MODULE-II

LEARNING, MEMORY AND FORGETTING

STRUCTURE

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Learning
2.2.1 Determinants of Learning
2.2.2 Theories of learning
2.2.3 Theories of law of effect
2.2.4 Cognitive approaches to learning
2.2.5 Observational learning
2.3 Memory
2.3.1 Mnemonics
2.3.2 Consolidation of memory
2.4 Forgetting
2.4.1 Theories of forgetting
2.5 Summary
2.6 Suggested Questions

OBJECTIVES

 To understand the concept and its importance

 To know its influences on an individual‘s behavior

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Psychologists often define learning as a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result

of experience. The psychology of learning focuses on a range of topics related to how people
learn and interact with their environments.

Learning is an adaptive function by which our nervous system changes in relation to stimuli
in the environment, thus changing our behavioral responses and permitting us to function in
our environment. The process occurs initially in our nervous system in response to
environmental stimuli. Neural pathways can be strengthened, pruned, activated, or rerouted,
all of which cause changes in our behavioral responses.

Instincts and reflexes are innate behaviors they occur naturally and do not involve learning. In
contrast, learning is a change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience. The field
of behavioral psychology focuses largely on measurable behaviors that are learned, rather
than trying to understand internal states such as emotions and attitudes.

2.2 LEARNING

Learning is a key process in human behaviour. All living is learning. If we compare the
simple, crude ways in which a child feels and behaves, with the complex modes of adult
behaviour, his skills, habits, thought, sentiments and the like- we will know what difference
learning has made to the individual.
The individual is constantly interacting with and influenced by the environment. This
experience makes him to change or modify his behaviour in order to deal effectively with it.
Therefore, learning is a change in behaviour, influenced by previous behaviour. As stated
above the skills, knowledge, habits, attitudes, interests and other personality characteristics
are all the result of learning.

Definition of learning
Measurable and relatively permanent change in behavior through experience, instruction, or
study.Whereas individual learning is selective, group learning is essentially political its
outcomes depend largely on power playing in the group. Learning itself cannot be measured,
but its results can be. In the words of HarvardBusiness School psychologist Chris Argyris,
learning is "detection and correction of error" where an error means ―any mismatch between
our intentions and what actually happens.‖

2.2.1 DETERMINANTS OF LEARNING

There are 4 determinants of learning, they are discussed below:

 Motivation − The encouragement, the support one gets to complete a task, to achieve a
goal is known as motivation. It is a very important aspect of learning as it acts gives us a
positive energy to complete a task. Example − The coach motivated the players to win
the match.
 Practice − We all know that ―Practice makes us perfect‖. In order to be a perfectionist or
at least complete the task, it is very important to practice what we have learnt. Example −
We can be a programmer only when we execute the codes we have written.
 Environment − We learn from our surroundings, we learn from the people around us.
They are of two types of environment – internal and external. Example − A child when at
home learns from the family which is an internal environment, but when sent to school it
is an external environment.
 Mental group − It describes our thinking by the group of people we chose to hang out
with. In simple words, we make a group of those people with whom we connect. It can be
for a social cause where people with the same mentality work in the same
direction. Example − A group of readers, travellers, etc.

2.2.2 THEORIES OF LEARNING: (A) CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (B) OPERANT

CONDITIONING (C) LAW OF EFFECT

Learning theories are an organised set of principles explaining how individuals acquire,
retain, and recall knowledge. By studying and knowing the different learning theories, we can
better understand how learning occurs. The principles of the theories can be used as
guidelines to help select industrial tools, techniques and strategies that promote learning.

Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning is a form of learning whereby a conditioned stimulus (CS) becomes
associated with an unrelated unconditioned stimulus (US) in order to produce a behavioural
response known as a conditioned response (CR). The conditioned response is the learned
response to the previously neutral stimulus. The unconditioned stimulus is usually a
biologically significant stimulus such as food or pain that elicits an unconditioned response
(UR) from the start. The conditioned stimulus is
usually neutral and produces no particular response at first, but after conditioning it elicits the
conditioned response.
Extinction is the decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no
longer presented with the conditioned stimulus. When presented with the conditioned
stimulus alone, the individual would show a weaker and weaker response, and finally no
response. In classical-conditioning terms, there is a gradual weakening and disappearance of
the conditioned response. Related to this, spontaneous recovery refers to the return of a
previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period. Research has found
that with repeated extinction/recovery cycles, the conditioned response tends to be less
intense with each period of recovery.

Pavlov‟s Famous Study

The best-known of Pavlov‘s experiments involves the study of the salivation of dogs. Pavlov
was originally studying the saliva of dogs as it related to digestion, but as he conducted his
research, he noticed that the dogs would begin to salivate every time he entered the room
even if he had no food. The dogs were associating his entrance into the room with being fed.
This led Pavlov to design a series of experiments in which he used various sound objects,
such as a buzzer, to condition the salivation response in dogs.

He started by sounding a buzzer each time food was given to the dogs and found that the dogs
would start salivating immediately after hearing the buzzer even before seeing the food. After
a period of time, Pavlov began sounding the buzzer without giving any food at all and found
that the dogs continued to salivate at the sound of the buzzer even in the absence of food.
They had learned to associate the sound of the buzzer with being fed.

If we look at Pavlov‘s experiment, we can identify the four factors of classical conditioning at
work:
 The unconditioned response was the dogs‘ natural salivation in response to seeing or
smelling their food.
 The unconditioned stimulus was the site or smell of the food itself.
 The conditioned stimulus was the ringing of the bell, which previously had no association
with food.
 The conditioned response, therefore, was the salivation of the dogs in response to the
ringing of the bell, even when no food was present.
 Pavlov had successfully associated an unconditioned response (natural salivation in
response to food) with a conditioned stimulus (a buzzer), eventually creating
a conditioned response (salivation in response to a buzzer). With these results, Pavlov
established his theory of classical conditioning.

