Theories of learning

JULIUS C. DANO
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR 5
CEBU NORMAL UNIVERSITY
 Broad Goals
1. Operationally de ne terms relevant to
theories of learning.
2. Examine learning theories that are
currently impo ant.
 De nitions: Learning is:
1. “a persisting change in human pe ormance or
pe ormance potential . . . (brought) about as a
result of the learner’s interaction with the
environment” (Driscoll, 1994, pp. 8-9).
2. “the relatively permanent change in a person’s
knowledge
1982, p. 1040).
or behavior due to experience” (Mayer,
3. “an enduring change in behavior, or in the
capacity to behave in a given fashion, which
results from
(Shuell, 1986, p. 412).
practice or other forms of experience”
 Learning Theo
Q: How do people learn?
A: Nobody really knows.
But there are
Behaviorism
6 main theories:
Cognitivism
Social Learning Theo
Social Constructivism
Multiple Intelligences
Brain-Based Learning
Connectivism
 Behaviorism
Con ned to obse able and measurable
behavior
 Classical Conditioning - Pavlov

 Operant Conditioning - Skinner

 Behaviorism
 Classical Conditioning - Pavlov
A stimulus is
presented
in order to get a
response:
S R
 Classical Conditioning -
Unconditioned Stimulus Pavlov
Neutral Stimulus
An unconditioned A neutral stimulus is a
stimulus is a stimulus or stimulus that doesn't
trigger that leads to an initially trigger a response
automatic response. If a on its own. If you hear the
cold breeze makes you sound of a fan but don't
shiver, for instance, the feel the breeze, for
cold breeze is an example, it wouldn't
unconditioned stimulus; it necessarily trigger a
produces an involunta response. That would
response (the shivering). make it a neutral stimulus.
 Classical Conditioning -
Conditioned Stimulus Pavlov
Unconditioned Response
A conditioned stimulus is a An unconditioned response
stimulus that was once is an automatic response or
neutral (didn't trigger a a response that occurs
response) but now leads to a without thought when an
response. If you previously unconditioned stimulus is
didn't pay attention to dogs,
but then got bit by one, and
present. If you smell your
now you feel fear eve time favorite food and your
you see a dog, the dog has mouth sta s watering, the
become a conditioned watering is an
stimulus. unconditioned response.
 Classical Conditioning -
Conditioned Response Pavlov
Unconditioned Response
A conditioned response is An unconditioned
a learned response or a response is an automatic
response that is created response or a response
where no response that occurs without
existed before. Going thought when an
back to the example of unconditioned stimulus is
being bit by a dog, the present. If you smell your
fear you experience after favorite food and your
the bite is a conditioned mouth sta s watering, the
response. watering is an
unconditioned response.
 Behaviorism
 Classical Conditioning - Pavlov
S US
UR
CS US
CR
 Classical Conditioning
Examples
1. A WARM AND NURTURING TEACHER
MOTIVATES STUDENTS
A warm and nu uring teacher (US) makes
students feel connected (UR). Students
associate going to school (CS) with the teacher.
Therefore, students learn to enjoy going to
school (CR)2.
•It is one of the positive classical conditioning
examples for students.
2. A HARSH AND STRICT TEACHER
DEMOTIVATES STUDENTS
A harsh and strict teacher (US) makes
students feel bad (UR). Students associate
going to school (CS) with the harsh teacher
and learn to feel bad about going to school
(CR).
3. FEAR OF DOGS 4. FOOD AVERSION
A child sees a dog attack a Food poisoning can lead
person. It’s a ve to a phobia of a speci c
frightening experience (UR) food. The rst time
. Dogs are generally neutral someone eats a ce ain
stimuli (US) that many food (US) and gets sick
people nd adorable. But from it, they may associate
to this child, after this the food with feeling awful
incident, he’s scared (CR) (UR). The food’s
whenever he sees a dog appearance, smell, or taste
(CS). (CS) can evoke an intense
dislike or even fear in the
5. ANXIETY OVER
NEEDLES 6. STAGE FRIGHT
Here is one of the most A child is laughed at
common classical (US) when he gave a
conditioning real-life presentation in class
examples for parents. and he felt ashamed
Getting a u shot (US) (UR). Now eve time
hu s and makes a child he has to speak up in
c (UR). The child
associates the needle (CS)
front of people (CS),
with getting hu and cries he feels ne ous and
at the sight of the needle fea ul (CR).
