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Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

LESSON 1: Learning Theories

Learning theories fill the pages of books related to education and classroom practice, each one
offering a different account of how people learn and what constitutes as learning. Each theory
presents its own definition of learning (Sotto, 2007: 126); yet, if we understand these theories
thoroughly, we can say that they relate to one another and serve as sound teaching practices to
develop a holistic learner. In this light, this lesson is designed to carefully select learning
theories that explain how learning takes place and are deemed essential to the
teaching-learning process and contribute to the holistic development of learners.

Learning theories are sets of conjectures and hypotheses that explain the process of learning or
how learning takes place. There are many learning theories that guide instruction. According to
Akdeniz et al. (2016), the three basic approaches while dealing with learning theories are
behaviorist (behaviorism), cognitivist (cognitivism), and constructivist (constructivism). One of
the most famous learning theory is Jean Piaget's cognitive development theory. This theory
explains that children take an active role in the learning process. As learners interact with the
world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and
adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information.

While these approaches overlap, they are interdependent or one approach serves as a
foundation of another. This means that the cognitive approach recognizes behaviorism because
the cognitive process is seen in behaviorist learning. Likewise, the constructivist approach
anchors its principles on the cognitive approach. We will discuss in the succeeding lesson these
theories and their implications to teaching and learning.

Because theories vary in their quality and rigor (Hirsch, 1996; Phillips, 1995, 2000; Sfard, 1998),
it is vital that you be well-informed of the classical and current theories t are emerging in the
context of education. As pointed out by Wilson and Peterson (2006), the Scottish physicist
James C. Maxwell is credited for his saying. "There is nothing as practical than as a good
theory. You should, therefore, be in applying the learning theories you think is or are most
applicable in any given situation. What is more important for now is that you gain a repertoire of
learning theories that you will need as future teachers. Let us begin our voyage.

1. Behaviorism/Associative Learning Theory Approach

Behaviorism depicts observable and measurable aspects of human behavior. All behaviors are
directed by stimuli. Meaning, changes in behavior are evident and will result in
stimulus-response associations. Behaviorism believes that behaviors can be measured, trained,
and changed.

Moreover, behaviorism suggests that learners must be actively engaged and rewarded
immediately for their involvement in the activity in order to achieve learning. Nonetheless, it
cannot be predetermined that learners respond positively to praise and that active learning
follows (Sotto, 2007). In this case, learning must be active and outright praise is given to
increase behavior.

John B. Watson, known as the Father of Behaviorism, and Burrhus Frederic Skinner are the two
principal originators of behaviorist approaches to learning. Watson believed that human
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behavior is prompted by specific stimuli. On the other hand, Skinner believed that behavior is
controlled through positive and negative consequences.

Watson's view of learning was partly influenced by Ivan Pavlov. According to Pavlov behavior is
acquired through conditioning. Conditioning is an established manner that occurs through
interaction with the environment. There are two major types of conditioning: classical and
operant conditioning. Parkay and Hass (2000) stated that an individual selects one response
instead of another because of prior conditioning and psychological drives existing at the
moment of action.

Beliefs of Behaviorist Approach

● It operates on the principle of "stimulus-response."
● Behavior is observable and measurable.
● It prefers actual behavior as an indicator of learning.

1.1. Wan Petrovich Pavlov's Classical Conditioning. This type of conditioning asserts th an
individual learns when a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired w an unconditioned
stimulus until a neutral stimulus evokes a conditioned/desi response.

Features of Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus Automatically produces an emotional or

physiological response

Unconditioned response Natural occurring emotional response

Neutral stimuli Stimuli that do not elicit a response

Conditioned stimulus Evokes an emotional or physiological

response after being conditioned

Conditioned response Learned response from a previously

neutral condition

Phases of Classical Conditioning

Legend: UCS - Unconditioned stimulus

UCR Unconditioned response

NS. - Neutral stimuli

R - Response

CS - Conditioned stimulus

CR Conditioned response

Phase 1: Before conditioning has occurred

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Phase 2: The process of conditioning

Phase 3: After conditioning has occurred

Principles of Learning in Classical Implications

Conditioning

Acquisition. A process by which the A child learns to fear the dentist's clinic by
conditioned response is acquired from the associating it with a painful tooth extraction
experience of another person. that he or she has experienced

Stimulus-Generalization. A process by A child tends to be anxious in all instances in

which the conditioned response is transferred school because of the first-hand experience
to other stimuli similar to the original he or she has experienced with a terror
conditioned stimulus. teacher.

Stimulus-Discrimination. A child should be able to distinguish things

A process by which a conditioned response is
transferred to other stimuli different from the
original conditioned stimulus. If generalization
is a reaction to similarities, discrimination is a
reaction to differences.
that seem alike but are different (b from 6. p
from b or plus (+) sign from negative ( sign).
Otherwise, learning disabilities will Occur.

Extinction. A process by which a conditioned The anxiousness of a child toward a terror

response is lost. teacher gradually vanishes if, in the
succeeding days, he or she experiences
pleasant treatment from the teacher.
Otherwise, phobias will occur.

1.2. Burrhus Frederic Skinner's Operant Conditioning and Reinforcement. This type
conditioning stresses the use of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to control occurrence
of behavior. Learners tend to repeat the behavior that led to favor outcomes and suppress those
that produced unfavorable results. They are inclined to behave and are motivated when their
output is properly acknowledged and rewarded.
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In operant conditioning, we often hear and use the words reinforcement. In Skinnerian terms, a
reinforcer is a stimulus, whereas reinforce is the effect of this stimulus.

Types of Reinforcer

1. Primary reinforcer. A stimulus that is related to both biological and physiological needs such
as food, clothing, shelter, warmth, human touch, etc.

Example: A child is excited to go to school on the first day of class because of his or her
new pair of shoes, uniform, bag, opportunity to meet new friends and teachers, etc., but
unmindful of his or her new lessons.

2. Secondary reinforcer. A stimulus that reinforces a behavior after being previously

associated with a primary reinforcer. It includes money, grades in schools, tokens, etc.

Example: A child learns to value money because he or she needs it to buy food, clothing, or
any other basic needs. Positive reinforcer. A stimulus is added to a situation or event to
strengthen a behavior.

3. Positive reinforcer. A stimulus is added to a situation or event to strengthen a behavior.

Example: Increasing the hours of watching movies because the learner achieved a perfect
score in an examination

4. Negative reinforcer. A stimulus is withdrawn to a situation or event to strengthen a behavior.

Example: Taking away a learner's favorite toy when the learner misbehaves.

Schedules of Reinforcement

1. Fixed Ratio (FR). This reinforcement is dispensed following a constant number of desired
behaviors.

Example: The learner is given praise or reward for every correct answer or desirable
behavior displayed.

2. Fixed Interval (FI). This reinforcement is dispensed following a constant amount of desired
time.

Example: The talkative learner will be given praise or reward only if he or she will
remain quiet for 10 minutes. Following the token, no additional reinforcement will be
given until another 10 minutes passed.

3. Variable Ratio (VR). This reinforcement is dispensed following a varying amount of trials.

Example: In joining a math competition, a learner will not know when he or she will win
even after several trials of competing.

4. Variable Interval (VI). This reinforcement is dispensed following a varying amount of time.

Example: A learner who is fishing in a pond will have to wait for a few minutes of hours
before he or she can catch a fish.
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Both the fixed ratio and fixed interval are predictable. This means that learners will know
when they will get or receive the reward or praise. On the other hand, variable ratio and variable
interval are both unpredictable. This means that learners will not know when they will get or
receive the reward or praise.

Types of Reinforcement

1. Verbal. Learners excel more when they are given praise for performing well in the
examination. On the other hand, learners who did not perform well in the examination are
encouraged to study harder and do better next time.

Example: praise, encouragement

2. Physical. Learners feel proud when given a pat on the shoulder or hug for doing great in their
"Sabayang Bigkasan." However, physical reinforcement must be used with caution because of
the issue of sexual harassment. Still, human touch has been found to be an effective tool to
increase the confidence of learners.

Example: touch, pats, hugs

3. Nonverbal. Learners feel relaxed and comfortable when they are given smiles or warm looks
during a discussion.

Example: smiles, winks, warm looks

4. Activity. Learners enjoy the class discussions more if varied games or any related class
activities are incorporated in them.

Example: games, enjoyments

5. Token. Learners appreciate their efforts when given corresponding points or tokens.

Example: points, stars

6. Consumable. Learners find it satisfying when given consumable rewards like chocolates,
candies, and crackers by the teacher.

Example: cookies, candies

Principles of Learning in Operant Examples

Conditioning

Principle of Contracts. The relevant A learner is misbehaving in class. The

behavior is identified, then the teacher and
the learner decide on the terms of the
contract.
teacher and learner devise a behavioral
contract to minimize distractions. Provisions
include that the learner will be punctual, will
sit in front of the class, will raise a hand when
he or she has questions or comments, and
will not leave his or her seat without
permission.

Principle of Consequences. Consequences ● Smiling at the learner after a correct

happen after the "target" behavior occurs.It Response
could be:
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● Giving commendation to learners for their

● positive or negative; accomplishments.
● expected or unexpected;
● immediate or long-term; ● Selecting learners for a special task.
● extrinsic or intrinsic;
● material or symbolic (a failing grade); ● Praising the learners' ability to their
● emotional/interpersonal; and parents.
● unconscious.

Principle of Reinforcement. Negative ● Obtaining a score of 80% or higher

increases the probability of a response that makes the final exam optional.
removes or prevents an adverse condition.
● Submitting all assignments on time
results in the lowest grade being
dropped.

● Perfect attendance is rewarded with a

"homework pass."

Principle of Extinction. Punishment involves ● Learners involved in fighting are

presenting a strong stimulus that decreases
the frequency of a particular response.
Punishment is effective in quickly eliminating
undesirable behaviors
Immediately referred to the principal Late
assignments are given a grade of "0"
● Three records of tardiness in attending
class results to dialogue with parents.

● Failure to do homework results in

after-school detention (the privilege

● of going home is removed)

Premack Principle or "Grandma Rule" Less ● Learners can go home only after
derived activities can be increased by looking accomplishing the given task or tasks for
at them to do more desired activities. the day

● Stress to the learners that there is time

for play, study, and sleep

1.3. Edward Lee Thorndike's Connectionism. It means selecting and connecting constitute
learning. Prior to Skinner's operant conditioning, which reinforces behavior, Thorndike has
classified the concepts related to reinforcement-based learning (Doolittle, 2001) Thorndike calls
this connectionism instrumental conditioning, which explains that there is a probability for a
behavior to occur again when followed by a positive experience. This idea is also explained in
Thorndike's main tenet, the "Law of Effect" However, it should be remembered that Skinner
focused on the association between the response and the reinforcement, while Thorndike
focused on the connection between the stimulus and the response.

Principles of Learning in Connectionism Implications

Multiple Responses. This refers to a variety A child tries multiple responses to solve a
of responses that would lead to a conclusion certain problem
or arrival of an answer.

Law of Set and Attitude. This explains that Giving homework and advanced reading
prior instruction/experience affects a given prepares the child well in class.
task.
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Law of Readiness. This law explains that
interfering with oral directed behavior causes
frustration. It further explains that making
someone to do something that he or she
does not want to do is also frustrating. Below
are the three tenets of the law of readiness,
Asking a child to write the letters of the
alphabet when he or she does not yet know
the basic strokes of writing will only lead to
frustration and disappointment.

● When someone is ready to execute

some act, doing it is satisfying and
results in a feeling of happiness.

● When someone is ready to execute

some act, not doing it is annoying and
disappointing.

● When someone is not ready to

execute some act, getting forced to do
it is annoying and frustrating.

Law of Exercise. This law explains learning Teachers should provide learners with varied
by doing. Below are the two tenets of the law enhancement activities, exercise, or
of exercise. seatworks for practice

● Law of Use - connections between

stimulus and response are reinforced
as they are used.

● Law of Disuse-connections between

a stimulus and response are
weakened when practice is
discontinued.

Law of Effect. This law explains that reward Teachers should recognize the achievement
reinforces a behavior, whereas punishment of learners and encourage others to perform
decreases its occurrence. better.

Halo Effect. This law describes the "physical
attractiveness stereotype" and the "what is
beautiful is good" principle. It means that the
teacher's impression of the learner's physical
attributes influences how he or she feels and
thinks about the learner's character.
Good looking and beautiful learners are
outright perceived to be smart and intelligent.
Thus, teachers should evaluate learners
according to their performance and not on
their physical appearance.

II. Cognitivism Approach

Behavioral psychology is based on factual and procedural rules, rewards punishment. It gives
way to cognitive psychology, which is based on models for sense of real-life experiences and
how we receive and interpret information (Lesh Lamon, 1992). Research suggests that
learners-from a very young age-make sense of the world and actively engaged in a process of
comprehension or "minds on work (Wilson & Peterson, 2006). This gave birth to multiple
cognitive theorists who advocate on the existence of prior knowledge or background, better
known as schema in information. They became interested in the function of the brain and
memory. How does the brain hold, compress, and interpret information to give good results to
existing and problematic phenomena? What are the memory and the process of information
needed to yield and excellent outcomes? learning new and making
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In a cognitivist approach, cognitive processes and activities such as processing information,

mental representations, guesses, and expectations are accepted as bases the interpretation of
learning.

