Classical Conditioning

The device used by Pavlov to demonstrate the effect of conditioning on dog salivation
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was a Russian scientist who investigated the digestive system of dogs by presenting
them with meat powder and measuring the amount of saliva they produced.

Pavlov found that the dogs began to salivate even before the meat powder was presented as they associated the
feeder with the meat powder. This led Pavlov to conclude that the dogs were conditioned to respond to the
feeder through the process of classical conditioning.
Ethical Conditions in Conditioning Human Behaviour

Classical conditioning: This type of learning involves the repeated association of a previously neutral
stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus, to elicit a conditioned response

Researchers Watson and Raynor wanted to test the idea that fear could be acquired through classical
conditioning. Their subject was Little Albert, an eleven-month-old son of a female employee at the clinic. The
child's mother knew nothing about the experiment.
Watson and Raynor presented Albert with a white laboratory rat while sounding a loud noise. Little Albert
soon associated the loud noise with the white rat and was conditioned to fear the rat. This fear was then
generalised to other fluffy white objects such a Santa's beard and a sealskin coat.

It is not known whether this intense fear was reversed. There were many ethical issues in this experiment that
were overlooked. Ethical guidelines for psychological research have certainly improved and are much different
today.

Watson and Raynor used a white rat to condition an 11 month old child

Key Terms in Classical Conditioning

Some key terms in classical conditioning include:

Neutral stimulus (NS)

Neutral stimulus (NS) - a stimulus which, prior to conditioning, would evoke no response. This always
becomes the conditioned stimulus, e.g. the bell in Pavlov's experiments.
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - a stimulus which innately produces a response or reflex, such as the meat in
Pavlov's experiments.

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Unconditioned response (UCR) - an unlearned response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus, e.g. the dog
involuntarily salivated at the meat (UCS).

Association
Association - a connection between two events which results in learning. Pavlov's dogs learned to associate
the ringing of the bell and the presentation of the meat so that they eventually learned to salivate at the bell
alone.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Conditioned stimulus (CS) - After the neutral stimulus has been paired with the unconditioned stimulus many
times, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus. It now elicits a learned response such as the bell

Conditioned response (CR)

Conditioned response (CR) - a learned response to a conditioned stimulus. Pavlov's dogs learned to salivate
at the bell.

Remember that conditioning is another term for learning. Any stimulus or response that is unconditioned,
simply means unlearned, or before learning has taken place.

The Main Elements in Classical Conditioning

The main elements involved in classical conditioning are:

Extinction - when a conditioned response is no longer reinforced by the unconditioned stimulus, the
conditioned response will cease to occur. For example, if the bell (CS) is continually presented without the
meat (UCS), the dog will eventually stop salivating (CR) at the bell alone.

Stimulus generalisation - when an organism has been conditioned to respond to a stimulus, it will often
respond to similar stimuli. For example, Pavlov's dogs responded to bells of a similar pitch to the original bell.
Stimulus discrimination - when an organism responds to a conditioned stimulus but detects a difference in
other stimuli and therefore doesn't respond to them. Pavlov's dogs did not respond to bell-like stimuli that were
quite different from the original bell.

Spontaneous recovery - the reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction and a rest period.

The following questions are for revision purposes only. The

results will NOT affect your overall grade.

Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning is learning where the consequence is dependent on the organism's response. The
consequence then influences the likelihood of the behaviour occurring. Skinner studied hungry rats in specially
designed 'skinner' boxes. These boxes were equipped with a lever which, when pressed, dispensed food or
water.
Skinner would place a hungry rat in the box. Eventually, the rat would accidentally press the lever and a food
pellet would fall. Each time it accidentally pressed the lever, food would be dispensed. The rat then learned
that each time it pressed the lever it would be rewarded with a food pellet; thus; it would constantly press the
lever. Other Skinner boxes were equipped with electric shocks to punish the animal for certain responses.

In this way, Skinner developed his theory of operant conditioning where he believed that our behaviour
operates on the environment and that our behaviour is instrumental in producing the consequences (rewards
and punishments).
Operant Conditioning Terms
Operant response - a response or behaviour of an organism that is voluntary and not associated with a
particular stimulus. This response acts on or modifies the environment. For example, e.g. a person picking up a
book to read.

Reinforcer - the reward given for a response in order to strengthen it and increase the likelihood of the
response occurring again.

Positive reinforcer - a reward which strengthens a response by providing a pleasurable consequence such as
praise or a chocolate bar.

Negative reinforcer - a reward which strengthens a response by removing or reducing an unpleasant stimulus
such as taking away a house chore or homework.
Schedules of Reinforcement
This refers to the frequency in which a response is reinforced in operant conditioning. There are different
schedules of reinforcement within this type of learning.

Continuous reinforcement - when a satisfying response is reinforced every time.

Partial reinforcement - reinforcement which does not occur continuously. The reinforcement may be
administered in the following ways:

 Fixed ratio schedule - a satisfying response is reinforced after a set number of responses have been
made, e.g. every fifth response.

 Fixed interval schedule - a satisfying response is reinforced at regular time intervals e.g. every five
minutes.

 Variable ratio schedule - a satisfying response is reinforced at irregular intervals, but the average
number of responses is fixed, e.g. poker machines.

Variable interval schedule - a satisfying response is reinforced at random intervals within a fixed length of
time e.g. catching four fish within a two-hour period.
Punishment
Punishment differs from negative reinforcement in that it aims to decrease the likelihood of the response
occurring. Punishment is the introduction of an unpleasant stimuli such as a hit or yell, whereas negative
reinforcement is taking away the unpleasant stimulus to increase the probability of the response occurring.
Potential punishers are any consequences which might lead to a decrease in the response. Some consequences
may be punishers for some people but not others.

Side-effects of punishment include aggression, frustration, avoidance learning, escape learning and learned
helplessness. The punishment may not decrease the behaviour at all but teach the child to be aggressive or
avoid the punisher. Sometimes the punishment ends up being positive reinforcement or only serves to satisfy
the frustration of the punisher.

Effective punishment should address the person's actions and not the person's character. It should be related to
the undesirable behaviour and it should consist of penalties or response cost (the removal of a reinforcer) rather
than psychological or physical pain.
Negative Effects of Punishment
The side effects of punishment include;
Elements in Operant Conditioning
Extinction

Stimulus Generalisation

Stimulus Discrimination

Spontaneous Recovery

Shaping

If the reinforcement ceases, the operantly conditioned response will disappear over time.
When the organism responds to stimuli which are similar to the original stimulus.

