LEARNING

C-PSY-01
Unit 3
 What is learning
• Any relatively permanent change in behaviour brought about by
experience or practice.
• Relatively permanent-when people learn anything, some part of their brain is
physically changed to record what they’ve learned.
• Learning-process of memory.
• Without ability to remember (retention), people cannot learn anything.
• Learning- experience
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
• One of the best-known examples of classical conditioning is Pavlov's classic
experiments with dogs.

• In these experiments, the neutral signal was the sound of a tone and the
naturally occurring reflex was salivating in response to food.

• By associating the neutral stimulus (sound) with the unconditioned stimulus

(food), the sound of the tone alone could produce a salivation response
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
DEFINITIONS
• Unconditioned Stimulus- stimulus or trigger that leads to an automatic
response. If a cold breeze makes you shiver, for instance, the cold breeze is
an unconditioned stimulus; it produces an involuntary response (the
shivering).

• Neutral Stimulus- stimulus that doesn't initially trigger a response on its own. If
you hear the sound of a fan but don't feel the breeze, for example, it
wouldn't necessarily trigger a response. That would make it a neutral stimulus.
• Conditioned Stimulus- stimulus that was once neutral (didn't trigger a
response) but now leads to a response. If you previously didn't pay attention
to dogs, but then got bit by one, and now you feel fear every time you see a
dog, the dog has become a conditioned stimulus.

• Unconditioned Response- automatic response or a response that occurs

without thought when an unconditioned stimulus is present. If you smell your
favourite food and your mouth starts watering, the watering is an
unconditioned response.
• Conditioned Response- a learned response or a response that is created
where no response existed before. Going back to the example of being bit
by a dog, the fear you experience after the bite is a conditioned response.
 PROCESS OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
• 1. Before Conditioning-
• Prior to the conditioning, a naturally occurring unconditioned stimulus must be
present.
• In the case of Pavlov’s research, it was simply presenting the dogs with food.
• The food being presented led to an unconditioned response, which was the
dogs' salivating.
• This response is automatic and not learned.
• A neutral stimulus is also present but has not yet evoked any response at all.
• The neutral stimulus needs to be paired with the unconditioned stimulus for it to
begin causing a response.
2. During Conditioning-
• The second phase of classical conditioning involves the pairing of the
unconditioned and neutral stimulus to drive a response.

• In Pavlov’s experiment, for instance, he used a bell.

• The bell acts as a neutral stimulus, whereas presenting the food to the dogs acts
as an unconditioned stimulus.

• When the dogs hear the bell and then are presented with food, they
unconsciously form a connection between the two stimuli.

• The neutral stimuli—the bell—evolves into a conditioned stimulus.

• The dogs now respond to the bell in the same way they did when given food
because they view the bell as part of the process.
3. After Conditioning-
• Once the conditioning has occurred and the association is made between
the unconditioned and conditioned stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus can
be removed from the equation entirely and the response will be the same.
• A response is now triggered by using the conditioned stimulus by itself.

• For example, the dogs in Pavlov’s experiment soon salivated at hearing only
the sound of the bell because they associated it with getting fed.
 PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
• Classical conditioning- associative learning.
• Acquiring of new behaviour via association with various stimuli.
• Associating the subject with stimulus subject, outputs new responses and
learns a behaviour.
• First discovered by Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov, while experimenting on
digestion process of dogs in 1897.
• There are five general principles in Classical Conditioning.
• 1. Acquisition-
• It is the process by which an organism learns the association involved in classical
conditioning.
• For this process to begin, two different stimuli, CS (Conditioned Stimuli) and UCS
(Unconditioned Stimuli) must be paired repeatedly before the CS unfailingly
elicits a CR (Conditioned Response).
• CS and UCS when paired together extract a certain response.
• After repeatedly pairing two separate stimuli together, the conditioned response
gets stronger and stronger.
• Acquisition of relationship between two stimuli is absolutely vital for classical
conditioning.
• 2. Stimulus Generalization-
• After an organism has been conditioned to respond in a certain way for a
particular stimulus after repeated trials, the organism responds in a similar way to
other similar stimuli or situations.