Beliefs of Cognitivist Approach

● It focuses on memory as the storage and retrieval of information

● It prefers to concentrate on analyzing cognitive processes.
● It considers schema as essential in learning.

2.1 Edward Chance Tolman's Latent Learning - Place Learning.

This theory was first introduced by Hugh Blodgett, who made use of the paradigm of learning
without reinforcement. Tolman, on the other hand, captured the idea and developed studies on
"latent learning" According to this theory, learning occurs in situations where there is no certain
reward because of the presence of "cognitive maps." Living organisms organize a map in their
minds about their physical environment. An example of this is a human being's innate need to
know where and how to go to places that will provide food when he or she is hungry, not
because of the connection of stimulus-response. This is the reason why Tolman emphasized
that organisms organize behavior around a purpose, which he calls the theory of "purposive
behaviorism."

2.2 David Ausubel's Meaningful Verbal Learning Theory.

David Ausubel's theory focuses on the verbal learning method. According to Ausubel's theory,
learners learn new information-whole to pieces-through direct exposure to information rather
than discovery. In short, learning is gained through deductive reasoning. Information organized
by the teacher is presented and readily received by the learners. Hence meaningful learning
occurs when new experiences are related to what the learner already knows.

Two Dimensions of Learning Processes

Reception Learning Discovery Learning

In reception learning, learners receive the In discovery learning, learners focus on

information from the teacher therefore, the identifying the key ideas and work out to store
teacher should present ideas or concepts to this information on their own Therefore, the
the learners in a well-organized manner teacher should expose learners to varied
activities.

2.3 Jerome Bruner's Discovery Learning Theory/Inquiry Method/Theory of Instruction

This theory, as opposed to Ausubel's theory of meaningful verbal learning, emphasizes that
learning is more meaningful to learners when they have the opportunity to interact among
themselves and with their environment through conducting experiments, exploring and
manipulating materials and equipment, wrestling with questions, and finding solutions to their
questions.

2.4 Wolfgang Kohler's Insight Learning/Problem-solving Theory. This is rooted in Gestalt

theory, where an individual evaluates information as a whole rather than receiving it in isolation
("The whole is greater than the sum of the parts"). This theory also emphasizes that learners
have the capacity to determine and understand the nature of any given phenomenon in a bigger
view that involves exploring, analyzing and structuring perception until a solution is found, where
mostly problem is solved through the "cognitive trial and error" method

Kohler used the chimpanzee experiment in describing the above pattern. A chimpanzee was
placed inside a cage. At some point, the chimpanzee felt hungry and it started to look for food.
Upon looking up, it gazed at the food hanging on top of the cage It reached for the food but
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failed. It saw a stool and stepped on it to reach for the food, The second time around, the
chimpanzee did not succeed. It failed once again. However, the chimpanzee did not lose hope.
It paused for a while and looked for potential solutions. At this point, it piled up the stools and it
attempted to step on them to reach for the food But again, it failed. It was about to lose hope
when suddenly it saw a piece of stick. The chimpanzee got the stick and planned on how to use
it, gaining insight to finally use the stick. This experiment likewise led Kohler to arrive at the idea
of "insight." Insight is the Imaginative power to discern immediately the true meaning of a
situation.

2.5 George A. Miller's Theory of Data Processing. This theory is grounded on Edward C.
Tolman's latent learning, claiming that learning is a complex and internal process that occurs
with mental processes. This theory emphasized that information is the basic means of learning
and explains learning in terms of the memory system. It focuses on how information goes into
the memory and how it is stored and retrieved as the need arises.

Three Main Elements of Information Processing

1. Information stores. It refers to the places where information is stored it is composed of the
following three different types of memory.

1.1 Sensory record. It is the stage where first-hand information is received using the
different senses.

1.2 Short-term memory (processor). It is the stage where information is processed and
turned into behavior before it is transferred to long-term memory

1.3 Long-term memory, it is the stage where information is continually stored and has three
different parts where different types of information are kept as 13.1 Semantic memory. It is
the storage of verbal information such as concepts, principles, and generalizations in solving
problems

1.3.2 Recollectional It is the storage of records and events, phenomena, time, and
places which have a memorable impact on the learners.

13.3 Operational memory. It is the storage of skills and ordinal, applied, and
methodological information to complete a task

2. Cognitive processes. It refers to mental activities that help in transferring information from
one memory to another such as:

2.1 Attention. It is the power to focus on selective information. Efficient learning depends
on the selective ability of the learner

2.2 Perception. It is the process of describing the information received.

2.3 Repetition. It is the process of storing repetitive information for it to stay longer in the
short-term memory.

2.4 Coding. It is the process of deducing or using codes when transferring information from
short-term memory to long-term memory. In other words, learners need to filter information
that is necessary for learning.

2.5 Storing. This process is anchored on Anderson and Bower's model that information is
established on verbal units including structures of subject and verb rather than perception.
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This means that the learners' stored information are reliable and sufficient to stand the test
of time.

2.6 Retrieving. It is the process of looking for, finding, and activating information when
needed.

3. Executive cognition or cognition information. It refers to the harmonization between

information stores and cognitive processes for data processing.

Information Processing Model

2.6. Richard Atkinson's and Richard Shiffrin's Information Processing Theory. This theory
describes how information is processed into memory so that learners get the best out of the
stored information Memory is the central point for learning, which is the ability to store
information that can be used at a later time Hence, learners an when the human mind takes
in information (encoding) performs an operation in it. stores the information (storage), and
retrieves it when needed (retrieval)

Stages of Human Memory

1 Sensory Memory (SM). This stage utilizes all the different senses such as olfactory auditory
sight, smell, and touch in capturing information Senses must be functional because they help
encode captured information that will be transferred to the short- term memory. However, it
would only last for less than a second. An example of this is a learner going to school who may
enjoy looking at the beautiful green trees around but may tend to forget once he or she reaches
school

2. Short-term Memory (STM). This stage selects information through processes of attention
and perception transferred by the sensory memory. The STM's role is to process information
perceived by the sensory memory. It is said to be the temporary storage of information because
the short-term memory is working in progress while filtering the most important information to be
stored in the long-term memory (LTM) Once information is filtered, it is transferred to the LTM
Nonetheless, if the LTM judges it as unnecessary and needs more filtering, it goes back to the
STM for review. After the STM reviews and deduces information, it is transferred to the LTM
Once information is appropriate and right, it is brought to the LTM to be saved. If SM lasts for
only less than a second, STM would last up to 13-30 seconds. For example, when a transferee
is introduced to his or her teachers, he or she has a tendency is to forget some of their names.
Some strategies such as repetition, memorization, making sense, associating, and grouping
could be used to increase the capacity of short-term memory to recall

3. Long-term Memory (LTM). It is the permanent storage of information related to the different
areas of life and is activated when information is needed. It is said that when we recall
information, we call on our LTM to help us remember things because it is the one that is
activated during the retrieval phase. It could last from minutes to a lifetime. For example, during
periodical exams in mathematics, learners recall the appropriate formula to solve the given
problem. Information on the LTM, if not rehearsed, can be forgotten.

Three Components of LTM According to Tulving (1993)

1. Episodic. It is the recall of the particular time and place, events, and dates of one's personal
experiences.
2. Procedural. It is the recall of specific skills or steps in completing a task or refers to "knowing
how."
3. Semantic. It is the recall of general facts, principles, and concepts needed to answer
standard questions.
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Causes of Forgetting

1. Retrieval Failure. It explains that forgetting is due to the inability to recall information
2. Decay Theory. It explains that forgetting is due to the failure of using information.
Information gradually fades when it is not utilized.
3. Interference Theory. It explains that forgetting is due to the influence learning

Guidelines to Help Learners Effectively Process Information (Zhou and Brown, 2015) my

Guidelines Example

Gain the attention of learners. Move around the room or use voice
variations.

Ask learners to recall prior relevant Conduct a review of the past lesson.
learning.

Point out missed important information. Emphasize to the learners that vital
information can be found on the bulletin
board, handouts, study guides, etc.

Organize essential information. Present information from simple to complex.

Categorize related information. Present information in a logical sequence

Teach learners to look for similarities and
differences.

Relate new information to existing ones. Connect new information to what is already
known.

Teach how to encode information for easy . Provide different graphic organizers like
remembering. mnemonics, Venn diagram, spider map,etc.

Repeat the learning process. Show different ways of presenting and

manipulating information.

Overlearn the material. Conduct drills daily.

Pay attention to overloaded mental tasks. Engage learners in non-mental activities.

2.7. Allan Paivio's Dual-Coding Theory. This theory affirms that when two or more modalities
are used in teaching-learning, it is likely that learners learn better and faster. This theory
upholds the principle of individual differences and learning styles and addresses children with
special needs

2.8. Robert Gagne's Cumulative Learning. This theory explains that learning skills are
arranged hierarchically from stimulus-response associations to concepts, principles, and
problem-solving.

Hierarchy of Learning

1. Signal Learning. This learning refers to responses that are learned involuntarily
2. Stimulus-response Learning. This learning refers to responses that are learned
voluntarily.
3. Chaining/Motor-Verbal response. This learning refers to combining or chaining two or
more separate motor or verbal responses to develop a more complex response.
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4. Verbal Association. This learning refers to the use of verbal connections to create
associations.
5. Discrimination Learning. This learning refers to a selective response, which applies to
given stimuli.
6. Concept Learning. This learning refers to classifying and organizing perceptions to gain
meaningful concepts.
7. Principle Learning (Rule Learning). This learning refers to combining and relating
concepts to form rules. 8. Problem-solving. This learning refers to applying rules to
appropriate problem situations. It is considered the most complex condition.

Nine Events of Instruction

1. Gaining attention (reception). It is the process of getting the learners' attention before the
start of the lesson. It is like asking the learners to pay attention to the discussion.

2. Informing learners of the objective/s (expectancy). It is the process of telling the learners
what to expect in the lesson. When learners are informed of the objective/s and understand
them, they will be guided properly and know what to expect after.

3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval). It is the process of reviewing the previous
lesson.

4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception). It is the process of connecting the past
lesson to the present lesson.

5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding), it is the process of he concepts through

guided activities.

6. Eliciting performance (responding). It is the process of knowing whether the learne

understood the lesson through oral participation

7. Providing feedback (reinforcement), it is the process of verbal feedbacking, praising those

who performed well and encouraging more those who did not perform wall

8. Assessing performance (retrieval). It is the process of evaluating the performance of the

learners either in a written examination or other means of authentic evaluation Enhancing
retention and transfer (generalization). It is the process of transferring learning to another
situation to enhance the retention of the lesson.

Robert Gagne gave two reasons why there is a need to transfer learning

1. Learning in one context enhances a related performance in another context (Perkins &
Salomon, 1992).

2. Learning is extended in one context to new contexts (Brandsford, Brown, & Cocking 1999).

Types of Transfer of Learning

Specific. Learning is transferred to similar General. Learning is transferred to dissimilar
situations situations.

Example: When the learner is able to balance Example: When the learner is able to balance
himself or herself on a 4-inch beam, he or himself or herself on a low beam, he or she is
she is able to balance himself or herself on able to balance himself or herself on a
an elevated 4-inch beam. bicycle.
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Lateral. The learner is able to perform a new Vertical. The learner is able to learn more
task at about the same level. advance or complex skills.

Example: Learners can solve word problems Example: Learners are able to add and
given in text and later solve a similar problem multiply or read and write.
on the board.

III. Constructivism Approach

The constructivism approach is anchored on Jean Piaget's Cognitive Constructivism and

Lev Vygotsky's Social Constructivism. Constructivism advocates that learners build knowledge
out of their experiences and ideas. This knowledge is then shared and enhanced through
interaction with significant others.

Jean Piaget observed that learners create new knowledge from their prior experiences
through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. However, Vygotsky, who has been a
supporter of Piaget's work, insists that in order for learners to gain a greater amount of learning,
they should be in constant encounter with significant others. Vygotsky (1978) explained that a
deeper understanding of concepts is achieved through language and interaction with one
another.

Sotto (2007) believed learners take responsibility for their own learning, while teachers
facilitate learning within a social context. In short, learners are given the opportunity to work
individually and collectively. Lave and Wenger (1991) and Duffy (2009) stressed that learning
does not only depend on cognitive processes but also social interactions and community
engagement and other learning processes in a "contextualized" learning.

Beliefs of Constructivism
● Society and culture affect learning
● Learning involves community engagement.
● Social interaction is equally important because of the characteristics of learners as social
learners

3.1. Jean Piaget's Cognitive Constructivism. This theory stresses that learners take active
roles in understanding, creating, and making sense of information in terms of developmental
stages, developmental tasks, and learning styles. The following are the major considerations
when applying this theory:

1. There are things that leaners can and cannot understand at different ages.

2 Learners develop cognitive abilities through developmental stages.

3. Learners fit in new experiences into their existing schema (assimilation)

4. Learners alter existing schema to integrate their new experiences (accommodation).

In a discussion about cognitive development, it is essential to also include the elements

that influence learners' cognitive development according to Elliot (2007) such as:

1. Maturation occurs naturally as learners grow older.

2. As learners grow, develop, and mature, there is greater interaction with their
environment, allowing them to learn from their actions and modify their predetermined
ideas.
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3. The process of learning from others depends on the learners' developmental stages and
learning styles to develop their learning ability. Elliot (2007) calls this process as social
transmission.