Neurological Response to Conditioning

Consider how the conditioned response occurs in the brain. When a dog sees food, the visual
and olfactory stimuli send information to the brain through their respective neural pathways,
ultimately activating the salivation glands to secrete saliva. This reaction is a natural
biological process as saliva aids in the digestion of food. When a dog hears a buzzer and at
the same time sees food, the auditory stimulus activates the associated neural pathways.
However, because these pathways are being activated at the same time as the other neural
pathways, there are weak synapse reactions that occur between the auditory stimulus and the
behavioural response. Over time, these synapses are strengthened so that it only takes the
sound of a buzzer (or a bell) to activate the pathway leading to salivation.
Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments
for behaviour. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a
particular behaviour and a consequence (Skinner, 1938).
By the 1920s, John B. Watson had left academic psychology, and other behaviourists were
becoming influential, proposing new forms of learning other than classical conditioning.
Perhaps the most important of these was Burrhus Frederic Skinner. Although, for obvious
reasons, he is more commonly known as B.F. Skinner.

Skinner's views were slightly less extreme than those of Watson (1913). Skinner believed that
we do have such a thing as a mind, but that it is simply more productive to study observable
behaviour rather than internal mental events.
The work of Skinner was rooted in a view that classical conditioning was far too simplistic to
be a complete explanation of complex human behaviour. He believed that the best way to
understand behaviour is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences. He called this
approach operant conditioning.

Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based
on Thorndike‘s (1898) law of effect. According to this principle, behaviour that is followed
by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and behaviour followed by unpleasant
consequences is less likely to be repeated.

Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement. Behaviour which is
reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behaviour which is not reinforced tends to
die out-or be extinguished (i.e., weakened).

Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which
he placed in a 'Skinner Box' which was similar to Thorndike‘s puzzle box.
Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behaviour.

1. Positive Reinforcement:
2. Negative Reinforcement:
3. Punishment:

There are many problems with using punishment, such as:

 Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed - behavior returns when punishment is
no longer present.
 Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems.
 Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school.
 Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells you what to do,
punishment only tells you what not to do.

2.2.3 THEORIES OF LEARNING: LAW OF EFFECT

The law of effect principle developed by Edward Thorndike suggested that:

"responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to
occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less
likely to occur again in that situation.
 Edward Thorndike (1898) is famous in psychology for his work on learning theory that lead
to the development of operant conditioning within behaviorism.
Whereas classical conditioning depends on developing associations between events, operant
conditioning involves learning from the consequences of our behavior.

Skinner wasn‘t the first psychologist to study learning by consequences. Indeed, Skinner's
theory of operant conditioning is built on the ideas of Edward Thorndike.
Thorndike studied learning in animals (usually cats). He devised a classic experiment in
which he used a puzzle box (see fig. 1) to empirically test the laws of learning.

He placed a cat in the puzzle box, which was encouraged to escape to reach a scrap of fish
placed outside. Thorndike would put a cat into the box and time how long it took to escape.
The cats experimented with different ways to escape the puzzle box and reach the fish.

Eventually they would stumble upon the lever which opened the cage. When it had escaped
it was put in again, and once more the time it took to escape was noted. In successive trials
the cats would learn that pressing the lever would have favourable consequences and they
would adopt this behavior, becoming increasingly quick at pressing the lever.
Edward Thorndike put forward a ―Law of effect‖ which stated that any behavior that is
followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by
unpleasant consequences is likely to be stopped.

Difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

 First described by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist First described by B. F. Skinner, an

American psychologist

 Focuses on involuntary, automatic behaviors  Involves

applying reinforcement or punishment after
a behavior

 Involves placing a neutral signal before a reflex  Focuses on strengthening or weakening

voluntary behaviors

One of the simplest ways to remember the differences between classical and operant
conditioning is to focus on whether the behavior is involuntary or voluntary.
Classical conditioning involves associating an involuntary response and a stimulus, while
operant conditioning is about associating a voluntary behavior and a consequence
In operant conditioning, the learner is also rewarded with incentives, while classical
conditioning involves no such enticements. Also, remember that classical conditioning is
passive on the part of the learner, while operant conditioning requires the learner to actively
participate and perform some type of action in order to be rewarded or punished.

For operant conditioning to work, the subject must first display a behavior that can then be
either rewarded or punished. Classical conditioning, on the other hand, involves forming an
association with some sort of already naturally occurring event.
Today, both classical and operant conditioning are utilized for a variety of purposes by
teachers, parents, psychologists, animal trainers, and many others. In animal conditioning, a
trainer might utilize classical conditioning by repeatedly pairing the sound of a clicker with
the taste of food. Eventually, the sound of the clicker alone will begin to produce the same
response that the taste of food would.

In a classroom setting, a teacher might utilize operant conditioning by offering tokens as

rewards for good behavior. Students can then turn in these tokens to receive some type of
reward such as a treat or extra play time. In each of these instances, the goal of conditioning
is to produce some sort of change in behavior.

2.2.4 COGNITIVE APPROACHES TO LEARNING

The cognitive approach began to revolutionize psychology in the late 1950‘s and early
1960‘s, to become the dominant approach (i.e., perspective) in psychology by the late 1970s.
Interest in mental processes had been gradually restored through the work
of Piaget and Tolman.
Tolman was a ‗soft behaviourist‘. His book Purposive Behaviour in Animals and Man in
1932 described research which behaviourism found difficult to explain. The behaviourists‘
view had been that learning took place as a result of associations between stimuli and
responses.

However, Tolman suggested that learning was based on the relationships which formed
amongst stimuli. He referred to these relationships as cognitive maps.
But it was the arrival of the computer that gave cognitive psychology the terminology and
metaphor it needed to investigate the human mind.

The start of the use of computers allowed psychologists to try to understand the complexities
of human cognition by comparing it with something simpler and better understood, i.e., an
artificial system such as a computer.
The use of the computer as a tool for thinking how the human mind handles information is
known as the computer analogy. Essentially, a computer codes (i.e., changes) information,
stores information, uses information, and produces an output (retrieves info).
The idea of information processing was adopted by cognitive psychologists as a model of
how human thought works.
The information processing approach is based on a number of assumptions, including:
1. Information made available from the environment is processed by a series of processing
systems (e.g., attention, perception, short-term memory);
2. These processing systems transform, or alter the information in systematic ways;
3. The aim of research is to specify the processes and structures that underlie cognitive
performance;
4. Information processing in humans resembles that in computers.