For example, if a pigeon has been operantly conditioned to peck a blue light by receiving food pellets
whenever it does so, the pigeon may also generalise to other similar coloured lights. However, if other lights
are increasingly different from the original light stimulus, the pigeon is less likely to peck at them.
When the organism learns which responses will be reinforced and which will not.
When the extinguished response reappears after a rest period.

When the organism is reinforced for any response which moves towards the desired behaviour, e.g. rewarding
your cat for any behaviour that relates to it using the kitty litter.
Operant Conditioning in Practice
Examples of operant conditioning in practice includes;

Animal Training

Behaviour Modification

Token Economies

The principles of shaping are used to teach animals certain behaviour. The animal is reinforced for any
behaviour which moves toward the desired goal, as in animal training or training guide dogs.
Positive reinforcement and the withdrawal of reinforcement is administered to eliminate inappropriate
behaviour and to teach new responses, i.e. modify behaviour.
A technique which rewards people for appropriate behaviour with tokens which can then be traded for
privileges.

For example, primary school children could be given gold stars as a reward for good behaviour which could
then be traded in for certain privileges at the end of the week. These privileges could range from time on the
class computer or extra play time.

Classical Conditioning vs Operant Conditioning

The differences between classical conditioning and operant conditioning are as follows;

ELEMENTS CLASSICAL CONDITIONING OPERANT CONDITIONING

Role of learner Passive Active
Timing of stimulus
and response Reinforcement occurs before the response Reinforcement occurs after the response

Nature of response Automatic; The Involuntary Response (salivation) Voluntary and Involuntary Reinforcement (
depends on a reinforcement (meat powder) being pellet) depends on response (press lever) be
made
 presented

Learning Theory
This resource introduces Psychology students to some of the concepts of learning theory. Start by
reading Learning Theory, an article by Bob Boakes, McCaughey Professor of Psychology and current Head of
the Department of Psychology at the University of Cambridge, UK and at Harvard University, USA (located in
the resources section).

His main research interests at present concern nausea-based conditioning in both rats and in cancer patients
receiving chemotherapy, as well as the history of psychology. His article will help you become familiar with
the terms used by Psychologists when discussing theories of learning.
Learning by Insight
Learning in humans appears to be more than a simple stimulus-response process. It involves cognition or the
processing of knowledge.

Learning by insight results in a cognitive change which involves the recognition of previously unseen
relationships. This can occur very quickly and the solution is not easily forgotten.

The main stages of insight learning are:

 Preparation: This involves formulating the problem and gaining information about it.

 Incubation: This is when you leave the problem for a while and consider other things. There is a
pause in the learner's activity where the learner stops trying to complete the task.

 Illumination: This involves insight into the problem. It is often referred to as the 'Ah-Ha experience'
as the learner is suddenly able to carry out the task following the confident recognition of the solution.
It is as if the light bulb is suddenly switched on.
  Verification: This is when you test and evaluate possible solutions. If solutions do not work, you may
go back to the incubation or preparation stages.

Research into Learning by Insight

The earliest research on this type of learning involved a chimpanzee called Sultan. Kohler (1925) locked
Sultan in a cage and placed a banana outside the cage just out of Sultan's reach. Inside the cage were two
hollow bamboo sticks, both too short to reach the banana.

Kohler observed Sultan trying to reach the banana, first with his arm then with each stick. He observed Sultan
becoming more and more frustrated. After a while, Sultan began playing with the sticks and suddenly realised
that they could be joined together to create one stick, long enough to reach the banana.

Kohler concluded that Sultan had a flash of insight which lead him to the solution. Therefore, after a temporary
period of confusion and frustration, the chimpanzee was able to recognise the solution and apply it to his
problem. Kohler then referred to this type of learning as insight learning. It is also referred to as insight
thinking.

Sultan fitting two sticks together

Learning Set
Learning sets refers to the positive transfer of learning that occurs from one learning situation to another
similar learning situation.

As a result of solving previous problems, rules and habits are established which help when tackling a new
problem.

For example, a person learns how to play a particular card game which involves certain skills and then decides
to try to learn a similar game. Once the first game is learned, the time taken to learn a new similar card game is
faster as the person can transfer skills they already have.

The key points from this module are;

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was a Russian scientist who investigated the digestive system of dogs by presenting
them with meat powder and measuring the amount of saliva they produced.
Pavlov found that the dogs began to salivate even before the meat powder was presented as they associated the
feeder with the meat powder.

Classical conditioning: This type of learning involves the repeated association of a previously neutral stimulus
with an unconditioned stimulus, to elicit a conditioned response

Researchers Watson and Raynor wanted to test the idea that fear could be acquired through classical
conditioning. Their subject was Little Albert, an eleven-month-old son of a female employee at the clinic.

Ethical guidelines for psychological research have certainly improved and are much different today.

Neutral stimulus (NS) - a stimulus which, prior to conditioning, would evoke no response.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - a stimulus which innately produces a response or reflex.

Unconditioned response (UCR) - an unlearned response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus.

Association - a connection between two events which results in learning.

Conditioned stimulus (CS) - After the neutral stimulus has been paired with the unconditioned stimulus many
times, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus.

Conditioned response (CR) - a learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

Extinction - when a conditioned response is no longer reinforced by the unconditioned stimulus, the
conditioned response will cease to occur.

Stimulus generalisation - when an organism has been conditioned to respond to a stimulus, it will often
respond to similar stimuli.

Stimulus discrimination - when an organism responds to a conditioned stimulus but detects a difference in
other stimuli and therefore doesn't respond to them.

Spontaneous recovery - the reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction and a rest period.
Operant conditioning is learning where the consequence is dependent on the organism's response. The
consequence then influences the likelihood of the behaviour occurring.

Skinner studied hungry rats in specially designed 'skinner' boxes. These boxes were equipped with a lever
which, when pressed, dispensed food or water.

Skinner developed his theory of operant conditioning where he believed that our behaviour operates on the
environment and that our behaviour is instrumental in producing the consequences (rewards and punishments).
Operant response - a response or behaviour of an organism that is voluntary and not associated with a
particular stimulus.

Reinforcer - the reward given for a response in order to strengthen it and increase the likelihood of the
response occurring again.

Positive reinforcer - a reward which strengthens a response by providing a pleasurable consequence.