 Behaviorism
 Operant Conditioning - Skinner
The response is made rst,
then reinforcement follows.
 Types of Behaviors
Skinner distinguished between two di erent
types of behaviors
•Respondent behaviors are those that occur automatically
and re exively, such as pulling your hand back from a hot
stove or jerking your leg when the doctor taps on your
knee. You don't have to learn these behaviors. They
simply occur automatically and involuntarily.
•Operant behaviors, on the other hand, are those under
our conscious control. Some may occur spontaneously
and others purposely, but it is the consequences of these
actions that then in uence whether or not they occur
again in the future. Our actions on the environment and
the consequences of that action make up an impo ant
pa of the learning process.
 Components of Operant
Conditioning
• There are several key concepts in
operant conditioning.
 Reinforcement in Operant
Conditioning
Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the
behavior it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers. In both of these
cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.
1. Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are
presented after the behavior. In positive reinforcement situations, a
response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of praise or a
direct reward. If you do a good job at work and your manager gives
you a bonus, that bonus is a positive reinforcer.
2. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events
or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a
response is strengthened by the removal of something considered
unpleasant. For example, if your child sta s to scream in the middle
of a restaurant, but stops once you hand them a treat, your action led
to the removal of the unpleasant condition, negatively reinforcing
your behavior (not your child's).
 Punishment in Operant
Conditioning
Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or
outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it
follows. There are two kinds of punishment. In both of
these cases, the behavior decreases.
1.by application,
Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment
presents an unfavorable event or outcome in
order to weaken the response it follows. Spanking for
misbehavior is an example of punishment by application.
2. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal,
occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a
behavior occurs. Taking away a child's video game following
misbehavior is an example of negative punishment.
 Behaviorism
•Learning is de ned by the outward
expression of new behaviors
•Focuses solely on obse able behaviors
•A biological basis for learning
•Learning is context-independent
•Classical & Operant Conditioning
– Re exes (Pavlov’s Dogs)
– Feedback/Reinforcement (Skinner’s Pigeon
Box)
 Behaviorism in the Classroom
•Rewards and
punishments
•Responsibility
for student
learning rests
squarely with
the teacher
•Lecture-based,
highly structured
 Critiques of Behaviorism
•Does not account for processes taking
place in the mind that cannot be obse ed
•Advocates for passive student learning in
a teacher-centric environment
•One size ts all
•Knowledge itself is given and absolute
•Programmed instruction & teacher-
proo ng
 Learning Theo
 Behaviorism
 Cognitive Learning Theo
 Social Learning Theo
 Connectivism
 Cognitivism
•Grew in response to
Behaviorism
•Knowledge is stored
cognitively as symbols
•Learning is the process of
connecting symbols in a
meaningful & memorable
way
•Studies focused on the
mental processes that
facilitate symbol
connection
 Cognitivism
•Cognitivism is a learning
theo that focusses on
how information is
received, organized,
stored and retrieved by
the mind.
•It uses the mind as an
information processer, like
a computer. Therefore,
cognitivism looks beyond
obse able behaviour,
viewing learning as
Cognitive Learning Theo
 Discove Learning -
Jerome Bruner
 Meaningful Verbal
Learning -
David Ausubel
 Cognitive Learning Theo
 Discove Learning
1. Bruner said anybody can learn
anything at any age, provided it is
stated in terms they can understand.
 Cognitive Learning Theo
 Discove Learning
2. Powe ul Concepts (not isolated facts)
a. Transfer to many di erent situations
b. Only possible through Discove
Learning
c. Confront the learner with problems and
help them nd solutions. Do not present
sequenced materials.
Cognitive Learning Theo
 MeaningfulAdvance
Verbal Learning
Organizers:
New material is
presented in a
systematic way,
and is connected
to existing
cognitive
structures in a
 Cognitive Learning Theo
 Meaningful Verbal Learning
When learners have
di culty with new
material, go back to
the concrete
anchors (Advance
Organizers).
Provide a Discove
approach, and
they’ll learn.