Insightful learning
The theory of Insight Learning was first proposed by German-American psychologist, one of
the founders of Gestalt psychology, Wolfgang Köhler. Insight learning is among various
methods of Behavioral learning process, which is a fundamental aspect of Behavioral
Psychology.
 The psychologist gained fame with his studies on cognitive processing involved in problem-
solving by animals. His tests in Tenerife in the 1910s with chimpanzees suggested that these
animals solved problems by understanding – like human beings, instead of going through
 trial and error process
 stimulus response association
Insight learning refers to the sudden realization of the solution of any problem without
repeated trials or continuous practices. To further elaborate on its definition, insight learning
is the type of learning, in which one draws on previous experience and also seems to involve
a new way of perceiving logical and cause-and-effect relationship.
Insight is an awareness of key relationships between cause and effect, which comes after
assembling the relevant information and either overt or covert testing of possibilities.
Learning through such insight is called insight learning.

Characteristics of Insight Learning

There are two major determining characteristics of insight learning.
The first is that insight represents seeing clearly into the heart or essence of a situation, and
the other is that we do not do this by a step-by-step process, but partially by unconscious
processes. Although insight learning suggests sudden realization of a solution, insight is not a
process that occurs out of the blue.
 First part of the path comes from intense research or work pertaining to some domain, which
is termed as the pre-solution period.
 The time of idleness in which the idea or concept seems to spontaneously pop up is the next
step.

Having the idea or concept is not enough; it needs to be taken back to the thinking and
working stage so that it can be materialized. There needs to be a certain basis for insight to
appear, as insight depends upon the time and events that take place in order for the material to
be transformed from initial stimuli into insightful thought.
Some other characteristics of Insight Learning are as follows:
 Insight leads to change in perception.
 Insight is sudden.
 With insight, the organism tends to perceive a pattern or organization (that helps in
learning).
 Understanding plays important role in insight learning.
 Insight is related with higher order animals and not with inferior animals.
 Age influences insight learning. Adults are better learner than children.
 Past experience and perceptual organization are important in perception.
 Some psychologists also relate insight learning with associative learning.

Latent learning
Although strict behaviorists such as Skinner and Watson refused to believe that cognition
(such as thoughts and expectations) plays a role in learning, another behaviorist, Edward C.
Tolman, had a different opinion. Tolman‘s experiments with rats demonstrated that
organisms can learn even if they do not receive immediate reinforcement. Latent learning is a
type of learning which is not apparent in the learner's behavior at the time of learning, but
which manifests later when a suitable motivation and circumstances appear. The idea of latent
learning was not original to Tolman, but he developed it further.
Tolman argued that humans engage in this type of learning everyday as we drive or walk the
same route daily and learn the locations of various buildings and objects. Only when we need
to find a building or object does learning become obvious.

Latent learning is a form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response.
It occurs without any obvious reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned.
Latent learning is not readily apparent to the researcher because it is not shown behaviourally
until there is sufficient motivation. This type of learning broke the constraints of behaviorism,
which stated that processes must be directly observable, and that learning was the direct
consequence of conditioning to stimuli.

In the experiments, Tolman placed hungry rats in a maze with no reward for finding their way
through it. He also studied a comparison group that was rewarded with food at the end of the
maze. As the unreinforced rats explored the maze, they developed a cognitive map: a mental
picture of the layout of the maze. After 10 sessions in the maze without reinforcement, food
was placed in a goal box at the end of the maze. As soon as the rats became aware of the
food, they were able to find their way through the maze quickly, just as quickly as the
comparison group, which had been rewarded with food all along. This is known as latent
learning: learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until there is a reason to
demonstrate it. Latent learning also occurs in humans.

Children may learn by watching the actions of their parents but only demonstrate it at a later
date, when the learned material is needed. For example, suppose that Ravi‘s dad drives him to
school every day. In this way, Ravi learns the route from his house to his school, but he‘s
never driven there himself, so he has not had a chance to demonstrate that he‘s learned the
way. One morning Ravi‘s dad has to leave early for a meeting, so he can‘t drive Ravi to
school. Instead, Ravi follows the same route on his bike that his dad would have taken in the
car. This demonstrates latent learning. Ravi had learned the route to school but had no need to
demonstrate this knowledge earlier.

2.2.5 OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

The process of learning by watching others is called Observational learning. Observational

learning is classified as a form of social learning. Instead of other forms of learning
like Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning, no reinforcement is required. Instead,
social models such as a parent, teacher, sibling or a friend are required for observational
learning.

It is an important part of socialization and can take place at any point in life. But, it‘s mostly
common during childhood as children learn variety of behaviors and activities through
observation of their peers, family members and other authority figures in their life.
Observational learning is also referred to as vicarious reinforcement, modelling, and shaping.
For example: A child learns to interact with other people by observing their parents. The
parents are not teaching these behaviors directly. But, the child nevertheless, imitates
different actions by watching others. In psychology, this is exactly what observational
learning means.

Albert Bandura is the psychologist most linked with the term Observational learning.
Bandura, with his researchers, demonstrated that human beings are naturally capable of
observational learning. In one research, it was seen that even children just days old can
imitate facial expressions.
If you‘ve ever dealt with infants, you have seen children trying to mimic funny expressions,
which in psychology, is a part of observational learning.
Bandura‘s famous experiment Bobo doll experiment clearly showed that aggressive and
violent actions performed by an adult were easily imitated by the children present.
According to his findings, children were more inclined to replicate the actions of an adult if
the adult went unpunished or received rewards for their violent actions. However, in the cases
where adults were punished for their aggressive behavior, children were less likely to repeat
the same behaviors.

Stages of Observational Learning:

Attention:
Attention is the key for observers, as without being attentive to their surrounding they won‘t
be able to replicate the behavior. Also, observers‘ expectations and emotional arousal toward
the particular action also plays a key role.
Retention/Memory:
Simply observing a behavior is not enough. The observer should also be able to remember or
rehearse the particular action both physically and mentally. This depends on the observer‘s
ability to structure and code information.
Motor/Initiation:
After observation, the observer should also be able to reproduce the behavior both physically
and intellectually.
Motivation:
Motivation is another important aspect of learning. Without motivation, the individual is not
able to produce learned behavior.

Factors that influence observational learning

Bandura also came up with certain factors that are more likely to increase the chances of a
behavior being imitated. They are:
 Behaviors observed from people who are warm and nurturing towards the observer.
 If the behavior is rewarded.
 When imitating behaviors has been rewarding in the past.
 Lack of confidence in one‘s own abilities or knowledge.
 When behaviors are executed by authority figures.
 Likeminded people of same age and sex.
 Behaviors from people who are of higher social status, and whom we admire.
 When the situation is confusing, unfamiliar or ambiguous, imitating others‘ behavior
seems like the safest bet.

