Essentials of

Psychology for
managers
CHAPTER 3

LEARNING
Do you think learning leads to change in human
behaviour elaborate it with examples
• https://www.verywellmind.com/thmb/Uvk2LAZlk-
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 Definition of Learning
i. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience

ii. We are born with some behaviors and knowledge, we acquire others automatically as we grow (through
maturation), and w

iii. “A change in human disposition or capability that persists over a period of time and is not simply ascribable
to processes of growth”

iv. “Learning is the relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior due to experience. This
definition has three components: 1) the duration of the change is long-term rather than short-term; 2) the
locus of the change is the content and structure of knowledge in memory or the behavior of the learner; 3)
the cause of the change is the learner’s experience in the environment rather than fatigue, motivation, drugs,
physical condition or physiologic intervention.”

v. “We define learning as the transformative process of taking in information that—when internalized and
mixed with what we have experienced—changes what we know and builds on what we do. It’s based
on input, process, and reflection. It is what changes us.”
 Classical Conditioning— Pavlov’s Study
Pavlov is one of the best-known figures in psychology, but he was not a psychologist. He was a Russian
physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in 1904 for his research on the digestive system of dogs.

In the course of this research, Pavlov noticed a strange phenomenon. His dogs sometimes salivated, or drooled,
when no food was present. For instance, they salivated when they saw the assistant who normally brought
their food, even if he was empty-handed. Pavlov devised a simple experiment to determine why salivation
occurred without an obvious physical cause, such as food.

First he performed an operation to divert a dog’s saliva into a container so that the amount of salivation could
be measured. Next he placed the dog in an apparatus similar to the one shown in Figure 5.1. The experiment
had three phases.
• In the first phase, Pavlov and his associates confirmed that when meat powder was placed in the dog’s mouth, the
dog automatically salivated (Anrep, 1920). They also confirmed that the dog did not automatically salivate in
response to a musical tone. The researchers had now established the two basic components of Pavlov’s
experiment: (1) a quick, automatic response called a reflex and (2) a neutral stimulus that does not trigger that
reflex

• In the second phase of Pavlov’s experiment, the tone was sounded, and then meat powder was placed in the dog’s
mouth. The dog salivated. This pairing of the tone and the meat powder was repeated several times. So the tone
always preceded the arrival of the meat powder, but had the dog learned that relationship? It had.

• In the third phase of the experiment, the tone was sounded, but no meat powder was presented. Even so, the dog
still salivated. The tone alone was now enough to trigger salivation

Pavlov’s experiment demonstrated what we now call classical conditioning.

• In this procedure, a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that already triggers an
automatic, reflexive response. As a result of this pairing, the previously neutral stimulus itself
comes to trigger a response that is similar to that reflex. Figure shows the basic elements of
classical conditioning.

• The stimulus that naturally elicits a response without conditioning, such as the meat powder in
Pavlov’s experiment, is called the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

• The automatic, unlearned, reflexive response to this stimulus is called the unconditioned response
(UCR).

• After being paired with the unconditioned stimulus (meat powder), the previously neutral stimulus
becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS), and the response it comes to trigger is a learned or
conditioned response (CR)
The basics of Pavlov’s classical conditioning became the basis of the current learning Theories, emphasizing on
the environment that facilitates learning
What is Classical Conditioning

• Classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs by linking two stimuli together to produce a new learned response in
an individual. Classical conditioned was discovered by a Russian physiologist known as Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov’s experiment
with dogs is the most popular example of classical conditioning. In this experiment, Pavlov demonstrated that when a bell
was rung each time the dog was given food, the dog learned to associate the sound of the bell with food.

classical conditioning : A procedure in which a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that triggers a reflexive response until
the neutral stimulus alone comes to trigger a similar response.

unconditioned stimulus (UCS) : A stimulus that triggers a response without conditioning. unconditioned response (UCR) The
automatic, unlearned, reflexive reaction to a stimulus.

conditioned stimulus (CS): An originally neutral stimulus that now triggers a conditioned response. conditioned response (CR)
The response triggered by the conditioned stimulus. extinction The gradual disappearance of a conditioned response.
reconditioning The relearning of a conditioned response following extinction. spontaneous recovery The temporary
reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction.

stimulus generalization: A process in which a conditioned response is triggered by stimuli similar to the original conditioned
stimulus.
 What is Instrumental Conditioning?
For example, if a student is rewarded with praise every time he/she raises his/her hand in class,
they becomes more likely to raise their hand again in the future.