 Cognitivism in the Classroom
•Inqui -oriented
projects
•Oppo unities for
the testing of
hypotheses
•Curiosity
encouraged
•Staged sca olding
 Critiques of Cognitivism
•Like Behaviorism, knowledge itself is
given and absolute
•Input – Process – Output model is
mechanistic and deterministic
•Does not account enough for
individuality
•Little emphasis on a ective
characteristics
 Learning Theo
 Behaviorism
 Social Learning Theo
 Cognitive Learning Theo
 Social Learning Theo (SLT)
•Grew out of Cognitivism
•Albe Bandura (1973)
•Learning takes place
through obse ation
and sensorial
experiences
•Imitation is the sincerest
form of atte
•SLT is the basis of the
movement against
violence in media &
video games
 Social Learning Theo
Learning From Models -
Albe Bandura
1. Attend to pe inent clues
2. Code for memo (store a
visual image)
3. Retain in memo
4. Accurately reproduce the
obse ed activity
5. Possess su cient motivation
to apply new learning
 Social Learning Theo
Research indicates that the following factors
in uence the strength of learning from models:
1. How much power the model seems to have
2. How capable the model seems to be
3. How nu uring (caring) the model seems to be
4. How similar the learner perceives self and
model
5. How many models the learner obse es
 Social Learning Theo
Four interrelated processes establish and
strengthen identi cation with the model:
1. Children want to be like the
model
2. Children believe they are like the
model
3. Children experience emotions like
those the model is feeling.
4. Children act like the model.
 Social Learning Theo
Through identi cation, children come to
believe they have the same
characteristics as the model.
When they identify with a nu urant and
competent model, children feel pleased and
proud.
When they identify with an inadequate model,
children feel unhappy and insecure.
 SLT in the Classroom
•Collaborative
learning and group
work
•Modeling responses
and expectations
•Oppo unities to
obse e expe s in
action
Critiques of Social Learning Theo
•Does not take into account individuality,
context, and experience as mediating
factors
•Suggests students learn best as passive
receivers of senso stimuli, as opposed
to being active learners
•Emotions and motivation not considered
impo ant or connected to learning
 Social Constructivism
 Grew out of and in
around metacognitionresponse to Cognitivism, framed
 Knowledge is actively constructed
 Learning is…
 A search for meaning by the learner
 Contextualized
 An inherently social activity
 Dialogic and recursive
 The responsibility of the learner

 Lev Vygotsky
 Social Learning
 Zone of Proximal Development
Social Constructivism in the Classroom
•Journaling
•Experiential
activities
•Personal focus
•Collaborative &
cooperative
learning
 Critiques of Social
Constructivism
•Suggests that knowledge is neither given
nor absolute
•Often seen as less rigorous than
traditional approaches to instruction
•Does not t well with traditional age
grouping and rigid terms/semesters
Piaget’s Psychological
Development
 Piaget (1896 - 1980)
•Swiss Psychologist, worked for
several decades on understanding
children’s cognitive development
•Most widely known theo of cognitive
development.
•Was intrigued by kids’ thoughts &
behavior, & worked to understand their
cognitive development
 Piaget: Background
•Young Piaget was incredibly precocious
– Published rst paper at 10
– Wrote on mollusks, based on these writings
was asked to be curator of mollusks at a
museum in Geneva (he declined in order to
nish seconda school)
– Earned his doctorate in natural sciences at 21
– Began to study psychology, applying
intelligence tests to school children
 Constructivism
•Assumption that learning is an active
process of construction rather than a
passive assimilation of information or
rote memorization.
•Credited for founding constructivism
•Has had a large in uence on American
schools
 …Piaget and Constructivism
•Best known for idea that individuals
construct their understanding, that
learning is a constructive process
– Active learning as opposed to simply
absorbing info from a teacher, book, etc.
– The child is seen as a ‘little scientist’
constructing understandings of the world
largely alone
 ….Piaget & Constructivism
•believed all learning is constructed,
whether it is something we are taught
or something we learn on our own.
• Whether or not we are taught in a
“constructivist” manner, Piaget
believed we are constructing
knowledge in all our learning.
 Piaget & Learning
•Two main states – equilibrium &
disequilibrium
•Believed that we are driven or motivated
to learn when we are in disequilibrium
– We want to understand things
 Piaget & Learning
•Equilibration: assimilation & accommodation
•We adjust our ideas to make sense of reality
•Assimilation:
•process of matching external reality to an
existing cognitive structure.