• Generalization is defined as the process in which a stimulus similar to the original

CS produces similar behaviour identical to the CR.

• A suitable example for this principle would be Watson’s study with Little Albert.
Once the conditioning took place after the experiment, Little Albert started to
show fear towards all white objects (e.g: white rabbits, white fur coats, and even
a white Santa Claus mask).
• 3. Stimulus Discrimination-
• The process in which an organism learns to differentiate between different stimuli
in order to restrict their response to one stimulus in.
• For instance, the dog in the Pavlov’s experiment does not salivate when
exposed to ‘Light’ instead of the sound of the bell. Likewise, Little Albert would
not respond with fear towards a black fur coat, or a black dog.
• This principle relates with the ability of an organism to learn the difference
between different stimuli and respond only to the conditioned stimulus.
• This principle is applied in our life every day. We would be mowed down by
oncoming traffic, had we not been able to discriminate between a red and a
green traffic light.
• 4. Extinction-
• The process of undoing the classical conditioning such that the subject does not
produce CR in the presence of CS is termed as Extinction.
• Occurs when there is complete absence of conditioned response, when the subject
is exposed to conditioned stimulus (absence of UCS).
• Can be produced by ending the association between conditioned and
unconditioned stimuli.

• For instance, if Pavlov had started to stop presenting the dog with food following the
bell-sound on numerous occasions, it would gradually stop salivating in response to
the sound. This would not happen out of a sudden; initially, the dog would continue
to salivate but with due time, it would come to an understanding that no food is
going to be presented. Hence, there would be no CR. This means the lack of
reinforcement will break the link between CS-UCS and CR.
• 5. Spontaneous Recovery-
• Sometimes, the CR suddenly reappears even after then link between CS and
UCS has been broken down.
• In other words, the organism has stopped eliciting CR in response to CS.
• In Pavlov’s experiment, when the dog had completely stopped eliciting CR
(Saliva) in response to CS (bell sound), the dog still responded with saliva at the
sound of the bell. This sudden reappearance of saliva (CR) was referred as
‘spontaneous recovery’ by Pavlov.

• This principle can be used to explain why “cured” alcohol and drug addicts
again “relapse to addiction”. When the cured addicts confront with the
substance, the irresistible urge to use the substance again may resurface
because of the strong connection to the drug previously. This can be termed as
Spontaneous Recovery.
 APPLICATIONS OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
• Mental Health-
• Used in mental health applications because it can help treat and
understand the development of certain disorders.
• Research has shown classical conditioning principles to be helpful in treating:
• Anxiety
• Depression
• Phobias
• Panic disorder
• Substance use disorder
• Obsessive-compulsive disorder
• Certain therapies are used to help counter-condition some people with various
mental health disorders. They include exposure and aversion therapy.
• In exposure therapy, people with anxiety and phobias are exposed to what they
fear most in a safe environment until they are no longer afraid.
• Aversion therapies replace positive experiences drawn from negative behaviours
into negative responses.
• For example, if a person misuses alcohol, they may be given a medication that
causes them to feel ill every time they drink it.
• This negative response will, in turn, condition them to no longer desire alcohol.
• Phobias-
• Education-
• In school systems, classical conditioning can be used to provide students
with positive associations within their learning experiences.
• For example, if a student has to give a presentation in front of the class but
feels great anxiety because of it, a teacher can develop certain positive
stimuli that can later be associated with public speaking.

• The student, in turn, learns to associate public speaking with a positive

environment.
• Taste Aversions-
• Taste aversions can improve the survival of a species.

• One particular study demonstrated this using rats.

• The rats in question were exposed to a type of radiation that caused them to feel
nauseated.

• Following their exposure, the rats no longer liked flavoured water when it was
presented to them at the same time as the radiation.