3.2. Lev Semanovich Vygotsky's Social Constructivism. This theory emphasizes that
learning is built through social encounters with peers and adults. The heart of learning involves
active social interaction. Social interaction vis-à-vis culture is vital in the learning process As
mentioned by Tomasello et al. (1993), social interaction and culture affect learning. Meaning,
forming their own view of the world relies heavily on interaction with significant others and the
essentiality of culture. This lea to Vygotsky's sociocultural theory. The following are the major
considerations when applying this theory

1 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). It refers to the gap between actual and
potential development Actual development is what learners can do on their own.
Potential development is what learners do with help

2. Scaffolds (Sf). It is a competent assistance extended to the learners as they begin

the journey of learning. These scaffolds could be circumvented once learners have
learned already

3. Social Interaction (SI). It refers to the frequent interaction of learners with other
people that influence learning

4. More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). It refers to significant others that learners

look for when in doubt. Ones who have grander knowledge than the learners.

3.3. Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory. This theory is simply known as the "Voovoo or
Bobo doll" experiment. In this experiment, Bandura used inflatable redounding Bobo Dolls to
represent social models of novel (new) violent behavior and nonviolent behavior of young
children (Zhou & Brown, 2015). Based on this experiment, it can be concluded that novel
patterns of behavior can be acquired through observing the behaviors of others or directly
experiencing being with others (Bandura, 1971). In other words, learners learn through
simulation and modeling, which means watching (observing) someone called a social model
and imitating the model's behavior at a later time. In short, learners operate on the power of
examples from others.

Since social learning theory encompasses attention, memory, and motivation, it serves
as a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories. Hence, Bandura renamed it as
social cognitive theory. Social cognitive theory claims that learning occurs through a dynamic
and reciprocal interaction of the learner, environment, and behavior within a social context
(Zhou & Brown, 2015).

According to Bandura, models are classified as:

1. Real-life or Direct Modeling. It is a type of modeling where learners imitate the model's
behavior.

2. Symbolic Modeling. It is a type of modeling where learners imitate the behaviors displayed
by characters in books, plays, movies, or television.

3. Synthesized Modeling. It is a type of modeling where learners develop behaviors by

combining portions of observed acts.
 15

4. Abstract Modeling. It is a type of modeling where learners infer a system of rules by

observing examples where rules are displayed.

Concepts in Social Learning Theory According to Bandura

1. Vicarious Learning. Learning is acquired from observing the consequences of

other's behavior.

2. Self-regulated Learning. Learning occurs when learners observe, assess, and

judge their own behavior against their own standards. Subsequently, they reward
themselves when successful or punish themselves when they fall.

Four Phases of Observational Learning According to Bandura

1. Attention. This phase requires learners to initially pay attention to be able to

observe fully the distinctive features of the model's behavior.

2. Retention. This phase allows learners to retain or recall the observed behavior.

3. Motor Reproduction Process. This phase entails physical skills and coordination
because they are needed for imitation of the learned behavior.

4. Motivational Process. This phase causes learners to explicitly perform the

modeled behavior to receive favorable conditions.

3.4. Jean Lave and Wenger's Situated Learning. This theory posits that learners learn in
particular situations and contexts in which the nature of the situation significantly impacts the
process of learning. More so when learning involves social relationships and co-participation
exist between and among learners. They share various conversations of the same type, which
they term as Community of Practice (CoP), COP is an organic self-organized group of
individuals from various geographical locations. Though coming from different places, they
come together and communicate regularly to discuss issues of mutual interest and the best
interest of the group.

Other related theories significant to learning could either be explicitly classified as behaviorist,
cognitivist, or constructivist because of their varied natures.

1. Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences. This theory postulates that persons have the
capacity to possess all intelligences in varying degrees because of the influence of both heredity
and environment. Gardner defines intelligence as the overall mental ability of a learner. He has
utilized aspects of cognitive and developmental psychology, anthropology, and sociology to
support his claim on human intellect.

Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligence became a phenomenon in education industry as a

conventional model in various capacities that understand and teach human intellect learning
style, personality development, and understanding behaviors (Chapman, 2014).
Gardner knew that his multiple intelligences theory had some room to grow since he mentioned
that multiple intelligences were not limited to the original seven. Furthermore, Gardner believed
that there could be additional intelligences worthy of inclusion in the model.

Chapman (2014) stated that Gardner added Naturalist Intelligence (refers to relationship toward
natural environment), Spiritual or Existential Intelligence (refers to relationship toward Supreme
Being or refers to one's personal philosophy or belief), and Moral Intelligence (refers to taking
care of the welfare of living things and their well-being) among the list of intelligences.
 16

However, Gardner suggested to use "existential intelligence" rather than "spiritual intelligence"
because of the challenge of codifying quantifiable scientific criteria attached to it (Dhiman,
2017).

The table below shows the original seven with the inclusion of the additional intelligences.
Intelligence Competence Capability and Examples
Perception

1.Linguistic. Learners Ability to learn words and language writers, poets,

have an intense different languages lawyers, speakers
passion for spoken and use them to
and written language. accomplish goals

2.Logical-Mathematic Ability to discover logic and numbers scientists,

al. Learners can patterns, reason mathematicians
analyze problems deductively, and think
logically and logically
scientifically through
mathematical
operations.

3. Musical. Learners Ability to recognize music, sound, rhythm musicians,

are adaptive to skills and compose musical composers
in performance, pitches, tones, and
composition, and rhythms
appreciation of
musical patterns.

4. Bodily-Kinesthetic. Ability to coordinate body movement athletes, dancers

Learners make use of mental abilities with control
their own body or bodily movements
whole body in solving
and conveying
thoughts or ideas.

5. Spatial-Visual. Ability to fathom and Images and space engineers,. surveyors

Learners can optimize the use of
distinguish and utilize spaces
patterns of space and
confined areas.

6. Interpersonal. Ability to other people's educators,

Learners work understand the feelings salespeople, religious
effectively with intentions, counselors,
others. motivations, and politicians
desires of other
people

7. Intrapersonal. Ability to self-awareness self-directed

Learners work understand oneself, individuals
effectively with appreciate one's
oneself feelings, fears, and
motivations

8. Naturalist. Ability to recognize, natural environment nature lover,

Learners have an categorize, and grow environmentalist
appreciation of the upon certain features
environment and of the environment
nature.
 17

9. Ability to use religion and 'ultimate human rights

Spiritual/Existential. collective values and issues' advocates,
Learners are intuition to legislators,
concerned with understand others theologians
various social issues. and the world around
them

10. Moral. Learners Ability to apply rules ethics, humanity, traffic enforcers,
observe rules, and regulations in value of life police officers, peace
behaviors, and daily life situations and order advocates
attitudes that govern
the sanctity of life.

2. Robert Sternberg's Triarchic Intelligence. This theory believes that learner learn even
outside the classroom. The environment is the best classroom for them. Thus, learners are
encouraged to explore the outside world to give meaning to their learnings.

Kinds of Intelligence

1. Practical Intelligence. The ability to do well in formal and in Informal educational

settings; this is also known as "street smart" Individuals.

2. Experiential intelligence. The ability to deal with current situations so that novel
situations that may arise in the future are easily handled.

3. Componential Intelligence. The ability to process metacognition and

knowledge-acquisition components effectively.

3. Wilhelm Wundt's Structuralism. This theory assumes the discovery structure of the mind is
built upon the basic elements of ideas and sensations and could only be completed through
introspection. Introspection is the self-examination of one's thoughts, memories, perceptions,
and motivations (Zhou & Brown, 2015).

4. William James' Functionalism. This theory examines how the mind functions and the
mental processing that leads to adaptive behavior. While the functionalists were concerned with
both mental processes and adaptive behavior, the major emphasis was on behavior (Zhou &
Brown, 2015).

5. Kurt Lewin's "life space" and "field theory." "Life space" refers to reality such as need,
aspirations, desires, and goals, while "field theory" refers to the functions of both person and
environment. Hence, learning occurs when the learners' existing environment is in harmony with
their present reality. Therefore, learning activities must be relevant to their needs, aspirations,
and goals.

6. Daniel Goleman's Emotional Intelligence. This theory highlights the role of emotion in the
development of an individual's personality, which eventually affects the progress of learning and
behavior.

7. David Kolb's Experiential Learning. This theory focuses on constructing knowledge as a

result of one's reflective experience, which serves as the main driving force in learning (Baker,
Jensen, & Kolb, 2002).
 18

IV. Connectivism Approach

The connectivism approach is self-directed learning where learners learn on their own with the
use of computer aided instruction (CAI). They search, explore, and navigate information mostly
with Internet connectivity and it is the current way of learning, most especially in this time of new
normal. Learners are engaged in modular lessons conducted through synchronous and
asynchronous modalities where learners work at their own pace.

1. Briefly look at your KWHL chart again and examine the commonalities and
differences of your output and then summarize it.

2. Go to your respective group and fill out the diagram below.

3. In front of the class, share your overall understanding of the three keys of learning theories
through the following options: song, poem, skit, etc. Discussion will take place after the
presentations.

4.Create a graphical representation of the things you have learned on learning theories. An
example is shown below.
 19

5."Breakthrough Time." You may now express freely your thoughts, feelings, and experiences
on the previous activities (eg. KWHL chart, song, poem, skit, graphical representation or mind
map, etc.) by writing or sketching them in the space provided below.

1. Guided by the different graphic organizers you have created (which have been checked
by the teacher), plan and create teaching episodes depicting some of the learning
theories learned and document them through videos. Work in groups. Be sure that every
member has his or her part to portray.

2. Task Description on Video Project: Learners will work in assigned teams to create a
video project that details a learning theory. The presentations should include appropriate
photographs, video, music, graphs, and other visual aids. The final project should be
burned to a DVD in a Full Quality Quick Time movie format. You may refer to the rubric
on video presentation.

3. "Breakthrough Time." You may now express freely your thoughts, feelings, and
experiences in the activity (teaching episodes) by writing or sketching them in the space
provided below.
 20

1. The teacher will provide and expose you to numerous short video clips. After watching
the videos, accomplish the table below.

Classroom Difficulty Learning Theory/les Justification on the

Situation Encountered by the Applied/Proponent Use of the Theory
Teacher

2. Zr"Breakthrough Time." You may now express freely your thoughts, feelings, and
experiences in the activity (video viewing) by writing or sketching them in the space
provided

Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

LESSON 2: Principle and Theories of Motivation
Theories of Motivation

Every individual regardless of age carries with him or her a certain degree of motivation to do
things. Generally, motivation is a desire, need, or want that generates energy vital for the person
to act or behave in a particular way within a specific context. Motivation is simply defined as an
innate characteristic that releases one's creative capabilities and abilities. This means that when
you have a goal to achieve, you are motivated to act on it, and the positive outcome of your
action brings you satisfaction and happiness. On the other hand, when you are faced with
challenges, you are motivated to do something to overcome them. The successful outcome of
your behavior boosts your self-esteem and enhances your self-confidence. If and when things
do not materialize the way you want them to, your motivation tells you to keep going until you
reach your end goal. Hence, this lesson will help you understand more what motivation is in the
context of education and explore some of its principles and theories that will guide you in your
daily undertakings. According to various theories, motivation is rooted in physiological needs to
address physical pain and get the best out of every choice. It is an internal state or condition
that releases one's creative capabilities or abilities, thus, motivation is innate to everyone. It is
just a matter of activating them to achieve a certain goal or coursing them toward achieving
one's specific goal to bring personal joy or happiness. In other words, it is the driving force that
pushes a person to attain his or her goals.
 21

Motivation is a vital factor that encourages learners to give their best performance in every
endeavor they are faced with. It is within this context that teachers should motivate learners
more often than not. Motivation is said to be extrinsic or intrinsic..

1 Extrinsic motivation. This type of motivation is driven by the anticipation and expectation of
some kind of payoff from an external source.

Example: Learners work hard to win their parents' favor, gain teachers' praise, or earn
high grades. The reasons for learning lle primarily outside themselves.

2. Intrinsic motivation. This type of motivation is driven by one's own goals or ambitions.

Example: Learners study because they enjoy the subject and desire to learn it,
irrespective of the praise received or grades earned. The reasons for learning reside
primarily inside themselves.

Here are some principles of motivation that teachers can use to allow active participation of
learners and to keep them on track with the lesson.

1. The environment can be used to focus the learners' attention. Teachers can modify the
classroom environment like displaying learners' output or posting relevant and up-to-date
information to motivate the learners to do more.

2. Incentives motivate learning. Teachers should be generous enough to give any kind of
reward that motivates learners to do their best.

3. Internal motivation is longer lasting and more self-directive than external motivation.
Teachers should motivate learners to be more intrinsically motivated rather than extrinsically
motivated.

4. Learning is most effective when learners are ready to learn. Anchored on the law of
readiness, it has been proven that readiness affects learning and the performance of the
learners.

5. Motivation is enhanced by the way in which the instructional material is organized.

Organize learning materials well so that learners could follow.

Teachers can also be guided on the following theories of motivation to enhance th

teaching and learning process.

1 Drive Theory (Clark Hull). This theory explains that drives occur because of the stimulation
of a need. Need is a physiological deficiency that creates a condition of disequilibrium in the
body. Drives involve physiological survival needs such as hunger, thirst, sleep, pain, warmth,
touch, and sex. Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs distinctly presents these levels of needs.