•Accommodation:
•When there’s an inconsistency between the
learner’s cognitive structure & the thing being
learned the child will reorganize her thoughts
Example of Learning….
 Constructivism, Learning, &
Education
•Not interested in applying his theo
to school-based education, he called
this “The American question”
•Constructivist educators create an
environment which encourages
children to construct their own
knowledge.
– But according to Piaget, we construct our
learning regardless of how it is presented.
 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
•A child’s capacity to understand ce ain
concepts is based on the child’s
developmental stage
 Piaget’s Four Stages
•Believed that all children develop according to
four stages based on how they see the world.
– He thought the age may va some, but that we all
go through the stages in the same order.
1. Sensori-motor (bi h –2 years)
2. Preoperational (~2-7)
3. Concrete operational (~7-11)
4. Formal operations (~12-15)
 Sensorimotor Stage
•Bi h to about 2 years, rapid change is
seen throughout
•The child will:
– Explore the world through senses &
motor activity
– Early on, baby can’t tell di erence
between themselves & the environment
– If they can’t see something then it doesn’t
exist
– Begin to understand cause & e ect
– Can later follow something with their eyes
 Preoperational Stage
•About 2 to about 7
– Better speech communication
– Can imagine the future & re ect on the
past
– Develop basic numerical abilities
– Still pretty egocentric, but learning to be
able to delay grati cation
– Can’t understand conse ation of matter
– Has di culty distinguishing fantasy from
reality (ex: ca oon characters are real
people).
 …more preoperational
•Conse ation of matter –
understanding that something doesn’t
change even though it looks di erent,
shape is not related to quantity
•Ex: Are ten coins set in a long line
more than ten coins in a pile?
•Ex: Is there less water if it is poured
into a bigger container?
 Concrete Operational Stage
•From about 7 to about 11
– Abstract reasoning ability & ability to
generalize from the concrete increases
– Understands conse ation of matter
 Formal Operations
•From about 12 to about 15
– Be able to think about hypothetical
situations
– Form & test hypotheses
– Organize information
– Reason scienti cally
 … Piaget’s Development
•Development happens from one stage to
another through
environment. interaction with the
•Changes from stage to stage may occur
abruptly and kids will
they are in each stage. di er in how long
•Cognitive development can only happen
after genetically
growth occurs. controlled biological
 …Piaget’s Development
•Development leads to learning
– Drive for development is internal
– The child can only learn ce ain things when
she is at the right developmental stage
– Environmental factors can in uence but not
direct development
– Development will happen naturally through
regular interaction with social environment
 Piaget & Education
•Piaget did not think it was possible to
hur along or skip stages through
education
•Regardless, many American schools will
t to teach to the stages in an attempt
to accelerate development
Problems with Piaget’s Theo
•Children often grasp ideas earlier than
what Piaget found
•Cognitive development across
domains is inconsistent (e.g. better at
reading than math)
•Studies have shown that development
can to some degree be accelerated
 Multiple Intelligences (MI)
 Grew out of Constructivism, framed around metacognition
 H. Gardner (1983 to present)
 All people are born with eight intelligences:

Enables students to leverage their

target and develop their weaknesses strengths and purposefully
1. Verbal- 5. Musical
Linguistic
2. Visual-Spatial 6. Naturalist
3. Logical- 7. Interpersonal
Mathematical
4. Kinesthetic 8. Intrapersonal
 What is the impo ance of
multiple intelligence in education?
•The theo of multiple intelligences is
impo ant because it allows us to think
about di erent types of mental strengths
and abilities.
•Learning more about which types of
intelligence you lean towards may help
you learn to recognize your own
preferences
 What is multiple intelligence
and why is it impo ant?
•To put it simply, multiple intelligences
suggests that we all learn holistically but
develop di erent capacities and
intelligences which customized
instruction through schooling can fu her
draw out and nu ure in each individual.
 MI in the Classroom
•Delive of
instruction via
multiple mediums
•Student-centered
classroom
•Authentic
Assessment
•Self-directed
learning
 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE
ACTIVITIES
•Words (linguistic intelligence).
•Numbers or logic (logical-mathematical intelligence)
.
•Pictures (spatial intelligence).
•Music (musical intelligence).
•Self-re ection (intrapersonal intelligence).
•A physical experience (bodily-kinesthetic
intelligence).