• The radiation acts like an unconditioned stimulus, because it triggers feelings of

automatic nausea.
• The flavoured water acts as a conditioned stimulus, because when the rats were
exposed to only the flavoured water without the radiation, they experienced nausea in
the same way as if the radiation were present.
• Advertising-
• Advertisers will often use classical conditioning to encourage consumers to buy
their product.

• For example, a commercial may show a product that people enjoy using.

• Eventually, a person will associate happy people having fun with that product.

• This association of good feelings could alter a person’s perspective and lead
them to buy the product in question.

• Advertising will also use music as a form of classical conditioning.

• Upbeat and joyful music will eventually be associated with feelings of happiness
for the people that see the ad.
• They will then associate that company with good emotions.
• Placebo Effects-
• Classical conditioning has also been researched as a part of the placebo
effect.
• The research surrounding this area of study has found that classical
conditioning can essentially cause the placebo effect to occur.

• One study looked at classical conditioning in relation to the placebo effect

and pain modulation and found that a person can reduce their pain if given
certain cues that are associated with lower levels of pain.
• Pet Training-
• Classical conditioning is a highly popular tool used to train pets to be more
obedient.

• It is performed to assist your dog in unconsciously engaging in good behaviours.

• Classical conditioning is used to help train pets in various ways.

• However, it can also occur by accident.
• For example, if you pick up your keys prior to taking them for a walk, they may not
initially react to your keys at all.
• Eventually, though, the sound of keys will trigger them to believe that they are
going for a walk, which will cause a response.
• Classical conditioning is a form of unconscious learning style.
• It was popularized by physiologist Ivan Pavlov after he accidentally stumbled
upon it during an unrelated experiment using dogs.
• The theory maintains that people can be directed to unconsciously respond
to a certain stimulus different from what would trigger the response naturally.

• The idea of classical conditioning has been used in various real-world

applications, especially mental health.
• Others include the education system, advertising, pet training, placebos,
and taste aversions.
 OPERANT CONDITIONING
• Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is
a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behaviour.
• Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behaviour
and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behaviour.
• For example, when lab rats press a lever when a green light is on, they
receive a food pellet as a reward.
• When they press the lever when a red light is on, they receive a mild electric
shock.
• As a result, they learn to press the lever when the green light is on and avoid
the red light.
 History
• Operant conditioning was first described by behaviourist B.F. Skinner.
• As a behaviourist, Skinner believed that it was not really necessary to look at
internal thoughts and motivations in order to explain behaviour.
• Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable
causes of human behaviour.
• Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behaviour that
operates upon the environment to generate consequences.“
• Skinner's theory explained how we acquire the range of learned behaviours
we exhibit every day.
• Skinner was more interested in how the consequences of people's actions
influenced their behaviour.
• Operant conditioning relies on a fairly simple premise: Actions that are
followed by reinforcement will be strengthened and more likely to occur
again in the future.
• If you tell a funny story in class and everybody laughs, you will probably be
more likely to tell that story again in the future.

