MODULE-III

THINKING, REASONING AND DECISION MAKING

STRUCTURE

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Thinking
3.2.1 Process of thought formation
3.2.2 Types of thinking
3.2.3 Tools of thinking
3.3 Reasoning
3.3.1 Types of reasoning
3.4 Decision making
3.4.1 Steps in decision making
3.4.2 Decision making styles
3.5 Summary
3.6 Suggested Questions

OBJECTIVES

 To know and understand the concepts and its importance

 To know how its applicable in an individual.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Cognitive abilities like thinking, reasoning and problem-solving may be considered to be

some of the chief characteristics which distinguish human beings from other species
including the higher animals.

The challenges and problems faced by the individual or by society, in general are solved
through series of efforts involving thinking and reasoning. The powers of thinking and
reasoning may thus be considered to be the essential tools for the welfare and meaningful
existence of the individual as well as society.

3.2 THINKING

Thought or thinking is a mental process which allows beings to model the world, and so to
deal with it effectively according to their goals, plans, ends and desires. Words referring to
similar concepts and processes include cognition, sentence, consciousness, idea,
and imagination.

Thinking involves the deeply cerebral manipulation of information, as when we

form concepts, engage in problem solving, reason and make decisions. Thinking is a
higher cognitive function and the analysis of thinking processes is part of cognitive
psychology. In common language, the word to think covers numerous and diverse
psychological activities. It often refers merely to the act of being conscious of something.
Definitions of Thinking

1. Ross:
―Thinking is a mental activity in its cognitive aspect or mental activity with regard to
psychological aspects‖.
2. Garrett:
―Thinking is a behaviour which is often implicit and hidden and in which symbols are
ordinarily employed‖.
3. Gilmer:
―Thinking is a problem-solving process in which we use ideas or symbols in place of overt
activity‖.
4. Mohsin:
―Thinking is an implicit problem-solving behaviour‖.

3.2.1 PROCESS OF THOUGHT FORMATION

The process of thought are as follows:

Understanding the formation: understanding, forming through three stages –
a. Analysis of the characteristics of similar objects. These objects we look at are elements –
elements one by one.
b. Comparison – compare these features to similar traits – traits are the same, which is not the
same, which is always there, and which ones do not exist, where are essential and which are
not important.
c. Abstraction, that are set aside, disposed traits, which are not essential and capture essential
characteristics.
Opinion formation – formation of opinion is to put the relationship between two terms or
more. The opinions expressed in language called the sentence, which consists of basic
sentence or the title and subject and predicate. Furthermore, the opinion can be formed into
three kinds:
a. Affirmative or positive opinion which declares state of something or something positive
b. Negative opinion which clearly explains the absence of anything or something which is
negative
c. Modalities are opinions which state that the possibility of something is about to happen.

Conclusion withdrawl the decision is the result of the act that makes sense and forms a new
opinion based on the opinion which already exists.
These are factors through which our thoughts are formed. The Thinking Processes domain
encompasses a range of cognitive, affective and metacognitive knowledge, skills and
behaviours which are essential for students to function effectively in society, both within and
beyond school.

An explicit focus on thinking and the teaching of thinking skills aims to develop students‘
thinking to a qualitatively higher level. Students need to be supported to move beyond the
lower-order cognitive skills of recall and comprehension to the development of higher-order
processes required for creative problem solving, decision making and conceptualising. In
addition, they need to develop the capacity for metacognition the capacity to reflect on and
manage their own thinking. This can only happen if the school and classroom culture value
and promotes thinking and if students are provided with sufficient time to think, reflect, and
engage in sustained discussion, deliberation and inquiry. Students need challenging tasks
which stimulate, encourage and support skilful and effective thinking.
3.2.2 TYPES OF THINKING

Thinking is the cognitive abilities you use to process information, solve problems, make
decisions, and create new ideas. One uses their thinking skills when they try to make sense to
experiences, organize information, make connections, ask questions and make plans.

1. Perceptual or Concrete Thinking:

This is the simplest form of thinking the basis of this type is perception, i.e. interpretation of
sensation according to one‘s experience. It is also called concrete thinking as it is carried out
on the perception of actual or concrete objects and event.