•A social experience (interpersonal intelligence).
•An experience in the natural world (naturalist
 Critiques of MI
•Lack of quanti able evidence that MI
exist
•Lack of evidence that use of MI as a
curricular and methodological approach
has any discernable impact on learning
•Suggestive of a depa ure from core
curricula and standards
 Brain-Based Learning (BBL)
 Grew out of Neuroscience & Constructivism
 D. Souza, N. Caine & G. Caine, E. Jensen (1980’s to
present)
 12 governing principles

1. Brain is a parallel processor 7. Focused attention & peripheral

2. Whole body learning
3. A search for meaning
4. Patterning
5. Emotions are critical
6. Processing of pa s and wholes
perception
8. Conscious & unconscious processes
9. Several types of memo
10. Embedded learning sticks
11. Challenge & threat
12. Eve brain is unique
Brain-based learning uses neuroscience to create
an informed curriculum and lesson design.
Warm up excercise
Who are we? Who are the
pa icipants?
The Herrmann’s whole brain model

Source: Whole Brain Model, by Ned Herrmann

 What are the Four Brain
Analyze
Quadrants?
Facts, logic, statistics, data What?
Rationale for listening, taking
action, making decisions
Organize Details, arranged systematically
(linearly, sequentially)
How?
Safety, reliability, histo
Personalize Emotional connection between
speaker and listener
Who?
(strong motivational factor)
Strategize Big picture, future vision Why?
Explores possibilities, sets long-
term goals

Herrmann Brain Dominance Instrument (HBDI) and Whole Brain Thinking Model)
 BBL in the Classroom
 Oppo unities
learning for group
 Regular environmental
changes
 A multi-senso environment
 Oppo unities for self-
expression
personal and making
connections to
content
 Community-based learning
 What are the objectives of
brain based learning?
•The objective of Brain Based Learning is to
move from memorizing information to
meaningful learning.
•Brain-based learning is metacognition
•When students understand that making
connections increases their brain capacity, the
children are often more motivated to learn
and more successful when remembering.
Brain-based learning develops neuroplasticity,
which is the brain's ability to change and grow.
 Critiques of BBL
•Research conducted by neuroscientists,
not teachers & educational researchers
•Lack of understanding of the brain itself
makes “brain-based” learning
questionable
•Individual principles have been
scienti cally questioned
 Self-e cacy (A. Bandura)
• “Perceived self-e cacy is
de ned as people’s beliefs
about their capabilities to
produce designated levels of
pe ormance that exercise
in uence over events that
e ect their lives” (Bandura,
1994).
• High self-e cacy - Belief that
one can pe orm well
• Low self-e cacy - Belief that
one lacks the ability to pe orm
well
 Reciprocal Determinism
•Theo set fo h by Bandura in 1986
•View that
(1) personal factors in the form of cognition,
a ect, & biological events, (how they think and
feel)
(2) behavior, and
(c) environmental in uences create interactions
that result in a triadic reciprocality (mutual
in uence)
 Formation of Self-e cacy
• Self-e cacy is formed in pa through
four major psychological processes
• Cognitive
• Motivational
• A ective
• Selection
 Formation of Self-e cacy:
Cognitive
• Beliefs in e cacy shape the types of
anticipato scenarios they form and rehearse
• High self-e cacy -- successful scenarios
• Low self-e cacy -- dwell on possibility of
failure, what can go wrong
• Those with resilient sense of e cacy in face
of di cult tasks set more challenging goals
• Success gives con dence and competence,
thus rea rming high e cacy
 Formation of Self-e cacy:
Motivational
• Attribution Theo
• High-e cacy people attribute failures to
insu cient e o .
• Low-e cacy people attribute failure to low
ability.
• Expectancy-value theo expectations
• High-Expect success; Low-expect failure
• Goal-setting • Goals lower for low-e cacy
• High-e cacy, higher goals, greater sense of
 Formation of Self-e cacy:
A ective
• High-e cacy people generally feel less
threatened by challenges and more likely to
consider them exciting
• Low-e cacy can produce depression
and anxiety
 Formation of Self-e cacy:
Selection Processes
• People avoid activities and situations they
believe exceed their coping capabilities.
• People unde ake challenging activities
and select situations they consider
themselves capable of handling.