• If she is also scolded when she speaks out of turn, she becomes less likely to interrupt the class.
In these examples, the teacher is using reinforcement to strengthen the hand-raising behavior
and punishment to weaken the talking out of turn behavior.

Instrumental conditioning or operant conditioning is often used in animal training as well. For
example, training a dog to shake hands would involve offering a reward every time the desired
behavior occurs.
Instrumental conditioning or operant conditioning is a learning process that occurs by linking a behaviour and a consequence for
that behaviour.

These consequences involve rewards and punishments. B.F. Skinner is the father of instrumental conditioning. He studied this
conditioning by conducting experiments using animals placed in a ‘Skinner Box’

For example, imagine a rat in a cage that contains two buttons. If the rat presses the green button, it will get a food pellet as a
reward, but if it presses the red button, it will receive a mild electric shock. Consequently, the rat in this box will always try to
press the green button and avoid the red button.

A reinforcer is a stimulus that increases the probability that the operant behavior will occur again.

There are two main types of reinforcers: positive and negative.

Positive reinforcers strengthen a response if they are presented after that response occurs. The food given to a hungry pigeon after it
pecks a key is a positive reinforcer for key pecking. For people, positive reinforcers can include food, smiles, money, and other
desirable outcomes. Presentation of a positive reinforcer after a response is called positive reinforcement.

Negative reinforcers are the removal of unpleasant stimuli, such as pain or noise. For example, the disappearance of a headache
after you take a pain reliever acts as a negative reinforcer that makes you more likely to take that pain reliever in the future. When a
response is strengthened by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus such as pain, the process is called negative reinforcement.
The two main concepts of instrumental conditioning are reinforcements and punishments. Reinforcement is
any action that strengthens or raises the intensity of the consequent behaviour that follows it.

• Positive reinforcements are the favourable outcomes that follow a certain behaviour, for example, praise or
reward.

• Negative reinforcements involve the removal of an unfavourable outcome following a certain behaviour,
for example, not having to pay a fine. Both types of reinforcement involve strengthening the behaviour.

Punishment, on the other hand, is any action that weakens or eliminates a behaviour rather than increase it.

• Positive punishment involves applying an unpleasant event after a behaviour; for example, spanking for
misbehaving.

• Negative punishment, in contrast, is punishment by removal and involves taking away something favourable;
for instance, taking away a privilege. We can further categorize negative reinforcement into escape
conditioning and avoidance conditioning.
Examples Of Operant Conditioning In Everyday Life
EXAMPLE OF POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT

• A parent gives their child an extra allowance (reinforcer) for doing the dishes (desired behavior.)

• A manager offers bonuses (reinforcer) to their workers for finishing the project on time (desired
behavior.)

• A teacher gives students gold stars (reinforcer) for raising their hands before they speak (good
behavior.)

• You receive applause from the audience (reinforcer) after playing the piano (wanted behavior) in a
recital.

• Young children pat a dog on the head (reinforcer) when it sits quietly in front of them (desirable
behavior.)

• Gamblers win a monetary reward (reinforcer) for playing at the slot machines continuously
(encouraged behavior.)
 EXAMPLE OF NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
• A child doesn’t have to clean the table (unpleasant event) after the meal if they eat their
vegetable (desired behavior.)

• Taking out the garbage (desired behavior) removes the rotten smell (unpleasant stimulus) in
the kitchen.

• Brushing the teeth (desired behavior) prevents tooth decay (unpleasant event.)

• Workers won’t get yelled at (unpleasant stimulus) when they arrive at work on time (wanted
behavior.)

• A teenager cleans up his room (desirable behavior) so that his phone won’t be taken away
(unpleasant event.)

• Putting away toys neatly (wanted behavior) and the parent won’t throw them away
(unpleasant event.)
 EXAMPLE OF POSITIVE PUNISHMENT

• A parent assigns the child extra chores (unpleasant consequence) for playing too
many video games (bad behavior.)

• The teacher gives a student extra homework (aversive stimulus) for making noise in
class (undesired behavior.)

• Parents spank children (unpleasant stimulus) for skipping classes (unwanted

behavior.)

• A child is scolded (unpleasant event) for ignoring homework (undesirable behavior.)

• A parent gives a child a time-out (unpleasant consequence) for throwing tantrums

(unwanted behavior.)

• The police gives a driver a ticket (unpleasant stimulus) for speeding (unwanted
behavior.)
 EXAMPLE OF NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT

• A parent takes away their child’s phone (pleasant stimulus) for watching too many videos
(bad behavior.)