Real world applications for observational learning

The concept of observational learning is still quite inconclusive in some levels, especially
because the general public isn‘t as aware about the phenomenon as much as they should be.
One of the long-going arguments is that whether or not violence and aggressive behaviors in
movies, TV programs and video games are harmful in a sense that behaviors seen might be
imitated by children and adults alike. Bandura has already shown that children are likely to
imitate aggressive behaviors seen on a film clip in his famous experiment.

The debate has been going on for years. It‘s not like movies and games are ever going to get
banned, but psychological research has indicated that watches violent actions in movies and
games are likely to entice aggressive thoughts, behaviors and feelings in the observer. Also,
researchers indicate that watching sexual behavior can also lead to imitation. Not everyone
who watches violent contents in TV end up in prisons later in their life, but observational
learning is in effect whether we like it or not.

2.3 MEMORY

Memory is our ability to encode, store, retain and subsequently recall information and past
experiences in the human brain. It can be thought of in general terms as the use of past
experience to affect or influence current behavior.

Memory is the sums total of what we remember, and gives us the capability to learn and adapt
from previous experiences as well as to build relationships. It is the ability to remember past
experiences, and the power or process of recalling to mind previously learned facts,
experiences, impressions, skills and habits. It is the store of things learned and retained from
our activity or experience, as evidenced by modification of structure or behavior, or by recall
and recognition.

Three stages of memory

1. Encoding: encoding is the initial process when the mind perceives and registers the
information.
2. Storing: storing is keeping the encoded information in a good shape so to be
remembered easily over the time.
3. Retrieval: retrieval process retrieves the stored information so that it can be ready for
use.

Types of memory

While experts have varying definitions for short-term memory, it is generally described as the
recollection of things that happened immediately up to a few days. It is generally believed
that five to nine items can be stored in active short-term memory and can be readily recalled.
Patients who suffer from short-term memory loss can't remember who walked into the room
five minutes before, but can remember their childhood friend from 50 years ago.
1. Sensory-memory: it refers to the initial process of storing information that is perceived
through our senses. It lasts for a very small period of time. Items remain in the sensory
memory for about 2 seconds or less.

An example of this form of memory is when a person sees an object briefly before it
disappears. Once the object is gone, it is still retained in the memory for a very short period of
time.

2. Short-term memory: it is defined as the ability of storing information for only

a short period of time. Items remain in short term memory for 30 seconds. STM contains only
the small amount of material that we are actively using. Much of the information in STM is
forgotten and only a fraction passes on to the Long term memory.
For example, getting a phone number from the neighbor.

3. Long-term memory: Long-term memory means, to remember things for a very long
time or for the entire life-span. It is the storehouse of permanent memory. It has a large
capacity and contains memories that are decades old, in addition to the memories that arrived
several minutes ago.

Implicit memory is sometimes referred to as unconscious memory or automatic memory.

Implicit memory uses past experiences to remember things without thinking about them.
Musicians and professional athletes are said to have superior ability to form procedural
memories.

Procedural memory, which is a subset of implicit memory, is a part of the long-term

memory responsible for knowing how to do things, also known as motor skills. You don't
have to delve into your memory to recall how to walk each time you take a step.
Some examples of procedural memory:

 Playing piano
 Ice skating
 Playing tennis
 Swimming
 Climbing stairs
While implicit memory requires little if any effort to recall, explicit memory sometimes
referred to as declarative memory requires a more concerted effort to bring the surface.

Declarative memory involves both semantic and episodic memory.

While most people can tick off the days of the week from the time they are in grade school
which is implicit memory it takes explicit memory to remember that your mother's birthday is
next Wednesday.

Semantic memory is not connected to personal experience. Semantic memory includes

things that are common knowledge, such as the names of states, the sounds of letters, the
capitals of countries and other basic facts that are not in question. Some examples of semantic
memory include:
 Knowledge that the sky is blue
 Knowing how to use a knife and fork
 Remembering what dog is
Episodic memory is a person's unique recollections of a specific event or an episode. People
are usually able to associate particular details with an episodic memory, such as how they
felt, the time and place, and other particulars. It is not clear as to why some memories of
events in our lives are committed to memory, while others don't get recorded, but researchers
believe that emotions play a critical role in what we remember.
Some examples of episodic memory:

 Where you were and the people you were with when you found out about the Challenger
space shuttle disaster
 Your beach vacation last summer
 The first time you traveled by plane
 Your first day at a new job
 The restaurant you went to on your first date with your spouse
 For example, Date of birth, Months in a year, etc.

2.3.1 MNEMONICS

Techniques to improve memory

1. Imagery: Imagery refers to the mental representations of objects or actions that are not
physically present.
For example, all the planets revolving around sun.

2. Organization: It is the attempt to bring order and pattern to the material we learn.
For Example: Activity to be conducted in 2 series. 1 group is exposed to organized item and
the other is exposed to unorganized items. Items include cosmetics, materials from nature,
utensils, fruits and writing materials. The students will have to recall the items present in the
list and scores will be taken.

3. Chunking: Chunking involves taking small units of information (chunks) and grouping
them into larger units.
For example, Hiuen tsang (hi-uen ts-an-g) and Angkor Wat (An-g-kor wat)

4. Hierarchy: It is a system in which the materials are arranged in a series of classes, from
the most general classes to the most specific classes.

FIBERS

NATURAL FIBERS SYNTHETIC FIBERS

PLANT FIBERS ANIMAL FIBERS Nylon, wool

 Cotton silk
 Jute wool
5. First letter technique: It involves taking the first letter of the each word you want to
remember and composing a word or a sentence from these letters.
For example,Components of map (TSLLDI)

Two Sisters Latha and Lolly Dream of Icecream.