 Self-e cacy vs Self-e cacy
Beliefs
• ”People's level of motivation, a ective states,
and actions are based more on what they
believe than on what is objectively true.”
• E ects of self-e cacy beliefs
• Choice behavior
• E o expenditure and persistence
• Thought patterns and emotional reactions
• Humans as producers vs foretellers of
behavior
 E ects of Beliefs Explored:
Choice Behavior
• Tendency to avoid involvement in tasks
where e cacy is low
• Generally engage in tasks where e cacy is
high
• High-e cacy/low skill can result in
irreparable harm
• Low-e cacy/high skill doesn’t allow for
growth
 E ects of Beliefs Explored:
E o Expenditure & Persistence
• Stronger perceived self-e cacy results in
more vigorous/persistent e o s
• Individuals with high self-e cacy may feel
less of a need to invest much e o in
preparation
• When applying skills, high-e cacy
intensi es and maintains the e o required to
realize a di cult pe ormance
• Di cult for someone with low-e cacy
 E ects of Beliefs Explored:
Thought Patterns & Emotional Reactions
• Low-e cacy individuals believe things are
more di cult than they actually are
• Creates stress and narrow vision
• High-e cacy people devote attention and
energy to demands of the situation and perceive
obstacles as challenges
• High-e cacy people attribute failure to
insu cient e o
• Low-e cacy people relate failure to de cient
ability
 E ects of Beliefs Explored:
Behavior Producers vs Foretellers
• People with high self-e cacy act, think,
and feel di erently from those with low
self-e cacy. They create their own futures,
rather than foretell it.
 Self-e cacy & Academics
• Beliefs students create, develop, and hold to be true
about themselves greatly contribute to success or failure in
school
• Most in uential is a student’s maste experience
• Interpretation of pe ormance-success or failure
• Vicarious experience emphasizes teacher’s role
• Self-e cacy beliefs in uence college students’ choices
of majors and career decisions
• E cacy beliefs of teachers are related to their
instructional practices, which in turn relate to student
outcomes
• Students’ academic self-e cacy beliefs strongly
 Health Belief Model
•The Health Belief Model is a theoretical
model that can be used to guide health
promotion and disease prevention programs.
•It is used to explain and predict individual
changes in health behaviors. It is one of the
most widely used models for understanding
health behaviors.
What are the 4 main constructs of
the Health Belief Model?
The campaign was designed using the HBM,
which postulates that four constructs are
key targets for public health practitioners
seeking to change behavior:
barriers,
bene ts,
e cacy, and
threat.
What is an example of the HBM
model?
•People will not change their health
behaviors unless they believe that they
are at risk.
•For example: Individuals who do not
think they will get the u are less likely to
get a yearly u shot. People who think
they are unlikely to get skin cancer are
less likely to wear sunscreen or limit sun
exposure.
 How you would use the HBM in
your nursing practice?
•Health Belief Model as Nursing Tool
•Nurses can use this model to clarify
patients' perceptions of risk and why they
behave in a way that is harmful; this enables
nurses to apply strategies that in uence
patients to make healthy lifestyle changes.
Patients' perceptions can be a ected by age,
sex, and personality.
 Other Learning Theories of
Note
•Andragogy (M. Knowles)
•Flow (M. Czikszentmihalyi)
•Situated Learning (J. Lave)
•Subsumption Theo (D. Ausubel)
•Conditions of Learning (R. Gagne)
 What is Knowles theo of
andragogy?
•Knowles' theo of andragogy is an
attempt to develop a theo speci cally
for adult learning.
•Knowles emphasizes that adults are self-
directed and expect to take responsibility
for decisions.
•Adult learning programs must
accommodate this fundamental aspect.
 What is the main idea of ow?
•Flow is a state of mind in which a person
becomes fully immersed in an activity.
•Positive psychologist Mihály
Csíkszentmihályi describes ow as a state of
complete immersion in an activity. Being
immersed can be de ned as a state of focus
in which a person is completely absorbed
and engrossed in their work.
 What is ow theo explanation?
•De nition:
•Originated by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, ow
theo proposes that when one is actively
engaged in an activity where the skills
possessed are balanced to the challenge of
the activity, s/he can approach an optimal
state of experience called “ ow.” Several
conditions contribute to this psychological
state.
 Why is ow theo impo ant?