Negative reinforcer - a reward which strengthens a response by removing or reducing an unpleasant stimulus.

Continuous reinforcement - when a satisfying response is reinforced every time.

Partial reinforcement - reinforcement which does not occur continuously. The reinforcement may be
administered in a fixed ratio schedule, a fixed interval schedule, and a variable ratio schedule.

Fixed ratio schedule - a satisfying response is reinforced after a set number of responses have been made.

Fixed interval schedule - a satisfying response is reinforced at regular time intervals.

Variable ratio schedule - a satisfying response is reinforced at irregular intervals, but the average number of
responses is fixed.

Variable interval schedule - a satisfying response is reinforced at random intervals within a fixed length of
time.

Punishment differs from negative reinforcement in that it aims to decrease the likelihood of the response
occurring.

Punishment is the introduction of an unpleasant stimuli such as a hit or yell.

Side-effects of punishment include aggression, frustration, avoidance learning, escape learning and learned
helplessness.
The punishment may not decrease the behaviour at all but teach the child to be aggressive or avoid the
punisher.

Sometimes the punishment ends up being positive reinforcement or only serves to satisfy the frustration of the
punisher.

Effective punishment should address the person's actions and not the person's character.

The principles of shaping are used to teach animals certain behaviour.

Positive reinforcement and the withdrawal of reinforcement is administered to eliminate inappropriate

behaviour and to teach new responses.

Token economics is a technique which rewards people for appropriate behaviour with tokens which can then
be traded for privileges.

Learning in humans appears to be more than a simple stimulus-response process. It involves cognition or the
processing of knowledge.

Learning by insight results in a cognitive change which involves the recognition of previously unseen
relationships. This can occur very quickly and the solution is not easily forgotten.
The main stages of insight learning are preparation, incubation, illumination, and verification.

The earliest research on insight learning involved a chimpanzee called Sultan. Kohler (1925) locked Sultan in a
cage and placed a banana outside the cage just out of Sultan's reach.

After a temporary period of confusion and frustration, the chimpanzee was able to recognise the solution and
apply it to his problem.

Kohler then referred to this type of learning as insight learning. It is also referred to as insight thinking.

Learning sets refers to the positive transfer of learning that occurs from one learning situation to another
similar learning situation.

As a result of solving previous problems, rules and habits are established which help when tackling a new
problem
Module 2: Consciousness and Behaviour
Module Progress
0% Complete

Upon successful completion of this module learners will be able to:

 Define the terms related to sleep research.

 Discuss the characteristics of sleep stages.

 Discuss the different states of consciousness.

 Define the functions of the brain’s hemispheres and lobes.

 Define the functions of the spinal cord.

 Discuss the effects of stress on the body.

 States of Consciousness

  Measurement of physiological responses which can indicate different states of consciousness:
electrical activity of the brain and other physiological responses, including heart rate, body
temperature and galvanic skin response.

 A state of consciousness cannot be observed or measured directly. However, psychologists use various
tools to detect changes in levels of consciousness. The electroencephalograph (EEG) is used to
measure the electrical activity of the brain.

 Changes in brain wave patterns provide psychologists with information about a person's level of
consciousness. The EEG has proven most useful in the identification of the different stages of sleep.



 An electroencephalograph is a polygraph that detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of
the brain


Measurement of Heart Rate
The measurement of an individual's heart rate, body temperature and breathing rate can also provide
psychologists with information about the individual's state of consciousness. Generally, an altered state of
consciousness would reveal a decrease in heart rate and body temperature.

Psychologists also use the galvanic skin response (GSR) to make inferences about the changes in an
individual's state of consciousness. The GSR measures changes in electrical conductivity in the skin by using
two electrodes placed on the skin and passing a weak current between them. These changes indicate arousal of
the autonomic nervous system, as arousal causes sweating and the consequent damp skin increases its
electrical conductivity.
The Ways to Study Sleep
The ways to study sleep are: electroencephalograph (EEG), electromyograph (EMG), electro-oculargram (eye
movements) and sleep laboratories.

Researchers use many different devices to study sleep and gain information about particular stages of sleep.
The most important apparatus of a sleep laboratory is the polygraph. This is a machine which records on paper
the output of various devices that can be attached to the person being studied. Sleep researchers use the
following devices:

The electroencephalograph (EEG) is used to measure the electrical activity of the brain through small metal
discs pasted to the scalp. Changes in brain wave patterns provide psychologists with information about a
person's level of consciousness and which stage of sleep they are in.

Beta Waves
Alpha Waves
Delta Waves

When a person is awake and alert, the output of the EEG reveals brain wave patterns which are high in
frequency (15-30 cycles per second) and low in amplitude. These small, irregular waves are called beta waves.
(Try to remember beta = busy, as the person is active and alert.)
When a person is relaxed and somewhat drowsy, the EEG recording shows a higher amplitude
and lower frequency rhythm (8-12 cycles per second). These brain waves are called alpha waves.
These waves are characteristic of someone falling asleep, entering stage 1 of sleep. (Try to
remember alpha = almost asleep.)

As sleep progresses and becomes deeper and deeper, the EEG recordings reveal brain waves which are slower
in frequency and higher in amplitude. Stages three and four of sleep reveal these slow waves which are called
delta waves.(3-5 cycles per second). (Try to remember delta = deep sleep.)
Terms Related to Sleep Research
EMG

EOG

Sleep Laboratory

An electromyograph (EMG) is a device that measures electrical activity in the muscles through electrodes
attached to the chin.

This machine helps to establish if a person is in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, as the output would
show low activity due to relaxed muscles (atonia) in REM sleep.

The electro-oculargram (EOG, eye movements) is used to measure eye movements by attaching
electrodes to the skin around the eyes.

It also assists in the recognition of REM sleep, as the EOG shows high activity due to rapid eye
movements in REM sleep.

Most sleep research takes place in a sleep laboratory. As a person's sleep is affected by their surroundings, a
sleep laboratory attempts to mimic a home. It contains one or more small bedrooms and furnishings and
decorations are as homelike and comfortable as possible.

A subject may spend a couple of nights in the sleep laboratory before data is recorded from them, as it is
expected that they may be unsettled for the first night or two because of the new environment. However, by the
third night, sleep is essentially normal and from this point on, observations can be considered useful.
Characteristics and Patterns of Sleep Stages
Characteristics and patterns of the stages of sleep: rapid eye movement sleep (REM sleep) and non-rapid eye
movement sleep (NREM sleep).