Title
Scale
Longitude and Longitude
Direction
Index or key

6. First word technique: It involves taking the first word of the sub headings you want to
remember and composing a sentence from these words.
For example,
The central government send the Village Administration to examine the Architecture and
Sculpture of the Decline Maurya Empire

The Mauryan Administrative System:

 Central government
 Village administration
 Architecture and sculpture
 Decline of maurya empire

7. Key word: It is a device that uses mental imagery to help people remember unfamiliar
vocabulary items.
For example, polo- polling and ball-ballot.
8. Sentence formation: It involves taking the first word of the sub headings you want to
remember and composing a sentence from these words.
For example, My Very Earnest Mother Just Showed Us how to write Nine
 Mercury
 Venus
 Earth
 Mars

2.3.2 CONSOLIDATION OF MEMORY

Memory Consolidation is the processes of stabilizing a memory trace after the initial
acquisition. It may perhaps be thought of part of the process of encoding or of storage, or it
may be considered as a memory process in its own right. It is usually considered to consist of
two specific processes, synaptic consolidation (which occurs within the first few hours after
learning or encoding) and system consolidation (where hippocampus-dependent memories
become independent of the hippocampus over a period of weeks to years).

Neurologically, the process of consolidation utilizes a phenomenon called long-term

potentiation, which allows a synapse to increase in strength as increasing numbers of signals
are transmitted between the two neurons. Potentiation is the process by which synchronous
firing of neurons makes those neurons more inclined to fire together in the future. Long-term
potentiation occurs when the same group of neurons fire together so often that they become
permanently sensitized to each other. As new experiences accumulate, the brain creates more
and more connections and pathways, and may ―re-wire” itself by re-routing connections and
re-arranging its organization.

As such a neuronal pathway, or neural network, is traversed over and over again, an enduring
pattern is engraved and neural messages are more likely to flow along such familiar paths of
least resistance. This process is achieved by the production of new proteins to rebuild
the synapses in the new shape, without which the memory remains fragile and easily eroded
with time. For example, if a piece of music is played over and over, the repeated firing of
certain synapses in a certain order in your brain makes it easier to repeat this firing later on,
with the result that the musician becomes better at playing the music, and can play it faster,
with fewer mistakes.

In this way, the brain organizes and reorganizes itself in response to experiences, creating
new memories prompted by experience, education or training. The ability of the connection,
or synapse, between two neurons to change in strength, and for lasting changes to occur in the
efficiency of synaptic transmission, is known as synaptic plasticity or neural plasticity, and it
is one of the important neurochemical foundations of memory and learning.

It should be remembered that each neuron makes thousands of connections with other
neurons, and memories and neural connections are mutually interconnected in extremely
complex ways. Unlike the functioning of a computer, each memory is embedded in many
connections, and each connection is involved in several memories. Thus, multiple memories
may be encoded within a single neural network, by different patterns of synaptic connections.
Conversely, a single memory may involve simultaneously activating several different groups
of neurons in completely different parts of the brain.

The inverse of long-term potentiation, known as long-term depression, can also take place,
whereby the neural networks involved in erroneous movements are inhibited by the silencing
of their synaptic connections. This can occur in the cerebellum, which is located towards the
back of the brain, in order to correct our motor procedures when learning how to perform a
task (procedural memory), but also in the synapses of the cortex,the hippocampus,
the striatum and other memory-related structures.

Contrary to long-term potentiation, which is triggered by high-frequency stimulation of

the synapses, long-term depression is produced by nerve impulses reaching the synapses at
very low frequencies, leading them to undergo the reverse transformation from long-term
potentiation, and, instead of becoming more efficient, the synaptic connections are weakened.
It is still not clear whether long-term depression contributes directly to the storage of
memories in some way, or whether it simply makes us forget the traces of some things
learned long ago so that new things can be learned.

Sleep (particularly slow-wave, or deep, sleep, during the first few hours) is also thought to be
important in improving the consolidation of information in memory, and activation patterns
in the sleeping brain, which mirror those recorded during the learning of tasks from the
previous day, suggest that new memories may be solidified through
such reactivation and rehearsal.

Memory re-consolidation is the process of previously consolidated memories being recalled

and then actively consolidated all over again, in order to maintain, strengthen and modify
memories that are already stored in the long-term memory. Several retrievals of memory
(either naturally through reflection or through deliberate recall) may be needed for long-term
memories to last for many years, depending on the depth of the initial processing.

However, these individual retrievals can take place at increasing intervals, in accordance
with the principle of spaced repetition (this is familiar to us in the way that ―cramming‖ the
night before an exam is not as effective as studying at intervals over a much longer span of
time).

The very act of re-consolidation, though, may change the initial memory. As a particular
memory trace is reactivated, the strengths of the neural connections may change, the memory
may become associated with new emotional or environmental conditions or subsequently
acquired knowledge, expectations rather than actual events may become incorporated into the
memory, etc.

Research into a cognitive disorder known as Korsakoff‘s syndrome shows that the retrograde
amnesia of sufferers follows a distinct temporal curve, in that the more remote the event in
the past, the better it is preserved. This suggests that the more recent memories are not fully
consolidated and therefore more vulnerable to loss, indicating that the process of
consolidation may continue for much longer than initially thought, perhaps for many years.

2.4 FORGETTING

Forgetting refers to apparent loss or modification of information already encoded and stored
in an individual's long term memory. Forgetting means the inability to encode, to store and
retrieve the previously learned information from long term memory over varying periods of
times. It simply means unable to remember.

Why do we forget? There are two simple answers to this question.

First, the memory has disappeared - it is no longer available. Second, the memory is still
stored in the memory system but, for some reason, it cannot be retrieved.
These two answers summaries the main theories of forgetting developed by psychologists.
The first answer is more likely to be applied to forgetting in short term memory, the second to
forgetting in long term memory.

Forgetting information from short term memory (STM) can be explained using the theories of
trace decay and displacement.Forgetting from long term memory (LTM) can be explained
using the theories of interference, retrieval failure and lack of consolidation.

Reasons for forgetting

The following points highlight the eight main causes of forgetting.
The causes are:
1. Inadequate Impression at the Time of Learning
2. Laps of Time
3. Interference
4. Lack of Rest and Sleep
5. Poor Health and Defective Mental State
6. Nature of the Material Learned
7. Methods Used to Learn
8. Raise in Emotion.
1. Inadequate Impression at the Time of Learning:
The reason for inadequate impression is lack of attention and inadequate learning will is
necessary for good memory. Forced learning results in no learning because forced learning
distracts our attention.

2. Laps of Time:
With the passage of time what is learned or experienced is forgotten. This is a passive decay.
The memory traces formed in the brain gets faded and becomes weather with the passage of
time.