•The ow model and related research
provides a solid base of knowledge
regarding how students might become more
engaged in their learning and how they feel
when they are so engaged.
•This knowledge base is of practical use to
educators interested in increasing student
engagement.
 What is situated learning
theo of Jean Lave?
•Situated learning is an instructional
approach developed by Jean Lave and
Etienne Wenger in the early 1990s, and
follows the work of Dewey, Vygotsky, and
others (Clancey, 1995) who claim that
students are more inclined to learn by
actively pa icipating in the learning
experience.
•Situated learning is a theo that explains
an individual's acquisition of professional
skills and includes research on
apprenticeship into how legitimate
peripheral pa icipation leads to
membership in a community of practice.
 What are examples of situated
learning activities?
For example, real world
examples of situated
learning may include
teaching placements
where students are
immersed and active
within an actual
classroom environment or
spo s practice which may
replicate an actual game.
 Examples of situated activities
are as follows:
• Cooperative internships that allow students to be immersed in
the workplace
• Field trips in which students can experience the work
environment
• Laborato settings where students actively pa icipate in mock
activities
• Physical education and musical practices, which o er an identical
scenario to real-life events, such as spo s training or a conce
As these examples demonstrate, situated learning occurs “in the
situation.” The students are addressing issues in real-life as they
exist. The context and culture of the activity are as impo ant as the
experience itself. Students build knowledge on their current
understanding of the situation, which relies heavily on the social and
 Ausubel's Subsumption Theo
•A learner absorbs new information by tying it to
existing concepts and ideas that they have
already acquired.
•Rather than building an entirely new cognitive
structure, they are able to relate it to information
that is already present within their minds.
•it is concerned with how individuals learn large
amounts of meaningful material from verbal/
textual presentations in a school setting (in
contrast to theories developed in the context of
laborato experiments).
 What are the 4 types of
subsumption theo ?
•With respect to subsumption theo , the
following gure shows the four types of
subsumption involved in advance
organisers:
– derivative,
– correlative,
– superordinate, and
– combinatorial.
Why subsumption theo is impo ant
in teaching/learning process?
•Subsumption Theo is a perspective on
exposito instruction. It's based on the
assumption that meaningful learning –
which, in this case, refers to learning that
can be readily applied and reliably
retained – can only happen if new content
is related to what one already knows.
 What is an example of
subsumption theo in teaching?
•For example, if learners have previously
learned about how a gasoline-powered
car works and now sta learning about
cars fuelled in other ways, they'll add
those cars and their engines to their
knowledge schema with knowledge
about how cars function (assimilation)
 Conditions of Learning
(Robe Gagne)
•It conditions of learning as a means
through which individuals and groups
acquire relevant skills to be accepted in
society. Learning is a direct result of
human behaviour which is in uenced by
the environment and the individual
thinking process of learners.
 What are the 5 conditions of
learning?
•These ve categories are verbal
information, intellectual skills, cognitive
strategies, attitudes, and motor skills.
Each of these ve categories, along with
the external instructional conditions that
suppo learning within that catego , is
described below.
1. Verbal information includes declarative knowledge that is stored in
distributed forms. It should be related to previous information that
draws attention to other features by including variations in speech or
print, and provides meaningful content for e ective encoding and
cues for e ective recall and generalisation.
2. Intellectual skills include procedural knowledge such as steps of a
process or hierarchies with higher and lower order skills. There is a
need for prior knowledge here, it calls attention to distinctive features
and stimulates the recall of previously learned components' skills.
3. Cognitive strategies are skills that in uence the skills and activation
of other systems by breaking the problem into pa s. It uses less prior
knowledge and more practical examples and experiences backed by
feedback on the strategy or outcome.
4. Motor skills deal with skills where error-less pe ormance is
expected. It encourages mental practice. Prior learning of the process
and practice enhances the overall process.
5. Attitudes are mental states that in uence an individual’s actions
and require a human to obse e and learn from those who also
provide feedback.
There are nine levels of instruction that are used as a
sta ing point for all types of learning and instructional
design. These points help educators and trainers to
maintain a checklist for all their teaching or training
activities. Each step highlights a form of
communication and when one step is completed,
learners tend to retain and apply the skills taught in a
better and e ective way.