When we are awake and alert the electroencephalograph (EEG) shows wave lengths which are low in
amplitude and high in frequency called beta waves.

As we relax the brain waves become alpha waves, which are higher in amplitude and lower in frequency.
During sleep, periods of rapid eye movement (REM) alternate with Non-REM (NREM) sleep. The sleep cycle
consists of four stages.

Stages of Sleep
Stage One

Stage Two

Stage Three

Stage Four

1.This stage is characterised by small, irregular waves which are a combination of alpha and theta waves.

During this stage the individual is drowsy and is drifting off into a light sleep from which they can be
easily awoken. The person's heart rate slows down and their muscles relax.

Apart from the very first time the person enters stage one sleep, this stage is known as REM sleep.
2.In this stage sleep spindles begin to occur. These are sharply pointed waves recorded by the EEG. The EEG
also shows rapid bursts of electrical activity with irregular brain waves.

3.This stage is characterised by the onset of slower delta waves.These brain waves are high in amplitude and
low in frequency.

4.At this stage, the person becomes harder to awaken, their breathing and pulse rate slow down and their
temperature drops.
This stage consists of pure delta waves and it is extremely difficult to rouse the sleeper.
This is the stage when sleep walking, sleep talking and night terrors occur.

Once the sleeper reaches stage four (about an hour after sleep begins) they then travel back up through stages
three, two and one. When stage one is reached for the second time, REM sleep begins and the sleeper engages
in about ten minutes of dreaming.
As the night progresses, the time spent in stages three and four decreases while REM sleep increases. The last
stages or REM sleep can last up to one hour or so. The entire cycle of stages one through to four occurs
approximately four to six times during an average eight hour period of sleep.

REM Sleep
Most dreams occur during the REM stage. The EEG reveals brain wave patterns that are very similar to beta
waves when a person is awake, active and alert. For this reason, REM sleep has been called 'paradoxical
sleep'.

It is also characterised by jerky movements of the eyes beneath the eyelids, hence the label, rapid eye
movement. The person's heart rate also increases, their blood pressure rises and their breathing becomes faster
and more irregular. Luckily for others, our muscles are paralysed, preventing us from acting out our dreams.

Sleep Deprivation
Sleep deprivation may result in irritability, tiredness, confusion, lack of concentration, headaches,
hallucinations and lack of energy. Research has found that individuals who have been deprived of sleep are
more able to concentrate on complex tasks than on simple tasks. People do not need to sleep the same number
of hours which they lost to recover from sleep deprivation.

When research subjects are constantly awoken when in REM sleep and are deprived of REM sleep over
successive nights, they appear more tense, irritable and more anxious than subjects deprived of the same
amount of sleep but not REM sleep. Lack of REM sleep appears to affect our ability to concentrate and
remember. When allowed to sleep uninterrupted, subjects experience REM rebound. That is, they spend twice
as much time in REM sleep as normal to make up for the REM sleep lost. This indicates that REM sleep is
vital for our survival.
Sleep Disorders
Sleep clinics diagnose and treat many people who suffer from sleep disorders. We may identify with some
characteristics of the following disorders however, a diagnosed sufferer would find the disorder debilitating,
having an adverse impact on their life.

Insomnia
Hypersomnia
Sleep Apnea
Narcolepsy
This is when a person has problems getting adequate sleep. This can be a temporary or chronic problem. It may
be caused by stress, depression or changes in biological rhythms.

The person experiences excessive daytime sleepiness and has extreme difficulty in awakening.

The person feels drowsy during the day no matter how many hours the person has slept. This may be caused by
other sleep disorders such as insomnia, narcolepsy or sleep apnea
This is a temporary cessation of breathing during the night (can be 20 seconds or more) which
deprives the person of oxygen.

It is associated with snoring where the person gulps for air then settles back to sleep. This may
happen hundreds of times throughout the night and can be very dangerous to the person's health.
The person has sudden uncontrollable sleep attacks where they go from being wide awake straight into REM
sleep.

The usual muscle paralysis of REM sleep occurs called cataplexy. This disorder can be very dangerous,
especially if a sleep attack happens when the person is driving or working with machinery.
Sleep Phenomena
Nightmares

Night Terrors

Sleep Walking

Sleep Talking

These occur during REM sleep and are frightening REM dreams. They can usually be
remembered and usually occur during a REM episode toward the end of the night or early
morning.
These occur during NREM sleep (stage 4) and, because the muscles are not paralysed, involve violent body
movements such as thrashing about or running.

The person often wakes up in a sweat and in extreme stress, unable to recall the night terror. Night terrors
occur less frequently than nightmares and usually occur earlier in the night than nightmares.
This occurs during the deep NREM sleep (stage 4) and hence it is difficult to wake the sleepwalker. It appears
to be an inherited trait.
This occurs during the deep NREM sleep (stage 4) and hence it is difficult to wake the sleepwalker. It appears
to be an inherited trait.

Types of Dreams
Daydream

Nightdream

Lucid Dreaming
A daydream is an altered state of consciousness where there is a change in brain wave patterns. The person is
awake and experiences thoughts, images and sensations that are usually positive and pleasant in nature.

The person has some control over daydreams and they have some positive effects such as:

1. a way of relieving anxiety

2. helping to keep mentally alert
3. helping to solve problems
4. increasing creativity
A night dream is also an altered state of consciousness. They may be positive or negative and usually people
have little control over their contents.

Dreams in REM sleep tend to be more emotional and story-like in quality compared to dreaming in NREM
sleep. NREM dreaming is more like thinking.
Lucid dreaming is when a person is aware that they are dreaming and is able to direct the action in the dream;
the person has control over the sequence of events in the dream.

This has been used as a therapeutic technique where the dreamer attempts to change the negative ending of the
dream to overcome a traumatic event.
States of Consciousness
This area of study focuses on states of consciousness and explores relationships between consciousness and
thoughts, feelings and behaviour. It also examines the changes in the nervous system associated with different
states of consciousness.

Consciousness refers to the level of awareness of our internal state and of our external environment. It consists
of the sensations, perceptions, memories and feelings that we are aware of at any given moment.
Consciousness exists at different levels, from being in a coma (unconscious) to being fully alert and in a state
of hyperactivity.