• If you raise your hand to ask a question and your teacher praises your polite
behaviour, you will be more likely to raise your hand the next time you have
a question or comment.
• Because the behaviour was followed by reinforcement, or a desirable
outcome, the preceding action is strengthened.
• Conversely, actions that result in punishment or undesirable consequences
will be weakened and less likely to occur again in the future.
• If you tell the same story again in another class but nobody laughs this time,
you will be less likely to repeat the story again in the future.
• If you shout out an answer in class and your teacher scolds you, then you
might be less likely to interrupt the class again.
 Components of operant
conditioning
Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows.
• There are four types of operant conditioning that can be utilized to change
behaviour: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment,
and negative punishment.
1. Positive reinforcers:
• Favourable events or outcomes that are presented after the behaviour.
• In positive reinforcement situations, a response or behaviour is strengthened by the
addition of praise or a direct reward.
• If you do a good job at work and your manager gives you a bonus, that bonus is a
positive reinforcer.
2. Negative reinforcers:
• Involves the removal of an unfavourable events or outcomes after the
display of a behaviour.
• In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something
considered unpleasant.
• For example, if your child starts to scream in the middle of a restaurant, but
stops once you hand them a treat, your action led to the removal of the
unpleasant condition, negatively reinforcing your behaviour (not your
child’s).
• Before heading out for a day at the beach, you slather on sunscreen (the
behavior) to avoid getting sunburned (removal of the aversive stimulus).
 Punishment in Operant Conditioning
Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a
decrease in the behaviour it follows.
3. Positive punishment:
• Referred to as punishment by application
• Presents an unfavourable event or outcome in order to weaken the
response it follows.
• Spanking for misbehaviour is an example of punishment by application.
4. Negative punishment:
• Also known as punishment by removal
• Occurs when a favourable event or outcome is removed after a behaviour
occurs.
• Taking away a child's video game following misbehaviour is an example of
negative punishment.
• The five principles of operant conditioning are positive reinforcement,
negative reinforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment, and
extinction.
• Extinction occurs when a response is no longer reinforced or punished, which
can lead to the fading and disappearance of the behaviour.
 Operant conditioning
reinforcement schedules
• Skinner found that reinforcing every response was not necessarily the best
schedule of reinforcement for long-lasting learning.
• The timing of reinforcement can make a tremendous difference in the speed
at which learning occurs and the strength of the learned response.
1. Fixed-Ratio (FR) Reinforcement
• In a fixed-ratio reinforcement schedule, a response is reinforced with a
reward or punishment after a set number of responses have occurred.
• For example, with a fixed ratio of 4, every 4th time the behaviour occurs, a
reward will be provided.
• This happens commonly at coffee shops, where loyal customers get their
10th coffee for free.

As shown in the example, fixed-ratio reinforcements reward consistency,

reliability, and loyalty.
2. Variable-Ratio (VR) Reinforcement
• In a variable-ratio reinforcement schedule, a response is reinforced after an
unpredictable rather than set number of instances of the behaviour have
occurred.

• This type of reinforcement is commonly used in slot machines, where the

player wins after an uncertain number of attempts.
• The uncertainty keeps the person pressing the button hoping that “next time,
I’ll win!”
3. Fixed-Interval (FI) Reinforcement
• Interval reinforcements refer to reinforcements that occur after an amount of
time has passed rather than an amount of instances of the behaviour.
• For example, they would happen after X amount of days.
• In a fixed-interval reinforcement schedule, the response is reinforced with a
reward after a set amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement.
• A good example of this is a yearly pay raise at work. Employees would know
that this is coming every January 1st.
4. Variable-Interval (VI) Reinforcement
• In a variable-interval reinforcement schedule, a response is reinforced after
an unpredictable amount of time in order to keep the person (or animal) on
their toes.

• The interval between reinforcements tends to vary but often stays within an
averaged-out range.

• An example of this type of partial reinforcement is pop quizzes. A teacher

might tell students that there will be a pop quiz coming up soon, but students
don’t know when the next quiz will be, so they have to be prepared at all
times.
 Examples of operant conditioning
• After performing in a community theater play, you receive applause from
the audience. This acts as a positive reinforcer, inspiring you to try out for
more performance roles.

• You train your dog to fetch by offering him praise and a pat on the head
whenever he performs the behaviour correctly. This is another positive
reinforcer.

• A professor tells students that if they have perfect attendance all semester,
then they do not have to take the final comprehensive exam. By removing
an unpleasant stimulus (the final test), students are negatively reinforced to
attend class regularly.
• If you fail to hand in a project on time, your boss becomes angry and
berates your performance in front of your co-workers. This acts as a positive
punisher, making it less likely that you will finish projects late in the future.

