4. Primacy
5. Intensity
6. Recency
 Principles of Learning
Readiness
Readiness implies a degree of single-mindedness and eagerness. When
students are ready to learn, they meet the instructor at least halfway, and this
simplifies the instructor’s job.

Exercise
The principle of exercise states that those things most often repeated are best
remembered. It is the basis of drill and practice. The human memory is fallible.
The mind can rarely retain, evaluate, and apply new concepts or practices after a
single exposure.
 Principles of Learning
Effect
The principle of effect is based on the emotional reaction of the student. It states
that learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying
feeling, and that learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant
feeling.

Primacy
Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable,
impression. For the instructor, this means that what is taught must be right the
first time.
 Principles of Learning
Intensity
Intensity: A vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a
routine or boring experience. A student is likely to gain greater understanding of
slow flight and stalls by performing them rather than merely reading about them.

Recency
The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best
remembered. Conversely, the further a student is removed time-wise from a new
fact or understanding, the more difficult it is to remember.
 Behaviour Modification
Behaviour modification, popularly known as OB MOD makes use of various
reinforcements to influence the behaviour of individuals. OB Mod is derived and
developed from the work of B.F. Skinner. This technique helps the managers in
modifying or eliminating undesirable behaviour and replacing it with behaviour
that is more compatible with goal attainment.
 Behaviour Modification
According to Stephen P. Robbins:
“OB Mod is a programme where managers identify performance related
employee behaviours and then implement an intervention strategy to strengthen
desirable behaviour and weaken undesirable behaviours.”

According to Schermerhorn, Hunt and Osborn:

“OB Mod is the systematic reinforcement of desirable work behaviour and the
non reinforcement or punishment of unwanted work behaviour. It includes four
basic reinforcement strategies. Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement,
punishment and extinction”
Organisation
Behaviour
Modification
Five Steps
 1. Identification:
The first step in the OB Mod is identification of performance related behaviours. First
of all the behaviour should be identified as desirable or undesirable from the point of
view of the organisation. Then in the next stage, critical behaviours, that have
significant impact on the employees’ performance, should be given due attention. The
critical behaviours can be identified through discussions with the particular employee
and his immediate superior as both are closely intimated with the job behaviours.
Some of the critical behaviours which affect job performance are absenteeism or
attendance, tardiness or promptness, complaints or constructive criticism, listening to
or not listening to the instructions, etc. If such behaviours are modified, good results
could be expected. Due attention should be given to the critical behaviour because
they get repeated again and again.
2. Measurement:
After the critical behaviours of the employees have been identified, the next step
for the manager is to measure the frequency of the critical behaviour over time. The
measurement can be done by observation and by extraction of information from
records. If the frequency is within the acceptable limit, it will require no action, but if
it exceeds the acceptable limit,

it will need immediate attention. The measurement of behaviour will also help the
managers in determining the success in changing the employees’ behaviour.
3. Analysis:
At the next step, the managers will have to do a functional analysis of the behaviour
that requires modification. This analysis will determine what circumstances lead to a
particular type of behaviour, what are the consequences of such behaviour etc.
Contingent consequences of behaviour should be identified because these
consequences have impact on subsequent behaviour. Moreover, some contingent
consequences appear to be affecting the critical behaviour on the surface only, the
functional analysis should try to find out the competing contingencies for every
behaviour also.
4. Intervention:
Once the critical behaviours have been identified and the circumstances which
cause such behaviours have been determined, the next step will be to develop an
effective intervention strategy. There are several strategies that can be used at this
stage. These include positive or negative reinforcement, extinction or punishment.

The use of a particular strategy will depend upon the type of situation faced. After
developing and implementing a particular strategy, the frequency of resulting
behaviour is measured. If a behaviour change has occurred in the right direction,
the manager will select a reinforcement schedule that will maintain the desired
behaviour.
5. Evaluation:
The last stage in OB Mod is the evaluation whether the intervention strategies are
working properly or not. The basic purpose of OB Mod is to bring change in
undesirable behaviours so as to improve performance. Evaluation will reveal
whether the undesirable behaviours have been substituted by desirable behaviour
or not. If there has been a change in behaviour, whether it is permanent or just
temporary.
Further, the evaluation will also show whether there is improvement in the
performance or not. If there is a positive change, it suggests that the interventions
are successful. However, if the change is not significant, it may call for adoption of
alternate and more appropriate strategies.
Factors Influencing Learning
● Individual Motive
● Physiological Factors
● Social Factors
● Environmental Factors
● Nature of Learning Materials
● Process of Learning
● Psychological Factors
● Reinforcement Factors
Individual motives
A motive is a person’s reason for choosing specific behavior from among several
alternatives. Motives are derived from needs. Human motives are created whenever
there is a physiological or psychological imbalance and try to fill such imbalance. It is
the reason for action which gives purpose and direction to certain behavior. Motives
are drivers that encourage people for action and learning.
Physiological factors
It includes physical condition and of a person like sense perception, physical health,
fatigue, time of learning, food drink, atmospheric condition, age, etc. In the same way,
learning is also influenced by mental ability like mental health, motivation and interest,
success, praise, and blame, etc. All these factors are the outcome of genes and
chromosomes from their parents. They are somehow uncontrollable. For example, an
individual suffering from bad health cannot think of learning new things.
Social factors

Social factors encourage learning for individuals. It includes social needs, rewards, and
punishment, competition, suggestions, cooperation, etc. Social cultures encourage
learning new knowledge having accepted by society and discourage knowledge
gained discarded by society. Similarly, learning whose consequences are rewarded by
society is continued and those learning which are punishable are not continued. In
general view, learning should be always positive and good result oriented. Thus,
society provides guidelines and support to individuals. Social factors include parents,
family, peers, teachers, managers, reference groups, etc.
Environmental factors

Natural factors affecting learning are light, noise, cold, temperature, etc. learning
needs a proper environment so that they can maintain patience and care. Besides
this environmental factors include working conditions, organizational setup, etc. all
the surrounding should be in favor of learning. Only then a good learner can learn
as effectively as he can. For example, a person cannot learn well in a noisy
environment due to a bad organizational setup. He needs a peaceful environment
to perceive new learning.
Nature of learning materials

Availability of learning materials affects the learning process of individuals. People

need learning material on the basis of their area, level of education. Proper
presentation and organization of materials, practical implementation of learning,
special methods of learning, and timely testing can help to learn effectively. The
faculty also affect the learning pattern like management student need to learn by
presentation, science needs to learn by a lab test, art students need to learn by
practice. Similarly, the level of education and understanding also affect learning
patterns. For example, an illiterate person needs more attention to learn a basic
thing than that of a literate.
Process of learning: Full time learning, part time learning, learning with long gaps
matter to a great extent in the process of learning

Psychological Factors: Psychological factors like interest, mood, level of

perception, etc makes difference in the learning process of individuals

Reinforcement Factors: Reinforcement is concerned with encouraging repetition of

learning behaviour that gives positive outcome. Positive/Negative reinforcement,
extinction, punishment affects learning in individuals.