Consciousness also exists in a wide range of states. Depending on what we are doing, consciousness can be
highly focused or more passive. During a typical day, we experience many different states of consciousness
from being very alert in an exam to feeling drowsy while travelling home on the train.

William James (1842-1910), an American psychologist, likened consciousness to a stream or river and called
the mind a 'stream of consciousness'. He saw consciousness as a stream that was continuous and ever flowing,
not disjointed. James believed that our thoughts, sensations, images and feelings are continually blending into
each other, always changing and, like a stream, never ending.

William James

Characteristics of Waking Consciousness

Internal and external focus

Normal waking consciousness refers to the state of consciousness in which we are awake, alert and aware of
our thoughts, feelings, sensations and our environment. It is characterised by attention, memory, content and
time limitations.

In normal waking consciousness our attention can shift from our internal thoughts and feelings to external
stimuli, i.e. what is happening around us. These shifts of attention can be deliberate or they can occur without
us being aware of it. For example, if you were sitting on a train in a state of normal waking consciousness,
your attention may be on your internal thoughts and feelings, thinking how tired you feel. Your attention might
then shift to external stimuli, the person entering the carriage. You might then focus on their appearance and
where they choose to sit.

We cannot attend to everything that enters our senses. The amount of information that we attend to in normal
waking consciousness at any one time is limited. We select only certain information and shift our focus and
attention to information that interests or is meaningful to us. In normal waking consciousness we have an
awareness of our memories. We are conscious of past and present and can clearly differentiate between
memories and what is happening to us at the present moment. We have a familiar sense of time and place.

High Level and Lower Level Awareness

Playing video games: high level awareness

The level of awareness in normal waking consciousness varies along a continuum between being alert, focused
awareness and the minimal awareness characteristic of sleep. For example, at the alert end of the continuum
are activities that demand high concentration, such as sitting an exam or playing a video game.

Controlled Processes
These types of activities involve controlled processes. Controlled processes require alert awareness, full
attention and they interfere with other ongoing activities.

For example, when you are first learning how to drive a car, your full concentration and attention are required.
You would probably be so focused on changing gears, indicating correctly and watching your rearview mirror
that you would not be able to pay much attention to the song playing on the radio. This focused attention is an
example of controlled processes within normal waking consciousness.
Controlled processes require alert awareness

Automatic Processes
Once you have had some practice at driving, you will probably feel much more confident and no longer require
such focused attention on the different aspects of driving a car. Your consciousness then involves automatic
processes. This is when you are awake but on 'automatic pilot'. Automatic processes occur with little
awareness, require minimal attention and do not interfere with many other activities.

For example, after some experience driving a car, you would probably change gears or lanes without much
effort or little awareness. You could then cope with changing radio stations while continuing to drive.
Sometimes you may even wonder how you got to your destination as you weren't paying much attention to
your driving.

Automatic processes: the driver is awake but on 'automatic pilot'

Daydreaming
Daydreams are another example of lowered awareness. Daydreaming involves drifting off into a world of
fantasy. Although awake, the person experiences a reduced awareness of external stimuli. Daydreaming
usually occurs while the person is engaged in automatic processes where minimal attention to the task is
required.
Daydreaming is often considered as a waste of time however, psychologists maintain that daydreaming can
serve a variety of useful functions. It can help you relax, alleviate boredom and endure frustration.

Characteristics of Altered States of Consciousness

Altered states of consciousness are characterised by a change in brain wave patterns. In an altered state
of consciousness there are significant changes to the way people experience thoughts, feelings and sensations.
People are more likely to experience the extremes of sensations and emotions while in an altered state of
consciousness. An altered state of consciousness may occur naturally, such as sleeping, or it may be
intentionally induced, such as meditation.

Brain Activity

In an altered state of consciousness most people report experiencing psychological changes such as perceptual
and cognitive distortions

An altered state of consciousness can change the way we experience sensations. It can cause distortions in the
meanings a person attributes to information entering the senses. This can result in distorted perceptions of
external stimuli.

Thoughts can become disorganised, often illogical and lacking in sequence, as a result of an altered state of
consciousness. A person in an altered state may also experience difficulties in solving problems, as information
processing is often impaired. The person's memory of events is not as efficient as in normal waking
consciousness and they may be unable to recall certain events that took place while they were in an altered
state.

Disturbed Time Sense

In an altered state of consciousness, our estimation of time can be inaccurate. Some people experience the
feeling that the time has dragged on while others may feel that the time has zipped by.
An altered state of consciousness can also change the way we experience emotions. Some altered states, such
as those brought on by certain drugs and alcohol, can cause a person to feel low, depressed or more emotional.
Many people find that they express their emotions more openly while under an altered state of consciousness
compared to when they are in normal waking consciousness. They may also be more open to suggestibility and
find that they behave without self control, acting in a way that they would not ordinarily act in normal waking
consciousness.

An altered state of consciousness can change the way we experience emotions.

Description of Pain
Extreme pain can cause a person to enter an altered state of consciousness where the individual's thoughts,
feelings and sensations are different in some way to when they are in normal waking consciousness.

In order to deal with and control pain, some people use treatments which deliberately induce an altered state of
consciousness such as meditation and biofeedback.

Biofeedback
Biofeedback is where an individual is given external feedback about bodily functions such as blood pressure,
pulse rate and muscle tension to bring an automatic physiological function under voluntary control.

The individual is wired to a machine which displays immediate feedback about physiological activity. The
individual then learns how to change and control these physiological responses by using mental or physical
means in response to the biofeedback. Subjects can become so skilled at controlling bodily functions that they
eventually do away with the biofeedback device and focus on the technique alone.
Biofeedback can be successfully used to treat migraines, asthma and other stress related illnesses. It gives the
person some control over their bodily functions and, like meditation, helps the person to focus on something
else other than the pain.

Meditation

Meditation is a deliberate attempt to bring on an altered state of consciousness in order to experience deep
relaxation.
Meditation can take many forms, from concentrating one's attention on an external object or repeating a mantra
to allowing the mind to be open and receptive to the surrounding environment. Whichever technique is used,
the aim is to modify physiological functions in order to control pain. Some physiological changes resulting
from meditation are:

 An alteration in brain wave patterns showing more alpha waves

 Less oxygen consumption

 Less carbon dioxide exhaled

 Less muscle tension

 Lowered heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration rate

These physiological changes help the person achieve a sense of calm and well being. Meditation helps the
person to focus on something else other than the pain and it helps to reduce the stress in the body. It serves as a
beneficial non-medicinal pain reliever.
Purpose of Sleep
Psychologists have put forward several theories as to why we sleep however, two popular theories are the
restoration (restorative) theory and the survival theory.