 Nine levels of instruction
Level 1: Gaining Attention
(Reception)
Sta the learning process by
gaining the attention of your
audience. It sta s the learning
process when the learner is
being receptive to the
information received. This may
be achieved by calling names
of learners during the
discussion to completely
focus attention on learners.
Level 2: Informing learners of the
objective (Expectancy)
Next, learners must know what
they are about to learn and why.
At the sta of the lecture, they
should be aware of what they
will have learned by the end of
the session, its bene t to them
and the organisation.
For instance, explaining to
learners why they will learn what
they will learn and how to apply
the concept to your practice.
This makes them more receptive
to learning.
 Nine levels of instruction
Level 3: Stimulating recall of
prior learning (Retrieval)
Matching the concept with
what learners have learned
previously. Prior experiences
can be used to solve new
problems and resolve matters
easily. This may also take the
form of a simple Q/A session
to establish a link between
speci c material knowledge.
Level 4: Presenting the
Stimulus (Selective Perception)
Presenting new information in
an e ective manner using
more examples, use of
timelines, diagrams, concept
maps and student discussions.
T using di erent media and
styles such as visual cues and
verbal instructions to suit
people with di erent learning
styles.
 Nine levels of instruction
Level 5: Providing learning
guidance (Semantic Encoding)
Helping your team learn and
retain most of the information
by providing alternative
approaches to illustrate the
information you are t ing to
convey to the learner.
Examples include; case
studies and graphics. Giving
time for discussion and
answering queries with
relevant additional materials.
Level 6: Eliciting Pe ormance
(Responding)
Now is the time to see if
learners can demonstrate
their knowledge with what
was taught to them. Give
them a brief test after each
task/ unit to see if they can
apply it to their learning
before moving forward.
 Nine levels of instruction
Level 7: Providing feedback
(Reinforcement)
After a clear demonstration of
knowledge from the learners’
end, it's time to give feedback
to them and guide them on
the points they missed. Your
feedback and tips will help
them improve. Discuss their
results, be professional with
comments and give them
guidelines to work on. This is a
healthy exercise if conducted
properly.
Level 8: Assessing
pe ormance (Retrieval)
When learners have had a
good oppo unity to practice
and re ne their learning it is
time to assess their learning
with a test at the end of the
course or any other
measurement tool such as a
case study or seminar to show
learners have learned the
material or skill e ectively. This
test shall be completed
without any assistance or
 Nine levels of instruction
Level 9: Enhancing retention
and transfer (Generalisation)
At this stage, learners show
the transfer of knowledge
through the application of
skills and knowledge. They
should then be provided with
real-life examples to apply the
acquired knowledge.
Nine levels of instruction
 Humanist
•All students are intrinsically motivated to
self actualize or learn
•Learning is dependent upon meeting a
hierarchy of needs (physiological,
psychological and intellectual)
•Learning should be reinforced.
 What is humanism theo
example?
•For example, a child will create their own
condition of wo h by understanding
behavior that they are the recipient of as
well as behavior that they see.
•This helps them understand how they
can dese e positive emotions and
whether they dese e those emotions
from others.
What is the purpose of Humanism
in education?
•Humanistic teachers believe that
students will be motivated to learn a
subject if it's something they need and
want to know. The goal of education
should be to foster students' desire to
learn and teach them how to learn.
Students should be self-motivated in
their studies and desire to learn on their
own.
 Connectivism Theo
(George Siemens)
As Siemens says: “Our ability to learn what we
need for tomorrow is more impo ant than
what we know today.” Nu uring and
maintaining connections is needed to
facilitate continual learning. Collaborative
social interaction brings people together and
forms a long-term learning environment.
 Connectivism Theo
•Put simply, connectivism is the theo
that students learn best if they are taught
to navigate and create social networks
via technology and use these networks to
learn.
•For example, joining a science forum that
discusses mitosis and asking questions on
the forum to learn from other members.
  Sources:
– facultyweb.anderson.edu/~jhaukerman/Learning%20Theo .
ppt
– Matthew D. Lalibe e www.nercomp.org/data/media/
A%20Brief%20Histo %20of%20Learning%20Theo .ppt
– Michael A. Lorber, Ph.D. www.learningtechnologies.ac.uk/.../
PROJECT/resources/Learning%20Theo /Resources/
learning%20theories.ppt
– www.dcs.bbk.ac.uk/selene/repo s/
SeLeNe1.2.ppt