3. Interference:
One type of learning interface with the learning of another type is called theory of
interference.

There are two types of interface, proactive interface and retroactive interface:
(a) Proactive interference:
When something learnt earlier distrusts recall of something you are learning how. In other
words, it can be explained as the interference of past-learnt material in recalling the newly
learnt material.

(b) Retroactive interference:

When learning now makes it harder to recall something you learned earlier. Here recently
learnt material interferences in recalling of past-learnt material.

4. Lack of Rest and Sleep:

Continuous learning without rest and sleep may lead to greater forgetting due to inefficient
consolidation. Experimental studies have shown that sleep following learning favours
retention, it has also been found that saving is definitely greater after sleep especially with 8
hours interval. Forgetting is slow during sleep.

5. Poor Health and Defective Mental State:

Memory traces are essential for remembering only when we pay attention to the information
that has to be stored can be saved but poor health and mental tension effect own attention,
which in turn affects the effective learning and receiving.

6. Nature of the Material Learned:

Amount of forgetting also varies with the nature of the material learned. Ebbing Hans and
others have verified the fact that humans remember things that are meaningful better than
things that are not.

7. Methods Used to Learn:

Apart from the nature of the material we learn, systematic and efficient methods used in
learning also influence our rate of forgetting.

8. Raise in Emotion:
Emotion plays an important role in learning and forgetting. Sudden rise of emotions blocks
the recall. During the high emotional state, blood sugar level is impaired. To maintain the
balance internal gland produces cortisol that disturbs memory cells.
Hence, we experience mental block leading to description in thinking, reasoning and
perception, etc. For instance, students having the fear of examination cannot recall anything.
Emotional shocks that occur during, before or after learning also have an impact on retention.
Apart from the external causes; internal causes, that is functional and organic factors, also
cause forgetting. They are nothing but the condition that disturbs memory referred to as
amnesia.

Amnesia is a condition in which memory is disturbed. The causes of amnesia are organic or
functional. Organic causes include damage to the brain through trauma or disease or use of
certain drugs. Functional causes are psychological factors such as defense mechanisms.
Amnesia may also be spontaneous, in the case of transient global amnesia. This global type of
amnesia is more common in middle-aged to elderly people, particularly makes and usually
lasts less than 24 hours. Types of amnesia are dissociative amnesia, childhood amnesia,
psychogenic amnesia, global amnesia, etc.

2.4.1 THEORIES OF FORGETTING

Many people think that the human mind is too complex to explain, and memory is no
exception. Even though vast amounts of research have been carried out into how we
remember (and forget!) things, nobody knows for sure the model on which human memory is
based.
There are, nonetheless, two main reasons for which psychologists think we 'forget'
information:
 You store information in your memory but are unable to remember it when you need to,
but perhaps can at a later date. In this case, information is inaccessible
 The human memory simply forgets information, permanently, and the physical traces of
the memory disappear. In which case, information is unavailable

Trace decay theory

This explanation of forgetting in short term memory assumes that memories leave a trace in
the brain. A trace is some form of physical and/or chemical change in the nervous system.
Trace decay theory states that forgetting occurs as a result of the automatic decay or fading of
the memory trace. Trace decay theory focuses on time and the limited duration of short-term
memory.

This theory suggests short term memory can only hold information for between 15 and 30
seconds unless it is rehearsed. After this time the information / trace decays and fades away.
No one disputes the fact that memory tends to get worse the longer the delay between
learning and recall, but there is disagreement about the explanation for this effect.

According to the trace decay theory of forgetting, the events between learning and recall have
no effect whatsoever on recall. It is the length of time the information has to be retained that
is important. The longer the time, the more the memory trace decays and as a consequence
more information is forgotten.

There are a number of methodological problems confronting researchers trying to investigate

the trace decay theory. One of the major problems is controlling for the events that occur
between learning and recall.
Clearly, in any real-life situation, the time between learning something and recalling it will be
filled with all kinds of different events. This makes it very difficult to be sure that any
forgetting which takes place is the result of decay rather than a consequence of the
intervening events.

Support for the idea that forgetting from short-term memory might be the result of decay over
time came from research carried out by Brown (1958) in the United Kingdom, and Peterson
and Peterson (1959) in the United States. The technique they developed has become known
as the Brown-Peterson task.

Ebbinghaus in 1985 carried out an experiment on himself by making himself learn a list
ofnonsense syllables and then tested his recall over time intervals. The intervals ranged from
10 minutes up to 30 days, and he found that the longer the duration, the less words he could
recall.

Ebbinghaus concluded that over time, the trace faded, and the list of syllables was lost.
However, there are some criticisms of this experiment, one being that he was the only
participant, so it is hard to make a generalisation from such a small sample. A further
criticism of his experiment was using himself as a participant which could lead
toexperimenter bias. He knew what his aims and results were, so there was a possibility of
demand characteristics.

Encoding failure theory

The way information is Encoded affects the ability to remember it. Processing information at
a deeper level makes it harder to forget. If a student thinks about the meaning of the concepts
in her textbook rather than just reading them, she‘ll remember them better when the final
exam comes around. If the information is not encoded properly—such as if the student simply
skims over the textbook while paying more attention to the TV—it is more likely to be
forgotten.

The inability to remember information may sometimes have less to do with forgetting and
more to do with the fact that it never made into long term memory. This type of forgetting is
caused because the person did not pay attention in the first place. Encoding failure or
ineffective coding may prevent information from entering long term memory, and thus
information never being stored to be able to be retrieved at a later date. This may happen
when you meet someone and later you cannot remember his or her name.

Displacement theory
Displacement Theory attempts to explain how we forget information in short-term memory.
Based on Miller‘s famous Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two – his suggestion for
the normal capacity of human memory short-term memory can only hold a limited amount of
information.

Displacement Theory proposes that when short-term memory becomes full, new information
pushes out, or displaces, old information to incorporate the new.
Evidence for this comes in the form of ‗free-recall.‘ Studies using this technique usually
require a group of participants to listen to a list of words read aloud at a certain rate, and then
asked to recall as many of the words as possible afterwards. As this technique is simple and
easily replicated, it is considered a reliable form of evidence.
Displacement Theory can effectively explain the observation of the recency effect: the most
recent words in the list will have not yet been displaced from short-term memory and so will
be free to recall.
It also works in tandem with the multi-store model of memory, in which information becomes
stored in long-term memory due to rehearsal, to be able to explain the primacy effect. As the
words in the list are read, each new word will add more competition (and therefore more
difficulty) for the limited capacity of the short-term memory. Because of this, words that
appear earlier in the list will have a greater chance of being transferred to long-term memory.