Rechtschaffen's device designed to deprive rats of sleep.

Survival Theory
Restorative
The survival theory of sleep suggests that sleep serves as a protective behaviour where the
organism is inactive at the most dangerous time of the day.
Sleep is therefore an adaptive process, evolved from our ancestors who needed to remain hidden
at night to minimise attracting attention from predators at their most vulnerable time. Also, this
theory proposes that sleep serves to preserve energy, or reduce heat loss at night by a lowered
physical activity level.

However, a main criticism of the survival theory of sleep is that when asleep, an animal is less
alert and potentially more vulnerable to attack by predators.
The survival theory of sleep suggests that sleep serves as a protective behaviour where the
organism is inactive at the most dangerous time of the day.

Sleep is therefore an adaptive process, evolved from our ancestors who needed to remain hidden
at night to minimise attracting attention from predators at their most vulnerable time. Also, this
theory proposes that sleep serves to preserve energy, or reduce heat loss at night by a lowered
physical activity level.

However, a main criticism of the survival theory of sleep is that when asleep, an animal is less
alert and potentially more vulnerable to attack by predators.
The Biological Basis of Behaviour
This resource looks at the biological bases for behaviour. Let's begin with the role of 'neurons'. The nervous
system is made up of long chains of neurons. A neuron is made up of a soma (cell body), which is the central
part of the nerve cell. Axons and dendrites are fibres that branch off from the cell body. Dendrites are at one
end of the neuron and receive incoming messages from other neurons.

Axons branch out at the other end of the neuron and carry messages away from the cell body, transmitting
these messages to the next neuron. The axons are insulated with a protective coating called the myelin sheath.
The myelin sheath is a white fatty substance which insulates the axons and accelerates the transmission of
neural messages.

A chemical connection, known as the synapse, bridges the gap between two neurons. Neurotransmitters carry
chemical messages across the synapse to the dendrite of a receiver neuron. Thus, neural energy is transmitted
from one neuron to another, enabling it to travel from the sensory receptor site to the brain.
The Cerebral Cortex
The cerebral cortex is the outer layer or "bark" of the cerebral hemispheres, two large masses that form the
greatest bulk of the human brain. It is about 3mm thick and contains approximately 70% of the neurons in the
central nervous system, i.e. billions of nerve cells.
The cerebral hemispheres looks a little like a giant wrinkled walnut, full of bulges and separated by grooves.
These grooves increase the amount of area the cortex occupies. In other animals, the cortex is smooth,
reducing its total area. It is often referred to as the brain's grey matter.

Cerebral Hemispheres
The cerebral cortex consists of two sides or hemispheres (half-globes). These two hemispheres are connected
by a thick band of fibres called the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum is the largest bundle of association
fibres in the brain, connecting corresponding parts of the cerebral cortex on one side of the brain with those of
the other. It is the major "cable system" through which the right and left cerebral hemispheres communicate.

The two halves of the brain control opposite sides of the body. The left side of the brain mainly controls the
right side of the body, whereas the right half of the brain mainly controls left body areas. Therefore, if a person
suffers an injury or stroke that damages one side of the brain, the opposite side of the body will be affected,
becoming paralysed and losing sensations.

Functions of the Four Lobes

The functions of the four lobes of the cerebral cortex are to control motor, somatosensory, visual and auditory
processing in humans.

The principle function of the frontal lobe is the control of movement. The primary motor cortex, an important
arch of tissue, is located at the back of the frontal lobe and runs laterally over the top of the brain. This area
directs the body's muscles.The frontal lobe is also related to more complex behaviours. Its functions seem to be
related to planning, changing strategies, self-awareness, attention to emotionally related stimuli and
spontaneity of behaviour. Patients with frontal lobe damage demonstrate:

 slowing of thoughts and behaviour

 getting 'stuck' on tasks and repeating the same wrong answers over and over, i.e. they have difficulty
changing strategies

 loss of self-awareness

 changes in emotional reactions. They react with indifference to events that normally elicit an
emotional response

 deficiencies in planning

 loss of spontaneity
Frontal Lobe Damage
Damage to the back portions of the frontal lobe also leads to problems in the control of eye movements.

Broca's area is located just below and ahead of the primary motor cortex. It is essential for the production of
speech. It is a language area related to grammar and pronunciation. Damage to this region results in a form of
aphasia (impaired language ability), characterised by slow, laboured, difficult speech that lacks grammatical
structure. The person is able to read and understand other people's speech but have great difficulty speaking or
writing themselves.

Parietal Lobe
This lobe is located just above the occipital lobe. The principal sensory function of the parietal lobe is
somatosensory perception, where bodily sensations are registered. The lower parts of the parietal lobe are
concerned with visually and acoustically related functions. The parietal lobe is also very important in our
perception of space and in monitoring the body's position in space.

Damage to the left parietal lobe can result in alexia, the loss of the ability to read, or agraphia, the loss of the
ability to write. A person's ability to draw is also impaired when the parietal lobe is damaged.

Occipital Lobe
This lobe is located at the back of the head. The primary function of the occipital lobe is seeing. Visual input
ultimately reaches the occipital lobe of the cortex where cells communicate with one another extensively in a
rich processing network.
Damage to the primary visual cortex of the occipital lobe produces blindness. Damage to the visual association
cortex (which includes parts of the parietal and temporal lobes, as well as the occipital lobe) of the left
hemisphere affects the ability to recognise details of a visual scene. However, damage to the visual association
cortex of the right hemisphere affects the visual recognition of familiar objects.

Temporal Lobe
This lobe is located at each side of the brain, below the parietal lobe. The principal sensory function of the
temporal lobe is hearing, however, this lobe is also involved in vision, memory and factors of personality and
social behaviour.

One of the most important language areas of the brain is a region of the auditory association cortex on the left
side of the brain called Wernicke's area. This area is necessary for the identification of spoken words. Damage
to Wernicke's area results in Wernicke's aphasia, where a person finds it difficult to comprehend speech and
language.
Hemispheric Specialisation
Hemispheric specialisation: the cognitive and behavioural functions of the right and left hemispheres of the
cerebral cortex; non-verbal versus verbal and analytical functions.