2. Self-efficacy (Albert Bandura). This theory focuses on the belief that individuals have
capabilities to perform a series of actions needed to manage budding situations Efficacy is the
power to produce an effect (in essence competence), while self-efficacy is the belief (whether or
not accurate) that one has the power to produce that effect Self-efficacy relates to a person's
perception of his or her ability to reach a goal, while self-esteem relates to a person's sense of
self-worth.
 22

3.Self-determination (Edward L. Deci & Richard M. Ryan). This theory recognizes the
strength that comes from the sense of autonomy in making choices on the things that he or she
does,

4. Theory of Achievement Motivation (John William Atkinson). This theory is associated

with expectancies and values. The learners must believe that they can accomplish a task; that
is, they should have an expectancy about what they want to achieve and place an importance or
value in what they are doing.

5. Attribution Theory (Bernard Weiner). This theory describes people's various explanations
for successes and failures that match things like luck, mood, effort, health, strengths and
weaknesses of his or her opponents, climate, his or her friends, etc., notwithstanding their own
capabilities for their own successes and failures

6. Control (Choice) Theory (William Glasser). This theory explains that behavior is motivated
by what a person needs at any given time. Individuals are motivated andmake choices
according to the basic needs that come from within. The needs drive one's choices and
influence how one behaves in those choices. These basic needs are as follows:

a. Fun. It refers to the need for pleasure, enjoyment, laughter, learning, etc.Learners who are
allowed and encouraged to experience fun such as laughing naturally are stimulated to give
their best

b. Freedom. It refers to the need for independence, for autonomy, for control over one's own
life, or for choice. Learners who are given the freedom to work on their own are more creative
and productive because they can take control of their own uniqueness and individuality.

c. Love and Belongingness. It refers to the need for love, relationships, social connection, or
being part of a group. Learners who sense that they belong and are loved at least within the
domain of their group display a positive behavior toward themselves and the tasks at hand.

d. Power. It refers to the need to achieve, to be recognized for achievement or skills, to have a
sense of self-worth, or to be empowered. Learners who are empowered to be leaders and
disciples have enhanced senses of self-worth When they are being recognized for their
achievement, they experience self- fulfillment and are likely to excel more.

e. Survival. It refers to the physiological needs like the need for food, shelter, and safety.
Learners whose physiological needs are provided for will tend to be secure and show less
manifestations of maladaptive behaviors.

In addition, teachers could also use the techniques below in motivating learners:

1. Challenge them. Teachers should provide learners' opportunities to undertake real

challenges and encourage them to take intellectual risks.

2. Build on strengths first. Teachers should capitalize on learners' talents and skills to achieve
success.

3. Offer choices. Teachers should offer learners choices and opportunities to develop
ownership of their choices. When learners make decisions, they are more likely to accept the
consequences and celebrate the positive results of their actions and behaviors.
 23

4. Provide a secure environment. Teachers should help learners deal with failure. Dealing with
failure squarely is critical for developing motivation and successful learning. Emphasize that
there is always room for improvement. A happy environment produces happy learners.

5. Give bite-size tasks. Teachers should narrow down the topic to a challenging but
manageable scope. Narrowing lessons into bite sizes is equally imperative for developing
motivation.

6. Self-evaluation. Teachers should teach learners to evaluate themselves to avoid competition

and to address the questions, "What was done well?" and "How can it be improved?"

7. Provide frequent positive feedback. Teachers should let learners know that they notice
their efforts and appreciate their hard work. Such a gesture is found out to be a powerful positive
motivational tool.

1. Briefly look at your KWHL chart again and examine the commonalities and
differences of your output and then summarize it.

2. Go to your respective groups and fill out the diagram below.

3. Present to the class your overall understanding of motivation through the following
options: song, poem, skit, etc. Discussion will take place after.
 24

4. Create a graphical representation of the things you have learned on motivation. An

example is shown below.

5. "Breakthrough Time." You may now express freely your thoughts, feelings, and
experiences on the activities (eg, KWHL chart, song, poem, skit, graphical
representation or mind map, etc.) by writing or sketching them in the space provided
below.

1. Guided by the different graphic organizers you have created, plan and create teaching
episodes depicting some of the principles and theories of motivation learned and
document them through videos. Work in groups. Be sure that every member has his or
her part to portray. Your teacher may design a rubric for this activity to guide your output.

2. Task Description on Video Project: Students will work in assigned teams to create a
video project that details a theory on motivation. The presentations should include
appropriate photographs, video, music, graphs, and other visual aids. The final project
should be burned to a DVD in a Full Quality Quicktime movie format. You may refer to
the rubric on video presentation.
 25

3. "Breakthrough Time." You may now express freely your thoughts, feelings, and
experiences in the activity (teaching episodes) by writing or sketching them in the space
provided below.

1. The teacher will provide and expose you to numerous short video clips. After watching
the videos, fill out the table

Classroom Difficulty Motivation Justification on the

Situation Encountered by the Theory/ies or Use of the
teacher Principles applied Motivation
Theory/ies or
Principles

2. "Breakthrough Time." You may now express freely your thoughts, feelings, and
experiences in the activity (video viewing) by writing or sketching them in the space
provided below.
 26

Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

LESSON 3: Learning Outcomes

Learning Outcomes

Learning outcomes, or accounts of what is expected for a learner to know, to act, and to
value at the end of the learning process, play a vital role in efforts to advance the c of education
we give to produce excellent learners for the transformation of a better world

In today's volatile pandemic, we face the adversities it has brought. No other pandemic
could stop students from learning in the new normal. Remote learning is what lies ahead in the
teaching learning process. Nonetheless, classroom undertakings have never been spared from
the aftermath of this crisis which, according to Biggs (1999), has led many teachers to see major
difcubes in maintaining academic standards in larger and more and more diversified online
classes. However, we need not to worry because we are guided by our learning outcomes in the
course of our lesson

Let us then define the learning outcomes that complete the process of learning Learning
outcomes are what a learner is expected to know, understand, or to be able to do as a result of
a learning process. Measuring learning outcomes provides information on the particular
knowledge (cognitive, skill (psychomotor), or behavior (affective) learners have gained after
instruction is complete.

The importance of learning outcomes is summarized below.

● Learning outcomes help teachers communicate expectations to learners.
● Learning outcomes help teachers review curriculum and content.
● Learning outcomes help teachers design appropriate assessments.
● Learning outcomes help teachers evaluate the effectiveness of teaching learning

Learning is constant. Learners learn mental skills, develop attitudes, and acquire new physical
skills as they perform the given tasks. Biggs (2009) further describes that learning outcomes are
learner-centered and performance-oriented. This means that learning outcomes are stated in an
action verb (eg, demonstrate," "apply, etc.) and signal the desired level of performance. He
further mentioned that learning outcomes should refer not only to content to be learned but also
what's to be done with that content and to what standards. They should be:

● statements of what learners are expected to do at the end of a lesson;

● stated the learners' perspectives;
● articulated in the form of action verbs that are observable and assessable behavior; and
● linked to criteria for assessing the learners' performances.

Anatomy of Learning Outcomes

Learning outcome statements may be broken down into three main components: An action word
that identifies the act to be demonstrated:
● A learning statement that requires what learning will be demonstrated in the act
● A criterion or standard for acceptable act
● The table below shows examples of learning outcomes.
 27

Table 1. Anatomy of Learning Outcomes.

Action Word Learning Statement Criterion
(Performance) (Learning) (Conditions of the
performance
demonstration)

Applies principles of teaching when executing a lesson

Produces data using excel

Analyzes Societal Issues and in terms of their effects on

environmental factors agriculture

In addition, Hoque (2016) defines learning as a continuous development and change in the
brain's design in taking, connecting, categorizing, and utilizing information and even eliminating
it after use. Learning domains are classified into three: cognitive domain (knowledge),
psychomotor domain (skills), and affective domain (attitudes).

Figure 1. Domains of Learning

Source; Hoque 2016

Bloom's et al. (1956) taxonomy divides educational objectives into three overlapping "domains":
cognitive (knowledge), affective (attitude), and psychomotor (skills). The mod supports effective
student learning by helping teachers determine the appropriate teaching strategies to be used
(Bloom et al., 1956, 1984; Savickiene, 2010; Testa et al., 2018).

Three Learning Domains

1. Cognitive Domain (Benjamin Bloom)

The cognitive domain is comprised learning skills primarily related to (thinking) processes. In
1956, Benjamin Bloom, together with a group of educational psychologists, developed a
cataloging system for levels of cognitive skills, which is often referred to as Bloom's Taxonomy
Taxonomy means structures or classifications Bloom's Taxonomy classifies knowledge skills
according to six levels of categories with corresponding learning outcomes as shown below. The
categories are ordered from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract as it progresses
from higher, to highest level of thinking, and evaluation as the highest

Hierarchy of Cognitive Domains Writing Learning Outcomes

6. Evaluation ● Ability to judge value of material for given

purpose Appraise, argue, conclude,
convince, criticize, decide,

● evaluate, grade, Interpret, Judge, rate,

recommend
 28

5. Synthesis ● Ability to put parts together

● Arrange, assemble, combine, compile,

compose. I construct, create, design,
develop, generate, invent make, plan,
prepare

4. Analysis ● Ability to break down information into its

components Analyze, appraise,
breakdown, categorize, compare,
connect, criticize, differentiate, divide,
examine,

● investigate, examine

3. Application ● Ability to use learned in new situation

● Apply, assess, calculate, complete,

compute, demonstrate, develop,
examine, interpret, produce, select, show,
transfer

2. Comprehension ● Ability to understand and interpret

information Clarify, contrast, convert,
decode, defend, describe, differentiate,
discuss, distinguish, explain, illustrate,

1. Knowledge ● Ability to remember facts without

necessarily understanding

● Collect, define, describe, find, identify,

list, memorize, name, order, outline,
recall, recognize, repeat, show,state
Figure 2. Cognitive Domain Chart
Source: Hoque (2016)

The Classification of Learning Skills is predicated on four findings from pedagogical

research (Apple et al, 2003).

1. Learning involves building a tapestry of conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive

2. knowledge (Bransford et al, 2000). Learning results in subject matter mastery,

transferable long-term behaviors, and mature perspectives that can be both measured
and elevated (Dewey, 1938).

3. Subject matter mastery (conceptual development in an area of knowledge, joined with

fluency in applying it) can be planned, cultivated, and assessed using modern
derivatives of Bloom's Taxonomy (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).

4. Focusing on a small set of life skills at one time helps learners integrate these skills into
their lives and elevate their daily performance (Covey, 1989).

Note that Bloom's Taxonomy was revised in 2001 after having been used in teaching and
Instructional planning for almost 60 years (Wilson, 2016).
 29

The Revised Bloom's Taxonomy

Krathwohl and Anderson (2001) made a revision to Bloom's Taxonomy to make it more
adaptive and relevant to the current era and to advance the level of the cognitive domain.
Significantly, to update and meet the needs of curriculum planners, instructional designers,
teaching moderators, and learners. More importantly, this revision of changing the words from
nouns to verbs, as shown in Figure 3, permits teachers to identify the intricacies of thinking skills
expected of learners and provide them with clearer objectives of what they are supposed to
accomplish at the end of the lesson. Interchanging the position of and 'create' makes creation
the central goal of learning.

Figure 3. Transition from noun to verb form

. (Adapted from Wilson, 2001)

Figure 4 describes the changes from the original work of Bloom in 1956 (left column) to
that of the revision of Anderson and Krathwohl in 2001 (right column) and Figure shows the
revised Bloom's Taxonomy. The revised version enables the teachers, curriculum designers,
and educationists to focus on higher-order thinking when preparing for classroom-based
activities.

Bleam's Taxonomy 1956 Anderson and Krathwohl's Taxonomy

2001

1. Knowledge Remembering or retrieving 1. Remembering

previously learned material. Examples of Recognising or recalling knowledge
verbs that relate to this function are from memory Remembering is when
memory is used to produce or retrieve
Know Define Record definitions, facts, or lists, or to rece
Identify Recall Name previously learned information..
Relate List Memorize Recognize
Repeat Acquire

2. Comprehension The ability to grasp or 2. Understanding

construct meaning from material, meaning from different types of
Examples of verbs that relate to this functions be they written or graphic
 30

function are: messages se activities like

interpreting, exemplifying, classifying
Restate Identity Illustrate summarizing, inferring, comparing, or
Locate Discuss Interpret explaining
Report Describe Draw
Recognize Discuss Review Represent
Explain Infer Differentiate
Express Conclude

3.Application: The ability to use learned 3. Applying

material, or to 3. implement material in new
and concrete situations. Examples of verbs Carrying out or using a procedure
that relate to this function are: through executing or implementing.
Applying relates to or refers to
Apply Rate Organize Practice situations where learned material is
Organize Employ Calculate used through products like models,
Develop Restructure Show Exhibit presentations, interviews, or
Translate Interpret Dramatize simulations.
Use Demonstrate
Illustrate

4. Analysis: The ability to break down or 4. Analyzing

distinguish the parts of material into its
components so that its organizational Breaking materials or concepts into
structure may be better understood. parts, determining how the parts relate
Examples of verbs that relate to this function to one another or how they interrelate,
are: or how the parts relate to an overall
structure or purpose. Mental actions
Analyze Differentiate Experiment included in this function are
Compare Contrast Scrutinize differentiating. organizing, and
Probe Investigate Discover attributing, as well as being able to
Inquire Detect Inspect distinguish between the components
Examine Survey Dissect or parts. When one is analyzing,
Contrast Classify Discriminate he/she can illustrate this mental
Categorize Deduce Separate function by creating spreadsheets,
surveys, charts, diagrams, or graphic
representations.