• The police revoke the driver’s license (pleasant stimulus) for reckless driving (unwanted
behavior.)

• Students lose recess time (pleasant stimulus) for making too much noise (undesired
behavior.)

• A teenager cannot go to the mall (pleasant stimulus) for missing curfew (bad behavior.)

• A boy loses his tablet time (pleasant stimulus) for bullying others in school (undesirable
behavior.)

• Thieves lose their freedom (pleasant stimulus) for stealing (bad behavior.)
• Trust & respect: Positive leadership practices reinforce effective behaviors when delivered by a respected manager within a relationship based
on mutual trust.

• Realistic optimism: Positive reinforcement is more likely to promote resilience and competency when delivered in a way that is both optimistic,
as well as realistic given the particular task and required skill level.

• Inspirational motivation: Positive reinforcement that is linked to an organization’s values and mission is more likely to inspire and motivate
employees to succeed.

• Meaningful & sincere feedback: Positive feedback should not be applied only for the sake of doing so. As employees are often keenly aware of
the sincerity associated with positive feedback, it is essential that such feedback is truly meaningful and presented with authenticity.

• Regular feedback: Employees need to feel confident that quality work will be rewarded on a regular and consistent (e.g., non-random) basis in
order for reinforcement to motivate future behavior.

• Leadership hope: Positive psychologists suggest that leaders reinforce positive employee behavior by conveying the underlying message that
such behavior is contributing to a bright and hopeful future.

• Promote willpower and waypower: Hope is most supported when it is connected to more than the motivation to act in a particular way, but also
when the person perceives him/herself capable of how to get there (e.g., ‘waypower’). In other words, employee self-efficacy is essential for
achieving results in the workplace.

• Model the desired behaviors: Rewards are far more rewarding when delivered by a manager who ‘walks the walk’ (e.g., is a role model of
expected behaviors). In this instance, mentoring and coaching are especially powerful ways to model and reward desired behaviors, as well
as to inspire a sense of purpose.
• Meaningful reward systems: Meaningful incentives should be used to reward positive behaviors. These incentives include intangible social
reinforcers (e.g., verbal praise), small token reinforcers (e.g., coffee cards) and large economic incentives (e.g., travel, bonuses, etc.),
depending upon the individual and the desired outcome. In other words, it is essential that employees are regarded as individuals who will
respond uniquely to particular reinforcers.

• Clear communication & expectations: In order to be effective, reinforcement must be provided such that managers and employees are on the
same page in terms of expectations and outcomes.

• Intellectual stimulation: Employees are more motivated by tasks that challenge their intellect and support creativity and problem solving. It is
thus essential for managers to know their employees well enough to assign projects that inspire mental stimulation.

• Meaning behind the message: Positive leadership goes beyond simply reinforcing behaviors, but also ensures that employees understand the
reason for the message.

• Good listening: When employees are truly listened to and understood, managers are better able to identify and encourage individual strengths.

• Specificity: Reinforcement must always be specific enough that the worker understands exactly what they’ve done well such that they can
repeat this behavior in the future.

• Promote teamwork: By reinforcing teamwork behavior, managers set the stage for continued collaborative behavior that is beneficial both at an
individual and organizational level.

• Responsibility: By providing workers with responsibility for their performance, they will be reinforced by a sense a personal empowerment and
accountability.
 Verbal Learning
The process of learning about verbal stimuli and responses, such as letters, digits, nonsense syllables,
or words. The methods used include paired-associates learning and serial learning. Researchers in
the verbal learning tradition, influenced by Hermann Ebbinghaus and by associations, sought to
uncover basic laws of learning by studying simple materials under controlled conditions.

Human beings mostly learn through knowledge about objects and events in terms of words. This is
called Verbal learning.
Verbal learning can be studied through method of paired-associates learning, serial learning and free
recall.

Types of Verbal learning:

1. Paired associates learning

2. Serial learning

3. Free recall
 Positive Reinforcement in the Workplace
• The concept of positive reinforcement is actually pretty simple: If you reward a behavior, it is more likely to be repe

• Flexibility to work at home

• After work socials or happy hour

• Onsite daycare services, Onsite gym

• Increased lunch break

• Travel opportunities

• Staff celebrations/parties, Retreats, Free Parking

• Desirable office space (i.e., private, window, etc.)

• Desirable building space (i.e., kitchen, recreation area, windows, etc.)

• Desirable work equipment (i.e., good computer, chair & desk options)

• Gift cards, Pets allowed at the office

• Free coffee, Free meals, Flexible dress code