The two hemispheres of the brain appear to differ in abilities. In 95% of people the left hemisphere is
dominant.

Left Hemisphere
Right Hemisphere
• specialises in language
• speaking
• reading
• writing
• superior at maths
• judges time and rhythm
• involved in ordering and co-ordering complex movements
specialises mainly in verbal functions
• people who are left brain dominant tend to work in fields such as computer science, maths, and
education

• superior at perceptual skills such as recognising patterns, faces, and melodies

• involved in the recognition and expression of emotion
• superior at spatial tasks such as negotiating a maze or arranging blocks
• better at visualisation
• specialise mainly in non-verbal functions
• people who are right brain dominant seem to work in fields such as art, music, or architecture
Hemispheric Specialisation
Evidence of this hemispheric specialisation has come from cases where people have had brain damage. Brain
damage to the left side of the brain, Broca's area, results in problems with the production of speech. Damage to
Wernicke's area, found in the temporal lobe of the left hemisphere, usually leads to problems in
comprehending language.

To further investigate the special abilities of the two cerebral hemispheres, researchers have worked with
people who have had a rare type of surgery where their corpus callosum is cut to control severe epilepsy. After
the 'split-brain' operation, it is as if the person has two brains. Each hemisphere seems to have its own
consciousness, sensations, perceptions and behaviours.

Studies of people with intact brains also revealed hemispheric specialisation. When verbal stimuli are
presented to the left hemisphere via the right eye or ear, they are processed more quickly and more accurately
than when they are presented to the right hemisphere via the left eye or ear. Conversely, the right hemisphere
appears to process visual-spatial tasks, such as recognising a face, more quickly.
Functions of the Spinal Cord
The two major functions of the spinal cord are to pass sensory information from the peripheral nervous system
to the brain and to transmit information from the brain to the peripheral nervous system

The spinal cord acts like a cable connecting the brain to the rest of the body through the peripheral nervous
system. It is an extension of the brain, running from the base of the brain to just below the level of the waist.
The brain and spinal cord combine to form the central nervous system.

The spinal cord consists of bundles of axons that carry the brain's commands to the peripheral nerves and relay
sensations from the periphery of the body to the brain.

Sensory vs Motor Neuron Activity

A sensory neuron is a nerve cell that carries messages from the senses toward the central nervous system,
whereas a motor neuron is a nerve cell that carries motor commands from the central nervous system to
muscles and glands.

For example, if a person stepped on a piece of glass it is detected in the foot by a sensory neuron and a
message is fired off to the spinal cord. The sensory neuron then synapses with a connector neuron inside the
spinal cord. The connector neuron in turn activates another nerve cell, a motor neuron. The motor neuron leads
back to muscle fibres that contract and cause the foot to withdraw from the piece of glass. This combined
activity of the sensory and motor neurons is called a reflex arc, where brain activity is not required. It is an
adaptive behaviour where the body can react quickly to protect itself from potential harm, without needing the
brain.
Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems
The role of the somatic nervous system in the control of the skeletal muscles. The somatic nervous system is
the system of nerves which carries messages to and from the sense organs and skeletal muscles. These nerves
are the cables that carry information from receptors in the skin, muscles and joints to the central nervous
system and then carry commands from the central nervous system to the muscles. Thus, the somatic nervous
system controls voluntary behaviour, such as moving your leg. It enables us to feel the world and move around
in it.

The role of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) in the control of non-skeletal muscles. The autonomic
nervous system is a system of nerves which carries information to and from the internal organs and glands. It
controls automatic and involuntary bodily functions that we don't normally think about, such as our heart rate
and perspiration.

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions

Bodily changes usually associated with, and physiological systems involved in arousal. The autonomic nervous
system (ANS) has two divisions;

• the sympathetic nervous system (arousing)

• the parasympathetic nervous system (calming)

These two divisions are activated when you are aroused. During an emergency, the sympathetic division of the
ANS takes over and prepares us for action; for fight or flight.

In contrast to the sympathetic division, the parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for calming the
body down. When the emergency is over, the above physiological changes are reversed and your level of
arousal is reduced. For example, if you are bushwalking and come across a dangerous situation, the
sympathetic nervous system will be activated to enable you to fight the situation or flee from it. When the
danger is over, the parasympathetic nervous system works on calming you down to achieve a state of
homoeostasis. These physiological changes equip the body with additional energy for self-protection.

Stress

Stress is the process of adjusting to/or dealing with circumstances that disrupt, or threaten to disrupt, a person's
physical or psychological functioning. Stress involves a relationship between people and their environments,
more specifically, between stressors and stress reactions.

Stressors are events and situations, such as an exam, to which people must react. Stressors can be both physical
(or environmental) and psychological (or mental).
Stress weakens the effectiveness of the body's immune system, its natural defence system. The person is then
more vulnerable to harmful cells in the body and becomes ill. Stress reactions are the physical, psychological
and behavioural responses people display in the face of stressors.

Types of stress reactions include physical, psychological, and behavioural.

Relationship Between Stress and Disease
Prolonged, intense stress has also been related to illnesses such as psychosomatic disorders. These are illnesses
in which psychological factors play a part in producing actual damage to the body or changes in how the body
functions.

There are a number of illnesses thought to be psychosomatic such as bronchial asthma, high blood pressure,
migraine headaches, stomach ulcers, arthritis, heart disease, hives and other disorders associated with over-
arousal of the autonomic nervous system.

General Adaptation Syndrome

One of the major contributors to stress research was Hans Selye (1956) who identified and described the
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). After he exposed rats to a large number of physical and psychological
stressors, he concluded that all stressors produced essentially the same pattern of results. He believes the
reactions to prolonged stress consists of three stages:

 alarm: where the individual is mobilised for action

 resistance: the individual attempts to cope with the threat through fight or flight

 exhaustion: the individual is unable to overcome the threat and the energy resources have been
depleted through attempts to reduce the threat. This stage is associated with signs of physical wear and
tear, especially in organ systems that were weak in the first place or heavily involved in the resistance
process

Seyle's model of stress has been very influential but it underestimated the role of psychological factors, such as
emotional factors or the way a person thinks about stressors. Psychobiological models of stress emphasise the
importance of psychological as well as biological variables in regulating and producing stress responses.
The key points from this module are:
A state of consciousness cannot be observed or measured directly. However, psychologists use various tools to
detect changes in levels of consciousness.