5. Synthesis: The ability to put parts 5. Evaluating

together to form a coherent or unique
new whole Examples of verbs. Bethat
relate to this function are:
Making judgments based on criteria
and standards through checking and
critiquing Critiques recommendations,
and reports are some of the products
that can be created to demonstrate the
processes of evaluation. In the newer
taxonomy. evaluating comes before
creating as it is often a necessary part
of the precursory behavior before one
creates something.

Evaluation: The ability to judge, check, and 6. Creating

even critique the value of material for a given
purpose. Examples of verbs that relate to this Putting elements together to form a
function are coherent or functional whole
reorganizing elements into a new
pattern or structure through generating,
planning. or producing Creating
 31

requires users to put parts: together in

a new way, or synthesize parts into
something new and different creating a
new form or product. This process is
the most difficult mental function in the
new taxonomy.
Figure 4. Taxonomies of the cognitive domain.
(Adapted from Wilson, 2016)

Figure 5. Revised Bloom's Taxonomy.

2. Affective Domain (David Krathwo)

An equally important learning domain is Krathwohl's affective domain taxonomy which

includes feelings, emotions, and attitudes. The taxonomy is categorized according to the
principle of internalization. Internalization refers to the internalized values that unswervingly
directs or controls the person's behavior (Seels & Glasgow, 1990, p. 28)

It is comprised of five levels, from lowest to highest: receiving, responding valuing,

organization, and characterization (Krathwohl et al., 1964, Anderson et al., 2001). This
taxonomy was applied to written self-evaluations to assess changes in affective learning. Each
level is described as follows (Krathwohl et al., 1964, Anderson et al, 2001)

Levels Examples Keywords

Receiving Awareness of the A learner listening attentively to differentiate, to accept, to

need and willingness to hear to his or her teacher or a listen (for), to respond to
selected attention friend

Responding: Actively A learner participating in a to comply with, to follow, to

participate in learning, group discussion, giving a commend, to volunteer, to
including responding to presentation, complying with spend leisure time in, to
various appearances. procedures, or following acclaim
directions

Valuing: It is the ability to A leader-learner sharing his to increase measured

judge the worth or value of or her ideas on the issue of proficiency in, to relinquish, to
something, including specific bullying of learners subsidize, to support, to
 32

objects, phenomena, debate

behaviors, or information and
to express it clearly from
simple acceptance to a more

complex state of
commitment.

Organization: It is defined as A learner spending more time to discuss, to theorize,

comparing and classifying in his or her studies than
values, resolving conflicts watching movies or staying at to formulate, to balance, to
between them, and creating a play stations examine
unique value system with a
primary focus on comparison,
relevance, and integrated
values.

Characterization: It is defined A learner volunteering to to revise, to require, to be

as the establishment of a campaign on green rated high in the value, to
value system that controls environment beyond his or avoid, to resist, to manage, to
learner behavior, which is her time resolve
universal, consistent,
predictable, and the most
important feature of learners.
Teaching objectives involves
individual, social, and
emotional patterns that
learners adjust to.

Figure 6. Affective domain levels/

(Source: Houqe 2016)
 33

3. Psychomotor Domain (Anita Harrow)

The psychomotor domain is primarily concerned with physical activities where the gross
and fine muscles are used for expressing or interpreting information or concepts. Motor skills
must be well coordinated in order to arrive at the desired results.

The following are the seven categories under the psychomotor domain:

1. Perception. It refers to the learner's application of sensory information to activity.motor

Example: A learner baking a cake adjusts the heat of the oven to achieve the desired
result.

2. Set. It refers to the learner's readiness to act

Example: An athlete learner displays motivation in performing a planned exercise.

3. Guided Response. It refers to the learner's replication of an exhibited behavior through the
trial and error approach.

Example: A learner follows the manual in operating his or her new phone

4. Mechanism. It refers to the learner putting into habitual actions, with adeptness and
confidence, the learned behavior.

Example: A learner plays the guitar with ease and confidence after practicing how to
play it.

5. Complex Overt Response. It refers to the learner's skilled performance of complex patterns
of behaviors.

Example: A learner encodes or types on his or her laptop without looking at the
keyboard.

6. Adaptation. It refers to learner's modification of learned skills to meet and address special
events.

Example: A learner uses plastic bottles to create a Christmas parole.

7. Origination. It refers to the learner's creation of novel movement patterns for a certain
situation.

Example: A learner creates a new dance routine.

Dave (1975), on the other hand, developed this taxonomy, which includes the following

1.Imitation. Observing and copying someone else's behavior

2.Manipulation. Guiding through instruction to perform a skill

3. Precision. Performing skillfully with accuracy, proportion, and exactness the behavior even
without the presence of the original source
 34

4. Articulation. Performing two or more combined, sequenced, and performed skills

consistently

5. Naturalization. Performing two or more combined, sequenced, and performed skills not just
consistently but with ease and clarity. The performance becomes automatic with little physical or
mental exertion.

Finally, Anita Harrow came up with a more precise and concise taxonomy. Harrow's
taxonomy for the psychomotor domain is organized according to the degree of coordination,
including involuntary responses or reflexes as well as learned capabilities. Simple reflexes begin
at the lowest level of the taxonomy, while complex neuromuscular coordination makes up the
highest levels (Seels & Glasgow, 1990).

Figure 7. Psychomotor Domain

Levels Keywords

Reflex Movements. It refers to actions elicited flexing, extension, stretch, postural

without learning in response to some stimuli. adjustments

Fundamental Movements. It refers to inherent walking, running, pushing, twisting, gripping,

movement patterns which are formed by grasping, manipulating
combining reflex movements and are the
basis for complex skilled movements,

Perceptual Abilities. It refers to the coordinated movements such as jumping

interpretation of various stimuli that enable rope, punting, or catching
one to make adjustments to the environment.

Physical Activities. It refers to required
endurance, strength, vigor, and agility that
produces a sound, efficiently functioning
body.
all activities which require (a) strenuous
effort for long periods of time; (b) muscular
exertion; (c) a quick, wide range of motion at
the hip joints; and (d) quick, precise
movements

Skilled Movements. It refers to the result of all skilled activities obvious in sports,
the acquisition of a degree of efficiency when recreation, and dance
performing a complex task.

Non-discursive Communication. It refers to body postures, gestures, and facial

the communication through bodily expressions efficiently executed in skilled
 35

movements ranging from facial expressions dance movement and choreographies

through sophisticated choreographies.

1. Briefly look at your KWHL chart and examine the commonalities and differences of your
output and then summarize it.

2. Go to your respective groups and fill out the diagram below.

Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

LESSON 4: Student Engagement Techniques and Strategies SETS

Significant culminating performance task and success indicators:

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to apply the different strategies that will
actively engage the learners by preparing a lesson plan and microteaching You are considered
successful in this culminating performance task if you can create a plan of a lesson that is
familiar to you by utilizing any of the student engagement techniques and strategies discussed
and microteach the lessons to practice the student engagement techniques and strategies.
 36

Performance Tasks Success Indicators

Create a plan of a lesson by utilizing any of Apply the different student engagement
the student engagement techniques and techniques and strategies through micro
strategies. teaching guided by a lesson plan.

Teach a lesson to practice the student

engagement techniques and strategies

How can we actively engage our learners in the teaching and learning process?

To prepare you for the lesson, you have to accomplish two tasks

TASK 1:

Go to the library or search the Internet for some professional readings, articles, or even videos
related to learner or student engagement techniques and strategies. Download the article or the
video, Acknowledge the sources. Summarize the important insights you learned from the article.
Take note of these important ideas or insights. Write them down on MY NOTES so you will not
forget them.

MY NOTES

TASK 2 Think Pair Share

Guided by your list of ideas and insights gained from your readings, come up with a
compendium of learner centered strategies and techniques with your learning partner Then,
review your compilation. Compare and contrast these strategies and techniques Create a
graphic organizer to present information on techniques and strategies that are learner centered.

My Graphic Organizer
 37

The discussion on the "My Student Engagement Techniques and Strategies (My SETS)"
toolbox can help you understand the overarching themes of learner-centered instructional
methodologies.

My Student Engagement Techniques and Strategies Toolbox

In our classrooms, students differ in terms of:

● physical features;
● developmental characteristics and needs;
● ethnic, cultural, socio-economic, political, and religious backgrounds;
● cognitive (intelligences), affective, and psychomotor skills and abilities;
● habits, hobbies, interests, and talents:
● views, beliefs, and perceptions;
● general life experiences
● support systems;
● Preferences,
● learning styles and strategies; and
● cultures

Engaging the learners actively in the teaching-learning experiences requires teachers to

get to know and understand them. Teachers should also utilize varied and appropriate
instructional strategies and techniques while taking into consideration the learners' diverse
backgrounds and profiles. Learner-centered teaching requires multimethodologies

Some of the strategies can be described and be presented in the acronym PICED.

P - Problem-based
- Project-based
- Peer Teaching
- Process Approach
I - Inquiry-based Learning
C - Cooperative Learning
E - Experimental and Experiential Learning
D - Discovery Learning Approach
- Differentiated Instruction

1. Problem-based Learning (PBL). Learners work in groups and are actively engaged in
solving real-life problems using the power of authentic problem-solving skills. With the
teacher as facilitator, learners explore issues, formulate problem statements, collect
information and data needed, list possible solutions or action options, plan for actions to
be taken with a timeline to solve the problem or issue, and review and evaluate
solutions. In simple terms, PBL or Problem-based Learning uses the inquiry model.

2. Project-based Learning. Learners work on a project over a period of time. They create
an output or a project in the form of a presentation or product. They engage in solving a
real problem, do research on this problem, design the product or project that could solve
the problem, implement the design, do a public presentation of the product designed,
and finally, do a self-evaluation or reflection. This approach follows the production model,
which includes planning, researching, designing, presenting, and submitting the product,
and reflects on the product and the entire production process.

3. Process Approach. This approach is designed to develop skills in the scientific

processes. It is teaching to acquire skills. The teacher's role is to guide and lead the
learners to learn science through skills in the different processes like observing
 38

describing, communicating, classifying (sorting or arranging objects/ideas into

meaningful groups), measuring (determining the weight, height, length, width, area,
volume, temperature, or depth), inferring (arriving at tentative conclusions), formulating
hypotheses or giving tentative explanations, predicting or probable consequences,
controlling variables, and experimenting. In this approach, the teacher's role is that of a
guide or facilitator. The activities are carried out in a foretelling highly systematic and
sequential way.
On the other hand, complex processes include reporting, analyzing, using
original sources, outlining, summarizing, taking notes, reading and using maps, debating
evaluating, planning, and using charts.

4. Peer Teaching. This happens when the teacher requests the older, brighter, and more
cooperative member of the class to tutor other classmates. The classmates tutees
receive personalized or individualized instruction from classmate-tutors They become
learning buddies.

5. Inquiry-based Learning. This requires learners to ask questions, formulate hypotheses,

probe, explore, and make some discoveries, and reflect and draw conclusions on their
findings. This method requires interaction among the learners teachers, content,
materials, and the environment. The basic inquiry processes and skills are systematically
practiced like observing, classifying, inferring, predicting communicating, formulating
hypotheses, interpreting data, and experimenting and formulating conclusions. Thus,
Inquiry-based Learning advocates learner-initiated learning.

The following are the steps followed in inquiry method in identifying the problem,
formulating hypotheses, collecting and testing tentative answers, interpreting data and
formulating conclusions. Tentative conclusions may be tested and revised. It can be
noted that the inquiry method is also related to the problem-solving method which follows
the scientific process of formulating problems, stating the hypothesis, planning ways to
solve the problems, gathering, organizing, summarizing, and interpreting data,
evaluating the hypotheses, formulating conclusions, and verifying results with evaluation.

6. Cooperative Learning. Implementing this in the classroom fosters interdependence

among learners. This approach requires learners to work in groups to accomplish some
tasks. In a class, task groups are organized where members perform specific and clearly
defined roles. Some individual assignments or roles may include being the facilitator,
researcher, secretary or recorder, rapporteur, artist, timer, example giver, questioner,
summarizer, or evaluator. Cooperative Learning supports division of tasks and requires
cooperation and interaction among each member as it assumes that each individual is
responsible for his or her learning. Positive interdependence individual accountability,
and social skills are emphasized and enhanced.

Some Cooperative Learning Activities (CLA)

Cooperative Learning Activity How Are They Done?