Good recall of items at the beginning of the list is referred to as the primacy effect and good
recall if items at the end of the list are referred to as the recency effect. The displacement
theory of forgetting from short-term memory can explain the recency effect quite easily. The
last few words that were presented in the list have not yet been displaced from short-term
memory and so are available for recall.

The primacy effect can be explained using Atkinson & Shiffrin's (1968) multi-store
model which proposes that information is transferred into long-term memory by means of
rehearsal.
The first words in the list are rehearsed more frequently because at the time they are
presented they do not have to compete with other words for the limited capacity of the short-
term store. This means that words early in the list are more likely to be transferred to long-
term memory.

So, the primacy effect reflects items that are available for recall from long-term memory.
However, words in the middle of the list used to be in short term memory until they were
pushed out - or displaced by the words at the end of the list.

It is important to note that Displacement Theory was used to provide an account of how the
process of forgetting could work in the original modal model of memory. This model has
since received widely criticised for its simplicity and has been largely superseded by the
working memory model.

It is difficult to tell whether or not forgetting can be explained exactly by Displacement

Theory. There are competing theories, involving processes such as decay and interference,
that also attempt to explain the loss of encoded information in memory, with evidence to
support them.

Retrieval failure theory

Retrieval failure is where the information is in long term memory but cannot be accessed.
Such information is said to be available (i.e. it is still stored) but not accessible (i.e. it cannot
be retrieved). It cannot be accessed because the retrieval cues are not present.

When we store a new memory, we also store information about the situation, and these are
known as retrieval cues. When we come into the same situation again, these retrieval cues
can trigger the memory of the situation. Retrieval cues can be:
 External / Context - in the environment, e.g. smell, place etc.
 Internal / State- inside of us, e.g. physical, emotional, mood, drunk etc.
There is considerable evidence that information is more likely to be retrieved from long-term
memory if appropriate retrieval cues are present. This evidence comes from both laboratory
experiments and everyday experience. A retrieval cue is a hint or clue that can help retrieval.
Tulving (1974) argued that information would be more readily retrieved if the cues present
when the information was encoded were also present when its retrieval is required. For
example, if you proposed to your partner when a certain song was playing on the radio, you
will be more likely to remember the details of the proposal when you hear the same song
again. The song is a retrieval cue - it was present when the information was encoded and
retrieved.

Tulving suggested that information about the physical surroundings (external context) and
about the physical or psychological state of the learner (internal context) is stored at the same
time as information is learned. Reinstating the state or context makes recall easier by
providing relevant information, while retrieval failure occurs when appropriate cues are not
present. For example, when we are in a different context (i.e. situation) or state.

Context (external) Cues

Retrieval cues may be based on context-the setting or situation in which information is
encoded and retrieved. Examples include a particular room, driving along a motorway, a
certain group of people, a rainy day and so on.

Context also refers to the way information is presented. For example, words may be printed,
spoken or sung, they may be presented in meaningful groups - in categories such as lists of
animals or furniture - or as a random collection without any link between them. Evidence
indicates that retrieval is more likely when the context at encoding matches the context at
retrieval.

You may have experienced the effect of context on memory if you have ever visited a place
where you once lived (or an old school). Often such as visit helps people recall lots of
experiences about the time, they spent there which they did not realize were stored in their
memory.

Several experiments have indicated the importance of context-based cues for retrieval. An
experiment conducted by Tulving and Pearlstone (1966) asked participants to learn lists of
words belonging to different categories, for example names of animals, clothing and sports.
Participants were then asked to recall the words. Those who were given the category names
recalled substantially more words than those who were not.

The categories provided a context, and naming the categories provided retrieval cues. Tulving
and Pearlstone argued that cue-dependent forgetting explains the difference between the two
groups of participants. Those who recalled fewer words lacked appropriate retrieval cues.

An interesting experiment conducted by Baddeley (1975) indicates the importance of setting

for retrieval. Baddeley (1975) asked deep-sea divers to memorize a list of words. One group
did this on the beach and the other group underwater. When they were asked to remember the
words half of the beach learners remained on the beach, the rest had to recall underwater.

Half of the underwater group remained there, and the others had to recall on the beach. The
results show that those who had recalled in the same environment (i.e. context) which that
had learned recalled 40% more words than those recalling in a different environment. This
suggests that the retrieval of information is improved if it occurs in the context in which it
was learned.

State (internal) dependent cues

The basic idea behind state-dependent retrieval is that memory will be best when a person's
physical or psychological state is similar at encoding and retrieval.
For example, if someone tells you a joke on Saturday night after a few drinks, you'll be more
likely to remember it when you're in a similar state - at a later date after a few more drinks.
Stone cold sober on Monday morning, you'll be more likely to forget the joke.

State retrieval clues may be based on state-the physical or psychological state of the person
when information is encoded and retrieved. For example, a person may be alert, tired, happy,
sad, drunk or sober when the information was encoded. They will be more likely to retrieve
the information when they are in a similar state.

Tulving and Pearlstone‘s (1966) study involved external cues (e.g. presenting category
names). However, cue-dependent forgetting has also been shown with internal cues (e.g.
mood state). Information about current mood state is often stored in the memory trace, and
there is more forgetting if the mood state at the time of retrieval is different. The notion that
there should be less forgetting when the mood state at learning and at retrieval is the same is
generally known as mood-state-dependent memory.

A study by Goodwin et al. (1969) investigated the effect of alcohol on state-dependent

retrieval. They found that when people encoded information when drunk, they were more
likely to recall it in the same state. For example, when they hid money and alcohol when
drunk, they were unlikely to find them when sober. However, when they were drunk again,
they often discovered the hiding place. Other studies found similar state-dependent effects
when participants were given drugs such as marijuana.

People tend to remember material better when there is a match between their mood at
learning and at retrieval. The effects are stronger when the participants are in a positive mood
than a negative mood. They are also greater when people try to remember events having
personal relevance.

Interference theory
If you had asked psychologists during the 1930s, 1940s, or 1950s what caused forgetting you
would probably have received the answer "Interference".
It was assumed that memory can be disrupted or interfered with by what we have previously
learned or by what we will learn in the future. This idea suggests that information in long
term memory may become confused or combined with other information during encoding
thus distorting or disrupting memories.