An electroencephalograph (EEG) is a polygraph that detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of the
brain.

Changes in brain wave patterns provide psychologists with information about a person's level of
consciousness.

The EEG has proven most useful in the identification of the different stages of sleep.

The measurement of an individual's heart rate, body temperature and breathing rate can also provide
psychologists with information about the individual's state of consciousness.

Psychologists also use the galvanic skin response (GSR) to make inferences about the changes in an
individual's state of consciousness.

The ways to study sleep are: electroencephalograph (EEG), electromyograph (EMG), electro-oculargram (eye
movements) and sleep laboratories.
Small, irregular waves are called beta waves.

A higher amplitude and lower frequency rhythm are called alpha waves.

Brain waves which are slower in frequency and higher in amplitude are called delta waves.

An electromyograph (EMG) is a device that measures electrical activity in the muscles through electrodes
attached to the chin.

The electro-oculargram (EOG, eye movements) is used to measure eye movements by attaching electrodes to
the skin around the eyes.

Most sleep research takes place in a sleep laboratory. A subject may spend a couple of nights in the sleep
laboratory before data is recorded from them, as it is expected that they may be unsettled for the first night or
two because of the new environment.
Characteristics and patterns of the stages of sleep: rapid eye movement sleep (REM sleep) and non-rapid eye
movement sleep (NREM sleep).

Stage one is characterised by small, irregular waves which are a combination of alpha and theta waves.
In stage two sleep spindles begin to occur. These are sharply pointed waves recorded by the EEG.

Stage three is characterised by the onset of slower delta waves.

Stage four consists of pure delta waves and it is extremely difficult to rouse the sleeper.

Most dreams occur during the REM stage. The EEG reveals brain wave patterns that are very similar to beta
waves when a person is awake, active and alert.

REM sleep has been called 'paradoxical sleep'.

Research has found that individuals who have been deprived of sleep are more able to concentrate on complex
tasks than on simple tasks.

Lack of REM sleep appears to affect our ability to concentrate and remember.

Insomnia is when a person has problems getting adequate sleep.

Hypersomnia is when a person experiences excessive daytime sleepiness and has extreme difficulty in
awakening.
Sleep apnea is a temporary cessation of breathing during the night which deprives the person of oxygen.

Narcolepsy is when a person has sudden uncontrollable sleep attacks where they go from being wide awake
straight into REM sleep.

Nightmares occur during REM sleep and are frightening REM dreams.

Night terrors occur during NREM sleep (stage 4) and, because the muscles are not paralysed, involve violent
body movements such as thrashing about or running.

Sleep walking occurs during the deep NREM sleep (stage 4) and hence it is difficult to wake the sleepwalker.

Sleep talking often accompanies sleep walking and also occurs during the deep stages of NREM sleep (stage
4).

A daydream is an altered state of consciousness where there is a change in brain wave patterns.

A night dream is also an altered state of consciousness. They may be positive or negative and usually people
have little control over their contents.

Lucid dreaming is when a person is aware that they are dreaming and is able to direct the action in the dream;
the person has control over the sequence of events in the dream.
The nervous system is made up of long chains of neurons.

A neuron is made up of a soma (cell body), which is the central part of the nerve cell.

Axons and dendrites are fibres that branch off from the cell body.

Dendrites are at one end of the neuron and receive incoming messages from other neurons.
Axons branch out at the other end of the neuron and carry messages away from the cell body, transmitting
these messages to the next neuron.

A chemical connection, known as the synapse, bridges the gap between two neurons.

Neurotransmitters carry chemical messages across the synapse to the dendrite of a receiver neuron.

The cerebral cortex is the outer layer or "bark" of the cerebral hemispheres, two large masses that form the
greatest bulk of the human brain.

The cerebral cortex consists of two sides or hemispheres (half-globes). These two hemispheres are connected
by a thick band of fibres called the corpus callosum.
The left side of the brain mainly controls the right side of the body, whereas the right half of the brain mainly
controls left body areas.

The functions of the four lobes of the cerebral cortex are to control motor, somatosensory, visual and auditory
processing in humans.

Damage to the back portions of the frontal lobe also leads to problems in the control of eye movements.

Broca's area is located just below and ahead of the primary motor cortex. It is essential for the production of
speech.

The principal sensory function of the parietal lobe is somatosensory perception, where bodily sensations are
registered.

Damage to the left parietal lobe can result in alexia, the loss of the ability to read, or agraphia, the loss of the
ability to write.

The primary function of the occipital lobe is seeing.

Damage to the primary visual cortex of the occipital lobe produces blindness.
Damage to the visual association cortex of the left hemisphere affects the ability to recognise details of a visual
scene.

The principal sensory function of the temporal lobe is hearing, however, this lobe is also involved in vision,
memory and factors of personality and social behaviour.

One of the most important language areas of the brain is a region of the auditory association cortex on the left
side of the brain called Wernicke's area.

Hemispheric specialisation: the cognitive and behavioural functions of the right and left hemispheres of the
cerebral cortex; non-verbal versus verbal and analytical functions.

The two major functions of the spinal cord are to pass sensory information from the peripheral nervous system
to the brain and to transmit information from the brain to the peripheral nervous system.

The spinal cord consists of bundles of axons that carry the brain's commands to the peripheral nerves and relay
sensations from the periphery of the body to the brain.

A sensory neuron is a nerve cell that carries messages from the senses toward the central nervous system.
A motor neuron is a nerve cell that carries motor commands from the central nervous system to muscles and
glands.
The somatic nervous system is the system of nerves which carries messages to and from the sense organs and
skeletal muscles.

The autonomic nervous system is a system of nerves which carries information to and from the internal organs
and glands.

During an emergency, the sympathetic division of the ANS takes over and prepares us for action; for fight or
flight.

The parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for calming the body down.

Stress is the process of adjusting to/or dealing with circumstances that disrupt, or threaten to disrupt, a person's
physical or psychological functioning.

Stress weakens the effectiveness of the body's immune system, its natural defence system.

Types of stress reactions include physical, psychological, and behavioural.

Prolonged, intense stress has also been related to illnesses such as psychosomatic disorders.
There are a number of illnesses thought to be psychosomatic such as bronchial asthma, high blood pressure,
migraine headaches, stomach ulcers, arthritis, heart disease, hives and other disorders associated with over-
arousal of the autonomic nervous system.

Reactions to prolonged stress consists of three stages; alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.