Shape-o-Rama Learners stand up to form triangles,

circles, and squares: For the triangles,
each team member shares three
important words he or she wants to
remember about the lesson or topic. For
the circles, each member of the team
shares what is going around in his or her
mind (to) refer to questions). For the

Teams on Travel (TOT)
Peer on Pair Check (POP Check)
GPS (Group Project to Share)
MP4 (Multiple Partners in Groups of 4)
Consultants at Work (CAW)
Metacognitive Thinking (MeT)
See for Yourself Corners
LINKS (List, Inquire, Note, Know, Share)
PIES (Point, Illustrations, Explanations,
Share)
39
squares, each team member shares four
points he or she has learned from the
lesson or topic aligned with his or her
beliefs.
The teacher gives a challenging problem
or question to the learners. Then, learners
belonging to the same team consult each
other to answer the problem. They see to
it that everyone knows the answer before
they approach members of other teams to
share their answers to the problem or
question.
Each learner works with a peer within the
group to solve the problem provided by
the teacher. After every problem, the pair
checks if their answers are the same with
the other pairs.
Learners work in groups to come up with
a group project to be shared with the
whole class. It is the responsibility of the
leader to make sure that each member of
th moe group has a contribution or
contributions in making the project..
Learners work in groups of fours to
master the topic assigned. Then, they
consult with partners from other teams.
After consultation, they share the insights
gained with the other partners in their
team..
Each learner shares something
interesting or relevant to the lesson with
his or her teammates.
Each team will construct and accomplish
a table in a sheet of paper showing two
columns labeled "The Things/Ideas We
Learned" and "How Did We Learn Those
Things/Ideas. After working on this task,
they share their output with the entire
class.
The teacher posts subtopics or questions
about the lesson on the walls of the room.
By groups, the learners brainstorm as
they visit each of the subtopics or corners.
The teacher provides each team with
specific topics After the topics have been
given to each team, the learners list down
their questions, ideas, or insights about
their assigned topic, search for references
or sources, and finally, share with the
whole group the Information they have
Working in groups, the learners are
required to research on a topic. From the
information they gathered, the learners
 40

point out important information and make

some illustrations or examples to show
how they understand the concepts. The
output will be shared with the class

7. Experiential Approach. This emphasizes activity oriented methodologies with the learners
directly experiencing what they are studying and formulating conclusi based on those direct
experiences. This is also called the "learning by doing approach as learners learn best when
they are personally involved in the learning activity,
Similar to the experiential approach is the experimental method in this method, learners
go through the following processes formulating problems or questions, making inferences or
hypotheses, suggesting ways and means for testing the hypothesis, designing the experimental
procedure, performing the experiment reporting the findings or results, interpreting the findings
or verifying the hypothesis making conclusions, and application.

8. Discovery Learning. This requires the active participation of the learners to questions,
formulate hypotheses, and experiment and explore to find answers and explanations to the
problems at hand with minimum or no help from the teacher facilitator. They need to organize
their ideas and thoughts and apply the differen process skills so as to discover something or
explain a phenomenon

9. Discovery Approach. This can be in the form of guided discovery or pure discovery In the
guided discovery approach, the teacher is there to help or assist the learners by providing some
simple tips, especially about procedures, materials, and tasks The teacher may also provide
guide questions to help the learners' discovery process On the other hand, pure discovery
approach requires the active involvement of the learners in the discovery process with or little or
no guidance from the teacher

10. Differentiated Instruction. This is a responsive instruction for diverse learners in this
approach, the teacher adapts her or his lesson presentation strategies to meet the individual
learner's readiness, learning profile, preferences, and interests. This gives primordial
considerations to multiple intelligences and varied learning styles is basically contextualizing
instruction to make it relevant to the life experiences and needs of the learners.

Using Differentiated instruction requires flexibility in the reaching learning arrangement,

strategies, and assessment tasks. Teachers need to consider the cox needs, abanes, learning
experiences, and cultures of the learners. The earning proffe of the learners shall be the basis
for the different learning strategies antees that shall be provided.

Experts on Differentiated Instruction would put emphasis on the learners' characteristic skills,
interests, intelligences, learning styles, cognitive, affective, and psychomotor abilities, and their
life experiences at home, in the community, and in school. It is culturally based and should not
require a "one-size fits all" approach. The teacher needs to be creative in planning the lessons
to make it responsive to learners'

In Differentiated Instruction, teachers are flexible as they examine the contents or what they
want the learners to learn, modify the learning environment, look into the process to make the
learners understand the information, ideas, and skills, and how they will facilitate the learning
experience. They can also modify the product or result of instruction to check whether the
learners made sense or came to understand the information, ideas, and skills.
 41

To check whether you understood the lesson, you will present a role-play by
groups to demonstrate SETS learned.

Answer the following questions.

1. As a future teacher, how will you organize your lessons using the different SETS?
2. As a future teacher, what do you think are the factors that will help you utilize different SETS
in your class
3. NoDown the Memory Lane. Recall your experiences when you were in elementary or high
school. How did your teachers teach the lessons then? To what extent did your teacher employ
SETS? How did they do it? Explain your answer,

With your group members, think of a familiar lesson and create a plan to be carried out
using any of the SETS. Show the plan to the teacher. Once approved, be prepared to
microteach the lesson..

Guidelines:

1. Each learner will be given time to prepare his or her microteaching lesson plan and the
instructional materials needed for the chosen lesson.
2. Each learner will plan for a 15-minute Interactive mini-lesson. The template for the
microteaching lesson plan is shown below.

Student Code Number

Subject Area

Grade/Year Level

Lesson, Title or Topic

Learning Objectives

Opening Preliminaries/
Bridge-Hook

Learner Engagement
and Participatory
Learning Activities

Closure/ Summary
 42

Instructional Materials or
Resources

3. Each learner will submit the lesson plan to the teacher and peer jurors. He or she will be
given 15 minutes to teach the lesson. Each mini-lesson is timed so it is essential that the
learner adheres to the 15-minute timeline.

4. The microteaching may be assessed using the sample rubric presented below.

Rubric on Microteaching

Component 4 3 2 1
(Exemplary) (Accomplished) (Developing) (Beginning)

Organization The lesson is very The lesson is The lesson is There is no focus
organized with mostly organized somewhat in the lesson
relevant and with relevant disorganized with presentation, it is
interesting lesson lesson opener; it the lesson opener hard to
opener, it is covers important not so relevant to understand, it
comprehensive in topics. the topic; it lacks does not give an
its presentation. content and depth adequate and
in the discussion. clear discussion of
the topic.

Mastery of the Demonstrates Demonstrates Demonstrates Demonstrates fair

Topic excellent mastery above average average or poor knowledge
of the topic mastery of the knowledge of the of the topic
topic topic

Delivery Demonstrates Demonstrates Demonstrates Demonstrate a fair

ability to above average average ability to or poor ability to
excellently ability to communicate with communicate.
communicate the communicate with the audience, with the audience;
with the audience, the audience delivery is fast speaks in either a
speaks with clarity speaks in a well- and not clearly too loud or too
in a modulated voice understood soft voice and is
well-modulated and the lesson is not easily
voice and the understood, has understood
lesson is clearly appropriate pace because the pace
and easily and has no is too quick or too
understood, no distracting slow
distracting mannerisms
mannerisms

Teaching The strategy used The strategy used The strategy used The strategy used
Strategy Used was very was appropriate to was not so was not
appropriate to the the topic. Almost appropriate to the appropriate for the
topic. All the half of the class lesson Only a few lesson It was
learners participated well in learners teacher centered
participated very the discussion. participated with less or no
well in the actively in the learner
discussion. discussion. participation

Use of Appropriate and The instructional The instructional There were no

Instructional varied materials were materials were instructional
Materials instructional effectively used used but these materials used
materials were only by the were
used, were very teacher to inappropriate and
well organized, enhance were used only by
involved the instruction. the teacher These
learners in a did not enhance
meaningful way, instruction.
 43

and promoted
learning.

Student Excellent Good question There were only Entirely teacher

Engagement questioning. All Most learners are some questions centered, no
and Interaction learners actively actively involved and activities that questioning and
participated in the in class. There is involved the interaction
class discussion. good interaction learners and
between learners. promoted
and teachers. interactions.

5. After the teaching demonstration, the learners will receive 5-10 pieces of oral feedback
from their peers and mentors. The mentors/jurors may also write aspects to maintain and
suggestions for improvement

Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

LESSON 5 : Preparing for Quality Teaching

What Is Lesson Planning?

It is imperative for teachers to prepare their lesson plans as they facilitate the learning
experiences in the classroom. Lesson planning is a systematic process whereby the teacher
identifies the learning objectives or the desired learning outcomes, the content or topic,
instructional materials needed to aid in the instruction, references, strategies, or techniques that
will be utilized in the lesson, and assessment tasks to determine what the learners need to
improve on or how well they were able to achieve the desired learning outcomes

What Is a Lesson Plan?

The lesson plan is a guide outlining the significant teaching-learning activities aligned to
the outcomes or objectives and to the assessment tasks. It has five major parts that could be
presented through the acronym OSPAA.

0-bjectives

S-ubject Matter

P-rocedure

A-ssessment

A-ssignment

These parts are specifically explained below

Objectives. We have to consider the fact that it should be expressed in terms of specific
knowledge, skill, or attitude. These are expressed in specifc and measurable terms or verbs. We
avoid using as behavioral objectives some words like know understand appreciate, or learn
because these are not observable or measurable A good instructional objective should contain
elements like the learner, speci behavior, condition, performance standard, and the desired
result or c or outcomes. 1 objectives of the lesson should be shared with the learners The
 44

Subject Matter. This would include the topic or content drawn from the curriculum guide. It may
include a specific concept, competency, principle, skill, or procedure. The teacher should see to
it that the content or topic is aligned with the curriculum and is suited to the needs, abilities, and
skills of the learners, The instructional materials or references are also included in this part.

Procedure. This would include the Preliminary or Introductory, Developmental, and Closing or
Culminating Activities. Here, the teacher describes the learning experiences that the learners,
with the teacher as facilitator of learning, shall go through

Assessment. The assessment tasks are presented after the Procedure, One important note to
remember here is the principle of constructive alignment of the assessment tasks to the
objectives and teaching-learning activities set

Assignment Part of the lesson plan would be the Assignment, whereby teachers would assign
some tasks for home-based learning. There are benefits to why teachers would give some
assignment to the learners. For one, it would help improve the learners performance because it
provides enrichment or reinforcement and even remedial activities to be done at home Advance
reading assignments help the learners to be prepared and motivated for the next day's lesson

Preparing for a Teaching Demonstration

Part of the experiential learning experiences for preservice teachers like you is the
conduct of a teaching demonstration whereby you need to implement the lesson plan you have
prepared in front of your course facilitator, peers, and your resource teacher or supervising
instructor This is one challenging performance-based task where you need to demonstrate your
communicative and instructional skills. There are things that you need to remember before the
demonstration,

First and foremost, you need to have a thorough knowledge of the topic/subject matter
assigned to you. Start gathering relevant references before you prepare the draft of your lesson
plan. Organize the learning experiences employing the appropriate strategies and techniques.
Make sure the classroom experiences are learner centered. Review, rewrite, and prepare a
neatly written lesson plan. Prepare the instructional materials you need for the lesson. It is
important that you rehearse and practice.

On the big day, it is important that you come on time and present a pleasing appearance.
Just relax, be polite, cheerful, and good-natured. During the demonstration, exhibit mastery of
the topic assigned to you. Ask clear and definite questions. Have a good command of the
medium of instruction. Avoid distracting mannerisms. Speak in a well-modulated voice Refrain
from constantly repeating your questions, answering your questions, or repeating the learners'
answers Give your best to hold the attention and engage the learners in the teaching-learning
process. Remain composed and give it your best.

After the teaching demonstration, your peers, supervising instructor or resource teacher,
with your course facilitator, shall give feedback to your performance. Listen very well to their
observations and suggestions. They will give you helpful tips to further improve the
demonstration lesson. Be open to suggestions
 45

Answer the following questions to check whether you have acquired ideas from different
sources on planning for quality teaching, which would include lesson planning and conducting
an effective teaching demonstration.

1. What is a lesson plan? Why do teachers need to prepare a lesson plan?

2. What are the parts of a lesson plan?

3. How will you prepare for an effective teaching demonstration?

4. How do we prepare for quality teaching?

For this part, you need to do the following tasks:

1. Observe a class or two. Take note of the different strategies utilized by the teacher
Describe how he or she actively engaged the learners in the lesson. List down the
opening, developmental, and closing activities employed by the teacher

2. Look for at least two sample detailed lesson plans. Describe how the teacher organized
the learning experiences of the learners. Would you consider the strategies as learner
centered? Why?

1. This time, you are now ready to write your lesson plan for learner-centered teaching
based on your expertise or field of specialization.

2. Choose a topic from the Curriculum Guide.

3. Prepare a draft of the lesson plan using the prescribed format set by the latest issuance
from the Department of Education on the policy guidelines on daily lesson preparation.

4. Make the details in the lesson plan thorough and relevant to the objectives. You may
include or consider the following format:

a. Objectives (Content/Performance Standards/Learning Competencies or

Objectives)
b. Content
c. Procedure (Before the Lesson, During the Lesson and After the Lesson
d. Assessment
e. Assignment
f. Remarks
g. Reflections
 46

5. Remember, you need to utilize learner-centered strategies.

6. Have your lesson plan checked by your course facilitator.
7. After which, you will prepare for a demonstration (peer) teaching.
8. Prepare the needed instructional materials
9. Make sure you request somebody to videotape the entire demonstration lesson.

Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

LESSON 6 : Creating a Fair-Learning Environment

To explore what you know when it comes to creating a fair-learning environment, share your
thoughts with your classmates using the following pictures. In sharing with your classmates, be
guided with the script provided.
 47

Based on the pictures presented and the thoughts shared by you and your classmates, answer
the following questions

1. How would you advocate the messages being conveyed by the pictures?
2. What community initiatives have you observed when it comes to

a. promoting peace,

b. gender fairness;

c. indigenous people's welfare; and

d. Human Rights Education?