• A teen girl does not clean up her room as she was asked, so her parents take
away her phone for the rest of the day. This is an example of a negative
punishment in which a positive stimulus is taken away.
• The promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behaviour.
Operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behaviour via the
removal of a desirable outcome or the application of a negative outcome.
• For example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they talk
out of turn in class. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in
disruptive behaviours.
 OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
• There are a number of learning theories, such as classical conditioning and
operant conditioning, that emphasize how direct experience, reinforcement,
or punishment can lead to learning.
• However, a great deal of learning happens indirectly.
• Observational learning is sometimes called shaping, modeling, and vicarious
reinforcement.
• While it can take place at any point in life, it tends to be the most common
during childhood.
• Plays an important role in the socialization process. Children learn how to
behave and respond to others by observing how their parent(s) interact with
other people
 History
• Psychologist Albert Bandura is the researcher most often associated with
learning through observation.
• He and others have demonstrated that we are naturally inclined to engage
in observational learning.
• Studies suggest that imitation with social understanding tends to begin
around 2 years old, but will vary depending on the specific child.
 Stages of observational learning
1. Attention:
• For an observer to learn, they must be in the right mindset to do so.
• This means having the energy to learn, remaining focused on what the
model is engaging in, and being able to observe the model for enough time
to grasp what they are doing.

• How the model is perceived can impact the observer's level of attention.
• Models who are seen being rewarded for their behaviour, models who are
attractive, and models who are viewed as similar to the observer tend to
command more focus from the observer.
2. Retention:
• If the observer was able to focus on the model's behaviour, the next step is
being able to remember what was viewed.

• If the observer is not able to recall the model's behaviour, they may need to
go back to the first stage again.
3. Reproduction:
• If the observer is able to focus and retains the information, the next stage in
observational learning is trying to replicate it.
• It's important to note that every individual will have their own unique
capacity when it comes to imitating certain behaviours.
• Even with perfect focus and recall, some behaviours may not be easily
copied.
4. Motivation:
• In order for the observer to engage in this new behaviour, they will need
some sort of motivation.
• Even if the observer is able to imitate the model, if they lack the drive to do
so, they will likely not follow through with this new learned behaviour.
• Motivation may increase if the observer watched the model receive a
reward for engaging in a certain behaviour and the observer believes they
will also receive some reward if they imitate said behaviour.
• Motivation may decrease if the observer had knowledge of or witnessed the
model being punished for a certain behaviour.
 Uses for observational learning
• Learning new behaviours:
• Observational learning is often used as a real-world tool for teaching people
new skills.
• This can include children watching their parents perform a task or students
observing a teacher engage in a demonstration.
• Strengthening skills:
• Observational learning is also a key way to reinforce and strengthen
behaviours.
• For example, if a study sees another student getting a reward for raising their
hand in class, they will be more likely to also raise their hand the next time
they want to ask a question.
• Minimizing negative behaviours:
• Observational learning also plays an important role in reducing undesirable
or negative behaviours.
• For example, if you see a coworker get reprimanded for failing to finish a task
on time, it means that you may be more likely to finish your work more
quickly.
 Observational learning examples
• A child watches their parent folding the laundry. They later pick up some
clothing and imitate folding the clothes.
• A young couple goes on a date to an Asian restaurant. They watch other
diners in the restaurant eating with chopsticks and copy their actions to learn
how to use these utensils.
• A child watches a classmate get in trouble for hitting another child. They
learn from observing this interaction that they should not hit others.
• A group of children play hide-and-seek. One child joins the group and is not
sure what to do. After observing the other children play, they quickly learn
the basic rules and join in.
 LEARNING STRATEGIES
• Several different theories have emerged to explain how people learn.
• Some of the main theories of learning include:

• Behavioural learning theory

• Cognitive learning theory
• Constructivist learning theory
• Social learning theory
• Experiential learning theory
 1. BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORIES

• During the early part of the twentieth century, many psychologists became
increasingly interested in turning psychology into a more scientific endeavor.
• These psychologists, known as behaviourists, argued that psychology
needed to study only things that could be measured and quantified to be
more scientific.