Interference theory states that forgetting occurs because memories interfere with and disrupt
one another, in other words forgetting occurs because of interference from other memories
(Baddeley, 1999). There are two ways in which interference can cause forgetting:

Proactive interference
Proactive interference is when older memories interfere with the retrieval of newer memories.
Because older memories are often better rehearsed and more strongly cemented in long-term
memory, it is often easier to recall previously learned information rather than
more recent learning.

Proactive interference can sometimes make it more difficult to learn new things. For example,
if you move into a new house, you might find yourself accidentally writing your old address
down when filling out forms. The older memory of your previous address makes it more
difficult to recall your new address.

Retroactive interference
Retroactive interference is when newer memories interfere with the retrieval of older
memories. Essentially, this type of interference creates a backward effect, making it more
difficult to recall things that have been previously learned.
In the case of retroactive interference, learning new things can make it more difficult to recall
things that we already know. For example, a musician might learn a new piece, only to find
that the new song makes it more difficult to recall an older, previously learned piece.

While retroactive interference can have a dramatic impact on the retention of new knowledge,
there are some effective strategies that can be implemented to minimize these effects.
Overlearning is one effective approach that can be used to reduce retroactive interference.

Overlearning involves rehearsing new material past the point of acquisition. It means
studying and practicing what you have learned over and over, even after you have achieved
sufficient mastery of the subject or skill. Doing this helps to ensure that the information will
be more stable in long-term memory and improve recollection and performance.

Proactive and retroactive Interference is thought to be more likely to occur where the
memories are similar, for example: confusing old and new telephone numbers. Chandler
(1989) stated that students who study similar subjects at the same time often experience
interference. Previous learning can sometimes interfere with new learning (e.g. difficulties we
have with foreign currency when travelling abroad). Also new learning can sometimes cause
confusion with previous learning. (Starting French may affect our memory of previously
learned Spanish vocabulary).

In the short-term memory interference can occur in the form of distractions so that we don‘t
get the chance to process the information properly in the first place. (e.g. someone using a
loud drill just outside the door of the classroom.

2.5 SUMMARY

Psychology should be seen as a science, to be studied in a scientific manner. Skinner's study

of behavior in rats was conducted under carefully controlled laboratory conditions. The major
influence on human behavior is learning from our environment. In the Skinner study, because
food followed a particular behavior the rats learned to repeat that behavior, e.g., operant
conditioning.

Tolman believed individuals do more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs,
attitudes, changing conditions, and they strive toward goals. Tolman is virtually the only
behaviorists who found the stimulus-response theory unacceptable,
because reinforcement was not necessary for learning to occur. He felt behavior was mainly
cognitive. For us to recall events, facts or processes, we have to commit them to memory. The
process of forming a memory involves encoding, storing, retaining and subsequently recalling
information and past experiences.
Cognitive psychologist Margaret W. Matlin has described memory as the ―process of
retaining information over time.‖ Others have defined it as the ability to use our past
experiences to determine our future path.

Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are both important learning concepts that
originated in behavioral psychology. While these two types of conditioning share some
similarities, it is important to understand some of the key differences in order to best
determine which approach is best for certain learning situations. Observational learning can
and has been used as a positive force for the betterment of the world. TV programs are made
targeting the audience in order to promote healthy behaviors across the world. Issues like
pollution, family planning, transmission are also depicted through TV programs to increase
awareness.

Observational learning is a powerful tool that has wide range of applications. Even though
use of reinforcement, punishment and direct instruction is what comes to mind when we
ponder on the concept of learning, huge deal of learning takes place subtly, even accidentally,
just by watching the happenings around us. Other uses of observational learning are seen in
education, counselling, work trainings and psychotherapy.

Memory is a very basic cognitive process used in almost activity. It involves encoding
information storing it, and later retrieving it from that storage. Cognitive psychologists
consider memory an active, constructive process. This means the information does not sit still
in a storehouse waiting to be retrieve, but instead elaborated and sometimes distorted or
constructed. Human memory is a complex process that researchers are still trying to better
understand. Our memories make us who we are, yet the process is not perfect. While we are
capable of remembering an astonishing amount of information, we are also susceptible to
mistakes and errors.

The working memory model explains a lot more than the multistore model. It makes sense of
a range of tasks - verbal reasoning, comprehension, reading, problem-solving and visual and
spatial processing. And the model is supported by considerable experimental evidence.
The working memory applies to real-life tasks:
- reading (phonological loop)
- problem solving (central executive)
- navigation (visual and spatial processing)

Reconsolidation is a retrieval process rather than part of the encoding processes, but of
course, if you admit retrieval as involving a return to the active state and a modification of the
original representation in line with new associations, then the differences between retrieval
and encoding become less evident. When you add to this the possibility that memories might
"move" from one area of the brain to another after a certain period of time (although it is
likely that the triggering factor is not time per se), then you cast into disarray the whole
concept of memories becoming stable.
Perhaps our best approach is to see memory as a series of processes, and consolidation as an
agreed-upon (and possibly arbitrary) subset of those processes.
Although we evidently can 'forget' information, it's unknown whether information does
actually disappear from memory. In hypnosis, memories which we never knew still existed
can be recalled from early childhood using regression. The competition between similar
memories might make it much more difficult to recall things you have learned in the past.
This interference can also make it much more difficult to recall more recent memories, which
can make learning difficult. Studies in lab settings support the existence and impact of
interference, but in real-world settings, it is much more difficult to ascertain just how much of
forgetting can be linked to the effects of interference, encoding failure, trace decay.

2.7 SUGGESTED QUESTIONS

1. Explain classical conditioning.

2. Explain operant conditioning.
3. Explain law of Effect.
4. Explain trace decay theory
5. Explain encoding failure theory
6. Explain displacement theory
7. Explain retrieval-failure theory
8. Explain Interference theory
9. Define Memory.
10. What is the meaning of Memory?
11. Explain the difference between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning.
12. Briefly describe consolidation of memory.
13. Explain the reasons for forgetting.
14. Explain insightful learning.
15. Explain latent learning.
16. Explain the process of Memory.
17. Define encoding, storage and retrieval.
18. Explain the Atkinson Shiffrin Model.
19. Explain the Neural Network Model.
20. Write a detailed note on working memory.
21. Describe the types of Memory.