3. If you become a teacher, how would you coordinate and discuss the importance of the
four areas in creating a fair-learning environment with your learners? The parents? The
community?

To prepare you for the lesson, you need to view videos related to the creation of safe
environments. Take note of the important ideas or insights you learned after watching the
educational videos. You are expected to do this before the discussion, analysis, and evaluation
when you meet the teacher face-to-face or in your virtual classroom.

Suggested videos on creating a fair-learning environment:

1. To understand how gender-sensitivity is primarily affected by culture, look for the video of
Shameem Akhtar Shameem pretended to be a boy when she was a child so that she could go
to school. In Pakistan, during those days, girls were not given the opportunity to go the school.
The video you should watch should discuss how Shameem got the education she deserved and
how her decisions in life serve as inspiration to other girls.

2. When it comes to cultural understanding of biodiversity, look for the video of Naoko Ishii. Ishil
is an advocate of our social responsibility when it comes to our shared resources termed as
global commons. The video should discuss the economic systems that need to be protected
and how these affect our social contract with Earth.

3. Look for the video of John Hunter who used a 4x5 plywood board in presenting the world's
problems to 4th graders. These problems were, in turn, solved by the learners His video should
talk about how he designed the World Peace Games that teaches learners lessons that are
considered complex.
 48

Guided by your list of ideas and insights learned, complete the matrix below

Videos What does the What What quote

video talk significant How would you from the
about? teaching apply their speakers has
approaches Insights to your an impact on
have been teaching? how you view
shared by the teaching?
speakers?

Shameem
Akhtar

Naoko Ishil

John Hunter

Since reading, viewing, and/or exploring the internet need time from you, this activity
should be done outside class time Class time shall be reserved to interact with your classmates
and with the teacher as a facilitator.

How can peace education be advocated in schools?

Schools should primarily be peace zones (Harris, 2003). As teachers promoting peace,
there is a need to be able to identify the learners' tendencies to be violent and be able to
manage these tendencies. When aggression is effectively managed, many will feel safe-
physically, economically, socially, or emotionally. Likewise, when learners feel safe in school and
their communities, their quality of life improves and learning new skills likely occurs.

Peace education addresses conflicts in school and the community by using resolution
approaches that are informed by the community's political structure, historical forces, and
cultural beginnings. Harris (2003) emphasizes that the role of teachers in maintaining peace in
classrooms is to primarily provide learners with awareness regarding how conflicts arise and
how to control their emergence. Secondly, teachers create opportunities for learners to explore
approaches to resolve conflicts. Lastly, teachers encourage learners to become promoters of
peace and harmony in their communities. An important document in relation to the promotion of
peace is the United Nations Declaration of Peace (United Nations, 1999). Its principles cover
safeguarding life and practicing nonviolence by educating people. The principles may serve as
guiding posts in engineering classroom approaches to develop concepts of peace and promote
strategies that would maintain it like:

● activities that aim at knowing and promoting human rights;

● approaches in meeting the needs of future generations,
● lessons in giving people equal opportunity and respect.
● exercises in freedom of expression, and discussions on social justice and democracy,
solidarity, and tolerance between and among nations

In teaching peace education in formal (classroom) and non-formal systems

(communities), Thapa, Dhungana, Mahalingam, & Connileau (2010) describes:

● the knowledge-based approach, which is referred to as addressing peace contexts

based on how available information present it.
● the skills-based approach, which gives importance to integrating peace concepts to
one's life's skills; and
● the values-based approach, which is grounded on social responsibility and ethics.
 49

Teaching peace includes questioning beliefs about people that discriminate them.
Likewise, it encourages teachers and learners to develop knowledge that is created from the
learners' experiences. The teacher's role in promoting peace involves making the classroom
child-friendly and inclusive. Conditions, where both teachers and learners feel safe are pivotal to
peace education. These conditions are promoted by the school administrators and community
leaders. Lastly, when it comes to school-community or parent-teacher partnership, the school
may be turned into a place where dialogue on how communities may remain peaceful can
occur.

Why should gender be studied?

Gender is defined as the cultural, social, and behavioral expectations related to a

person's being male or female (Bever, 2016). Our expectations when we find out that a child to
be born male or female are influenced by the socio-cultural beliefs on the roles performed by the
sex (e.g., little girls will play with dolls while boys with toy cars). These socio-cultural beliefs are
extended to the classroom when it comes to the types of activities we teachers design for our
learners. Gender-inclusive teaching, as further explained by Bever (2016), focuses on content
and pedagogy that informs learners of gender stereotypes and empowers them to overcome
these stereotypes so that they can be successful learners.

How should gender be integrated into teaching?

Every day, teachers are given the opportunity to make a difference in learners' lives such
as confronting gender stereotypes. Lessons and activities focusing on how people should
empower one another and be sensitive about one's differing gender roles are applied as
learners relate with their parents and other community members. This process is called
gender-inclusive teaching where a sustainable community is created based on proactively
nurturing the learners' potentials. In creating a gender-friendly learning environment, teachers
must remember that gender-sensitive and responsive materials should be made available
across subjects and be applied to a variety of settings Gender friendly learning should be a style
of teaching and can be done by integrating a myriad of activities that learners may engage in
and after class. Likewise, when teachers provide examples of activities or real-life situations,
gender-sensitive materials should be included like males taking charge of household chores
(eg, clothes-washing) and females engaging in house repairs or gardening.

The society's culture, national identity, and values are found in every classroom. The teacher's
challenge is to empower learners to work beyond what their culture has imposed on them.
Listed are strategies in promoting a gender-fair and inclusive classroom:

1. What's in the Box. Names of learners are placed in a box to encourage a balanced
participation in the classroom. The teacher will pick a name from the box during class
sharing.
2. Taking Turns. The teacher will encourage points of views coming from various gender
orientations. The views are not to be negated but be made to find a common ground to
make the views acceptable for all.
3. Working on Our Goal Together. The teacher provides award points when learners of
different gender orientations share responsibilities Examples of these shared
responsibilities include equal division of tasks in reporting of output from an experiment.
4. Let's Rotate. All learners with different gender orientations are given the opportunity to
lead a group or be an active group member with roles identified as "group leader,"
"researcher," and "scribe.”
 50

5. What You Think Matters. Teachers engage all learners as they go around the room
Questions may focus on what they liked best in the lesson and what they have learned
from the discussion or activity.
6. Working Together. To ensure that all learners with varied gender orientations are
working together, create a strategic classroom seating arrangement.
7. My Team. Arrange for meetings where all members of the class form teams with
classmates who they feel safe to discuss gender concerns with (eg, LGBTQ-related)
Have the class meet again as a whole to share what they have talked about and think of
ways to address these concerns as a class.
8. Wellness Break. Teachers provide guidelines for wellness breaks for learners, including
restroom breaks. The goal of the wellness break is for learners to feel safe in addressing
their health
9. Box of Gender-Ideas. Teachers may set up a "Gender-friendly Ideas box where
learners are encouraged to write their ideas on how the classroom may be more gender
inclusive and responsive. 10 Winning Moments. When learners display behavior that
encourages gender-sensitivity and gender-responsiveness, these are considered as
"teachable moments." Teachers should take the opportunity to discuss how the behavior
is considered helpful and encouraging for the members of the class.

What significant tenets in Indigenous peoples education should be integrated in

designing instructional materials?

Alleviation from poverty is a motivation for most indigenous people to seek education.
Due to the distance of indigenous peoples' communities from the urban and rural communities,
illiteracy rates among these special groups is high. Education among people in indigenous
communities is seen as an advantage and a disadvantage. As an advantage, education is
believed to advance literacy among people in these communities, As a disadvantage, education
is perceived as a means of alienation.

Discussion question: How would education make indigenous peoples value their culture while
addressing ways to improve the quality of their lives?

One of the things teachers should be prepared for is the support needed by indigenous
peoples when it comes to school adjustment. Specifically, they need to be guided in
understanding the school policies and the culture between and among learners. Likewise, as
teachers, we need to provide information to our learners to be sensitive of the cultural
background of their classmates who are members of indigenous groups and to be sensitive and
mindful as to how they relate with these learners (e.g., not to impose on their classmates do
what they do because they are used to it). As teachers, we need to make our learners aware of
the culture of indigenous peoples in the region in particular and in the Philippines in general.
Tauli-Corpuz (2010) listed the following teaching principles in addressing the needs of
indigenous peoples:

1. Worldviews are integral in designing teaching approaches for indigenous education

(formal or nonformal). Arrangements must be made if bilingual education is to be
integrated in the primary grades.
2. Contents of materials to be distributed among learners must be thoroughly checked for
discriminatory contents and erroneous historical accounts. This is to ensure that there is
no false information made about them. If there is malicious information, these must be
corrected.
 51

3. Local contexts must be considered in curriculum design. The information and activities
afforded to them must be in relation to the day-to-day activities the Indigenous peoples
have and integrate how communities function Opportunities to get information from
community elders-both from the integration community and the indigenous peoples-must
be utilized to learn about how they have been co existing

4. Curriculum design for basic education should integrate respect for indigenous peoples
and discussions of their culture and ways of life. Explorations should be made with
regard to their pedagogies (eg, stories, songs, practices, and ways of knowing).

5. Education for indigenous peoples should be designed with learning paths that highlight
the value of celebrating their identity and working for the cultural enrichment of their
communities.
.
6. Schools may set up mobile schools to reach remote indigenous communities.

7. Learning resources should be made available for Indigenous peoples in their

communities.

How should Human Rights Education be taught?

An emerging field in education concerns the teaching and learning of human rights or
Human Rights Education (HRE). This was prompted by the growing concerns on human rights
in the world and how learners should be able to practice and encourage community members to
practice respect and acknowledge the dignity of one another.

As an educational theory and practice, HRE seeks to integrate relevant concepts in

mainstream education, specifically human rights, norms, values, and social justice. The United
Nations defines HRE as "training, dissemination, and information efforts aimed at the building of
a universal culture of human rights through the imparting of knowledge and skills and the
molding of attitudes" (United Nations, Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, 1997,
p. 5). Specifically, HRE is directed to teach respect for human rights and our fundamental
freedoms; focus on the development of the person and sense of dignity: promote
understanding, gender equality, and tolerance among all nations; and enable people to
participate in a free society.

When HRE is applied in classrooms, teachers need to consider that its principles are for
lifelong learning. This actualizes a fair-learning environment and a safe learning space for
learners. When learners feel safe in the classroom, they are able to better respond to tasks
given by the teacher and have greater room for creativity. The following are the kinds of
pedagogy promoted by HRE

1. Experiential and Activity-centered. The learners' learning about how they learned
about their rights and the rights of others are explored.
2. Problem-posing. The learner's prior knowledge of human rights, if found oppressing,
are challenged and explained by the teacher.
3. Participative. The teacher explores ways in which learners can provide
4. others wi better information on their misconceptions. This often involves soliciting ways
to promote equal rights among learners
5. Dialectical. The learners are encouraged to share their thoughts and clarify the beliefs.
Clarification may be supplemented by credible sources (e.g. learning resources).
6. Analytical. The teachers ask the learners how they learned about their conceptions of
human rights and how they practice it in their communities.
 52

7. Healing. The teachers and learners promote inter- and intrapersonal support to address
human rights violations.

8. Strategic Thinking-oriented. The teachers and learners explore ways of achieving the
goals they set without any violations of rights.

9. Goal and Action-oriented. The teachers and learners promote collective action in
achieving human rights sensitivity and equality in communities.

To check whether you have acquired the principles of creating fair-learning environments
from different sources, please provide answers to the following questions:

1. What is meant by the following terms?

a Gender-fair education
b. Peace education
c. Human rights education
d. Indigenous peoples education

2. What approaches in promoting the four concepts would be applicable for Filipino
learners?

1. Draft a class creed for your future class highlighting the significant principles of a fair-
learning environment. Share your creed with your classmates.

A creed is a set of beliefs or aims that guides someone's actions.

2. Create a classroom management plan integrating the principles of fair-learning

environment addressing the following areas:

a. Room arrangement
b. Classroom rules
c. Classroom procedures
d. Encouraging all the learners
 53

1. Interview a school official on different programs being implemented in his or her school
on creating a fair-learning environment for:

a. gender-fair education;
b. peace education;
c. human rights education; and
d. indigenous people's education.

2. Share your output to the class.

Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

LESSON 7 : Power and Responsibilty in Classrooms

To explore what you know when it comes to power and responsibility, form a group with
five members and answer the following questions. After the questions are answered, complete
the concept map provided with regard to views on power and responsibility in classrooms.

1. In the classroom, who are responsible for the learning and teaching processes?
2. What learning experiences are developed when it comes to promoting a learner- centered
education?
3. What teacher actions and class activities would provide learners with the opportunity to take
responsibility for their own learning?
4. To what extent should teachers give learners authority? What learner-responsibilities should
be highlighted when they are given authority?
 54

Discuss among your yourselves areas of your assumptions and inferences on the roles,
power, and responsibilities that are shared between learners and teachers. Provide concrete
examples where you observed these instances and circumstances where there were conflicts
because of these shared responsibilities.