• A few different behavioural theories emerged to explain how and why

people behave the way they do.
• Behavioural theories are centered on the environmental influences on the
learning process. Environmental influences include associations,
reinforcements, and punishments.
 Learning through association
• Classical conditioning suggests that learning occurs when an association is
formed between a previously neutral stimulus and a naturally occurring
stimulus.

• In experiments conducted by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, a natural

stimulus (food) was paired with the sound of a bell.
• The dogs would naturally salivate in response to food, but after multiple
associations, the dogs would salivate to the sound of the bell alone.
 Learning through reinforcement
• Operant conditioning is a type of associative learning that involves strengthening or
weakening a behaviour by using reinforcement or punishment.
• Operant conditioning was first described by the behavioural psychologist B.F.
Skinner.
• It is sometimes also referred to as Skinnerian conditioning and instrumental
conditioning.
• Skinner believed that classical conditioning simply could not account for all types of
learning and was more interested in learning how the consequences of actions
influence behaviours.
• Like classical conditioning, operant conditioning relies on forming associations.
• In operant conditioning, however, associations are made between a behaviour and
the consequences of that behaviour.
 2. COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES
• The cognitive approach to learning focuses on how attention, memory, and
information processing contribute to the acquisition of knowledge.
• One of the best-known cognitive learning theories is Piaget's theory of
cognitive development.
• Piaget described four stages of intellectual development that occur in
childhood.
• These four stages explain how a child learns about the world and processes
information.
▪ Sensorimotor stage: During this period of cognitive development, children
learn about the world primarily through their senses.
▪ Preoperational stage: This stage is marked by the emergence of language
and learning through pretend play.
▪ Concrete operations stage: During this period, kids begin to utilize logic but
still think about the world very concretely.
▪ Formal operations stage: At this point, kids begin to use deductive reasoning
and can understand abstract, hypothetical ideas.
 3. CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING
THEORIES
• The constructivist approach to learning characterizes learners as active
participants in the process who play a role in constructing their knowledge.
• Constructivist theories of learning were influenced by the work of
psychologist Lev Vygotsky.
• Vygotsky's sociocultural theory stressed the importance of collaboration and
social interaction in the learning process.
• Two important concepts of constructivist learning theories are the more
knowledgeable other and the zone of proximal development:
▪ More knowledgeable other:
▪ Anyone with an understanding or ability level higher than the learner.
▪ This can often be a teacher or adult, but it can also refer to peers with more
knowledge about a specific concept, task, or process.
▪ Zone of proximal development:
▪ The range of knowledge or ability that a person can display with the help of
the more knowledgeable other, but that they are not yet capable of
performing independently.
▪ Gradually expanding this zone is how people can learn and improve their
skills over time.
 4. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES
• Psychologist Albert Bandura suggested that much of learning takes place
through observation.
• Children observe the actions of those around them, particularly caregivers
and siblings, and then imitate these behaviours.

• In social learning:
• Learning occurs through observation
• Observations can take place at any time
• Focuses on the give-and-take interaction between social, cognitive, and
environmental influences
• In his well-known Bobo doll experiment, Bandura revealed just how easily
children could be led to imitate even negative actions.
• Children who watched a video of an adult beating up a large inflatable doll
were likelier to copy those actions when given a chance.

• Bandura noted that learning something does not necessarily result in a

behaviour change.
• Children frequently learn new things through observation but might not
engage in such behaviours until they need or are motivated to utilize the
information.
 5. EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORIES

• This learning theory focuses on learning via hands-on experience.

• The theory was formally introduced by psychologist David Kolb but was
influenced by the work of other theorists, including Jean Piaget and John
Dewey.

• According to Kolb, there are four stages in experiential learning.

• The first two, abstract conceptualization and concrete experience, relate to
how people grasp experiences.
• The final two, active experimentation and reflective observation, refer to
how people transform experiences.