To prepare you for the lesson, it is suggested that you view a video about power and
responsibility in classrooms. Take note of the important ideas or insights you learned after
watching the educational video. You are expected to do this before the discussion, analysis, and
evaluation when you meet the teacher face-to-face or in your virtual classroom.

Suggested video for power and responsibility in classrooms:

Look for the video where social activist Danielle Moss talks about the "forgotten middle"
or learners who are considered to be neither problematic nor exceptional. The video must
discuss how teachers can empower learners to reach their full potential and encourage them to
think big.

Guided by your list of ideas and insights learned, complete the matrix below:
Video What does the What How would you What quote
video talk significant apply their from the
about? teaching Insights to your speakers do
approaches teaching? you think has
have been an impact on
shared by the how you view
speakers? teaching?

Danielle Moss
 55

Since reading, viewing, and/or exploring the Internet need time from you, this activity
should be done outside class time. Class time shall be reserved for you to interact with your
classmates with the teacher acting as a facilitator.

Learning Responsibility and Balance of Power in Classrooms

Ideas on Power and Interaction

Ivinson (2000) highlighted the following four key ideas about classroom power and
interaction:

1. Teachers and learners share power inside the classroom. The teachers provide activities that
promote learning (considered a power in planning and managing their learners' learning) while
learners choose to act in ways that promote learning (considered a power with regard to
defining the relationship dynamics with the teacher). The transaction shapes the type of
classroom atmosphere that may either be helpful or detrimental to academic success and
school adjustment.

2. The context and culture developed in a classroom are shaped by both the teachers and
learners. How teachers react to the learners' behaviors, whether constructively or debilitating,
may influence the way the learners form a schema of the power relationships between the
teachers and learners.

3. In the context of this relationship, conflicts arise when teachers and learners have personal
issues that are raised in classrooms. The personal agenda of both teachers and learners should
be cleared so that the two may work together to promote peace and harmony inside their
classrooms.

4. The discourse between teachers and learners represents the power relationship between the
two. Teachers should promote an atmosphere where learners can voice out their thoughts to
produce improved classroom power relationships.

In describing the roles teachers and learners have in classrooms, Donnelly, McGarr and
O'Reilly's (2014) research on the forms of decision-making used by teachers and learners in
addressing class issues drive the patterns of interactions serves as a basic guide. A welcoming
teacher may influence learners to become more participative of classroom goals; however,
going beyond being welcoming may promote learners whose behavior are disruptive because
they think that the teacher will permit those behaviors This relationship is further understood as
forming a dichotomy or a two-pronged approach in designing classroom activities. For example,
there are approaches where teachers ask learners to design a learning contract where teachers
facilitate the learning goals of the learners while the learners decide on the types of learning
processes they think they will learn best, whereas the other side of the dichotomy would be
teachers asking questions, learners responding, and the teacher deciding whether the answer is
correct. In both cases. the learners are willing to engage in the classroom relationship if they are
provided with the parameters of the relationship that is to be established. A "didactic contract
has been termed by Donnelly et al. (2014), where the learners' expectations of their teachers
are aligned with the teachers' expectations of their learners. The learners expect that their
teachers will effectively teach them while the teachers look forward to working with learners who
are willing and interested to learn. This contract is usually implicit but is evident in
teacher-learner interactions inside the room.

In analyzing power dynamics in classrooms, two analytical frameworks are used: Gore
(1995) and Cornelius and Herrenkohl (2004). Gore (1995) outlined the "the micro level of
classroom interaction." Below are the teachers' techniques:
 56

1. Surveillance. This is where teachers supervise learners. Being supervised is expected

by the learners.

2. Normalization. This is when teachers define norms. Teachers usually enter a learning
contract with their learners, provide them with suggestions, and set the rules for the
learners to observe.

3. Exclusion. This is where teachers define what, when, and where certain behaviors are
acceptable. Here, the teachers enumerate the rules and boundaries in class.

4. Distribution. This is where teachers organize the class, whether they are grouped by
abilities, heterogeneously, or based on a grouping criterion.

5. Classification. This is when teachers distinguish individuals or groups from one another.

6. Individualization. This is when teachers align a characteristic to yourself or another

person.

7. Totalization. This is when teachers categorize the learners' characteristics and une
these categories in dealing with them (eg, collaborative learning). Regulation. This is
where the teachers enforce control by setting sanctions and punishments

Discussion question: How are the power techniques observed in your classroom?
Give examples.

Cornelius and Herrenkohl's (2004) conceptualized the macro level of interaction which is
classified into three aspects: ownership of ideas, the positioning of learners among each other
with respect to certain ideas (partisanship), and the use of persuasive discourses within the
classroom. Specifically, each is defined as.

1. Partisanship. This has been described as the power between learner interactions. This
is usually observed in group work where the assignment of roles is provided and the
learners take responsibility for the roles they chose or those that were assigned to them

2. Persuasive discourses. These occur between teacher and learners and define the
shared power inside the classroom. For example, as the teacher sets the rules at the
beginning of the class, the learners take note of the class requirements and class
policies. These discourses define the quality of relationships between people

3. Ownership of ideas. This focuses on how learners engage in ideas that are considered
to be a product of their own discussions. Their perceptions of the information cascaded
to them through various instructional materials will define the relationships formed
between them and their classmates.
 57

To check whether you have acquired the tenets of power and responsibility in classrooms from
different sources, please answer the following questions:

1. How would Gore's ideas be helpful in understanding Filipino learners?

2. In what ways will Cornelius and Herrenkohl's conceptualization be integrated in the
development of teaching approaches for learners?

1. Design class activities promoting shared power and responsibility between learners and
teachers. The activities should include the following aspects:

a. Activity description (focusing on the shared power and responsibility)

b. Objectives
c. Specific directions.
d. Teacher's role
e. Learner's role

2. Present your output to the class and have your teacher and classmates comment on the
roles and shared responsibilities.

1. Write a letter to your future learners about your expectations of their roles in the
classroom and how you see yourself as a teacher to them.

2. Share your output with the class.

Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

LESSON 7 : The Changing Landscape of Learners’ Learning Environment

To explore what you know when it comes to differentiated learning environments, scan
through a number of educational sites found online. Describe the purpose, target clientele, and
sample lessons of the online site and analyze in which part of the lesson the site contents would
be most applicable.
 58

Online Purpose Target Clientele Sample Lesson Parts

Educational Lessons in the Where Site Can
Site Website be Integrated

1.Example: TED Lecture proper

Talk

2.

3.

Discuss with your classmates what you found out and compare the websites you visited.
If you have similar websites, discuss how valuable the website is for you as a future teacher.

To prepare you for the lesson, it is suggested that you view the following videos:

1. Look for the video of Salman Khan. Salman Khan developed the Khan Academy which is
used as resource materials for learners who would like to learn more about a variety of topics. In
the video, Mr. Khan should be talking about how he developed the program and how he started
the academy.

2. Look for the video of Daphne Koller. Ms. Koller started the coursera movement with Andrew
Ng. Coursera is an open courseware where learners get the opportunity to take courses in the
top universities in the world. In the video, Ms. Koller should talk about how she convinced
schools to invest and use coursera to research on how learners learn.

Guided by your list of ideas and insights learned, complete the matrix below:

Video What does the What How would you What quote
video talk significant apply their from the
about? teaching Insights to your speakers has
approaches the teaching? an impact on
speakers have how you view
shared? teaching?

Salman Khan

Daphne Koller

Reading, viewing, and/or exploring the Internet should be done outside class time. Class
time will be allotted for interaction with classmates and the course facilitator.

Discussion question: How is the boundary of learning defined?

The Philippine education system is entering an era of change. These changes are
brought about by developing technologies, social media, the pandemic, and the need to have
access to the latest and verifiable information. To address the changing dynamics in learner
learning, a number of schools, if not all, have developed online and distance education
programs. In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic changed the landscape of education. The threat of
the virus brought governments to review their healthcare systems and mechanism of
encouraging communities to practice safety in dealing with people and in ensuring that they stay
at home and only go outside to avail of essential services. The pandemic, likewise, affected how
 59

schools deliver their instructions. Public and private basic education schools, universities, and
colleges shifted to online learning and distance education to ensure public safety among
learners. The shift to distance and online learning prompted teachers and learners to get to
know how the system works and to devise mechanisms that would ensure the effective and
efficient delivery of the instructional materials.

Distance learning is referred to an educational approach where the teacher and learners
are not confined in the classroom, are physically far from each other, and are separated by
technology. Instructional delivery mechanisms may be through print (e.g., modules are delivered
to the learners and are either submitted by the learners back to the school), taken by the
teacher, or sent via mail. The materials in distance education may be through voice, video, data,
or print. Distance learning is usually an option given to adult learners as part of the alternative
learning system (ALS) program of a school.

Three types of classrooms exist in the current learning environment set-up:

1. Traditional classroom. Teaching in a traditional classroom Involves a teacher i learners

in a classroom (Tello, Aiken, & Stassen, 2013). In a traditional classroom, varied
approaches can be integrated by the teachers as long as the learners are inside the
classroom or within the school's premises (eg, activities in the school's garden
Traditional classrooms enhance interaction between and among learners, and teachers
to learners. The method of delivering information is the same for all learners and most
activities are done in groups. Individual activities are carried out through tests but the
results of these tests are usually processed in class. Teachers know how to motivate
learners and manage in-class behaviors. When teachers supervise and are in constant
communication with learners, it is called synchronous learning. Teachers work
face-to-face with learners in addressing their learning needs. and

2. Online classroom. Environments that are online in nature involve synchronous and
asynchronous modes of instruction. In a synchronous environment, the teachers and
learners are connected via a learning management system (LMS) where the teacher can
monitor what the learners are doing in real time. An example of this is a class conducted
via a video-conferencing application where the teacher explains the lesson as a
presentation is shared on-screen while the learners react to the presentation by asking
the teacher their questions. This type of learning simulates what is happening inside the
classroom since options for breakout groups are available, with physical distance being
the only difference. The advantage of an online classroom is that learners may learn
anytime from any part of the world; however, they need to have the equipment and
knowledge in manipulating the equipment (eg, mobile phones, laptops).

This environment promotes opportunities to take virtual tours, stream video clips,
and watch experts deliver their thoughts on a variety of issues. This approach is
delivered through the Internet.

3. Hybrid classroom. A classroom that blends online and traditional classroom is called a
hybrid classroom. Both synchronous and asynchronous approaches in learning happen
in a hybrid classroom with online materials used as supplementary materials to enrich
the learners' learning experience. In a hybrid classroom, teachers may provide activities
in class or in session and give learners their reading materials on the content online. In a
way, the best of traditional and online classrooms are enjoyed in a hybrid classroom.
 60

Two parallel processes take place in an online environment (Traxler, 2018):

1. Reflective and active learning takes place in an online environment as learners take
responsibility for their individual learning.

2. Technological knowledge is increased as teachers and learners engage in online instruction

and learn to navigate how to use software related to learning.

Teachers who have been trained or were learners in an online course are believed: to be
effective in the delivery of online instruction (Traxler, 2018) Teachers equipped balancing
traditional classroom approaches and assessments and online modes of struction can increase
learner engagement. The following are the approaches to online learning when categorized
under synchronous and asynchronous modes

Approaches to Online Learning

Synchronous learning refers to real-time learning via online resources. It could be

through an LMS or social media:

1. Audio and video conferencing

2. Sharing of data and/or application
3. Viewing of multimedia presentations together
4. Live chat or group chat discussions.
5. Online slide shows
6. Shared whiteboard or blackboard
7.Virtual "hand raising"

Asynchronous learning is referred to as an approach that uses online resources but

viewing and learning from these resources are not shared at the same time or are "time-
delayed." The usual tools used are:

1. E-mail
2. Group chats
3. Threaded discussion
4. Newsgroups
5. LMS bulletin boards
6. Sent files or attachments

Online Education Sites

A number of online education sites are used by parents, teachers, and learners. Some
online education sites require payment for access while others are considered freeware. In
doing research, these sites provide updated information, new journal articles, or talks made by
renowned authors and experts. There should be caution, however, in accessing e sites because
the information stated in some sites may not be accurate. It is still best to countercheck the
sources of information being used.

Some educational sites include worksheets for learners to download and answer, while
others offer real-time mechanisms in gathering learner responses. These websites are usually
easily found when proper search tags are used in the search bar (eg. worksheets for Grade 5).
The Department of Education has a website where teachers and other experts upload their
instructional materials for other teachers to use or as a sample for other teachers in creating
their own worksheets. It is important, however, to consider copyright laws and plagiarism
policies in using these resources.
 61

Lastly, some online education sites offer free courses to those who would like to work on
their professional development. Some websites gather introductory courses from different
well-known universities and offer them for free. If the adult learners find the course interesting
and would want to pursue higher learning, the website offers continuing education where
learners pay for the advance courses.

To check whether you have acquired the tenets of power and responsibility in the classrooms
from different sources, please provide answers to the following questions:

1. How would online and hybrid classrooms address the need of the Filipino learners?
2. In what ways would educational sites benefit Filipino learners?
3. How would the alternate forms of learning impact the current educational system?

1. Design a class lesson that integrates educational sites in discussing topics in the lesson.
2. Present your output to the class and have your teacher and classmates comment on the
application of technology in the lesson.

1. Review the DepEd Curriculum Guide and examine the workspaces and technology
integration areas that the guide has included in its strategies.
2. Discuss the relevance of online and hybrid clasrooms to the implementation of the K-12.