2. Conceptual or Abstract Thinking:

Here one makes use of concepts, the generalized objects and languages, it is regarded as
being superior to perceptual thinking as it economizes efforts in understanding and problem-
solving.

3. Reflective Thinking:
This type of thinking aims in solving complex problems, thus it requires reorganization of all
the relevant experiences to a situation or removing obstacles instead of relating with that
experiences or ideas.
This is an insightful cognitive approach in reflective thinking as the mental activity here does
not involve the mechanical trial and error type of efforts.
In this type, thinking processes take all the relevant facts arranged in a logical order into an
account in order to arrive at a solution of the problem.

4. Creative Thinking:
This type of thinking is associated with one‘s ability to create or construct something new,
novel or unusual. It looks for new relationships and associations to describe and interpret the
nature of things, events and situations. Here the individual himself usually formulates the
evidences and tools for its solution.

For example; scientists, artists or inventors.

Skinner, the famous psychologist says creative thinking means that the prediction and
inferences for the individual are new, original, ingenious and unusual. The creative thinker is
one who expresses new ideas and makes new observations, new predictions and new
inferences.

Characteristics of Creative Thinking:

a. Creative thinking, in all its shapes and forms is absolutely an internal mental process and
hence should be considered as an important component of one‘s cognitive behaviour.
b. Every one of us is capable of creative thinking and hence it is a universal phenomenon.
c. Creative thinking results in the production of something new or novel including a new
form of arrangement of old elements.

d. Creative thinking in all its dimensions involve divergent thinking instead of the routine and
final types of convergent thinking. The mind must have complete freedom to wander around
to create a new idea.
e. The field of creative thinking and its out part is quite comprehensive and built wide. It
covers all the aspects of human accomplishments belonging to an individual‘s life.
5. Critical Thinking:
It is a type of thinking that helps a person in stepping aside from his own personal beliefs,
prejudices and opinions to sort out the faiths and discover the truth, even at the expense of his
basic belief system.
Here one resorts to set higher cognitive abilities and skills for the proper interpretation,
analysis, evaluation and inference, as well as explanation of the gathered or communicated
information resulting in a purposeful unbiased and self-regulatory judgement.

An ideal thinker is habitually inquisitive, well-informed, open-minded, flexible, fair-minded

in evaluation, free from personal bias and prejudices, honest in seeking relevant information,
skilled in the proper use of the abilities like interpretation, analysis, synthesis, evaluation and
drawing conclusion and inferences, etc.
The critical thinking is of a higher order well-disciplined thought process which involves the
use of cognitive skills like conceptualization, interpretation, analysis, synthesis and
evaluation for arriving at an unbiased, valid and reliable judgment of the gathered or
communicated information or data as a guide to one‘s belief and action.

3.2.3 TOOLS FOR THINKING

Images
As mental pictures consist of personal experiences of objects, persons or situations, heard and
felt. These mental pictures symbolize actual objects, experiences and activities. In thinking,
we usually manipulate the images rather than the actual objects, experiences or activities.

Concepts
A concept is a general idea that stands for a general class and represents the common
characteristics of all objects or events of this general class. Concept, as a tool, economize the
efforts in thinking, for example, when we hear the word ‗elephant‘ we are at once reminded
not only about the nature and qualities of elephant as a class but also our own experiences and
understanding of them come to the surface in our consciousness to stimulate our thinking at
that time.

Prototypes
Prototype is used for something original an original form of something that serves as a
standard. Similarly, prototype in psychology refers to what is perceived to be a complete
image of something with all expected qualities and characteristics present. In cognitive
science, prototype theory refers to graded categorization where some members of a category
are more central, or more perfect, than others. This means that although some things may
belong to a certain category of elements, they still may be perceived as unequal.
Symbols
Symbols and signs represent and stand for substitute of the actual objects, experiences and
activities. For example, traffic lights, railway signals, school bells, badges, songs, flags and
slogans all are symbolic expressions, they stimulate and motivate resultant thinking because
they tell us what to do or how to act.

Language
It is the most efficient and developed vehicle used for carrying out the process of thinking.
When a person reads, writes or hears words or sentences or observes gesture in any language
one is stimulated to think. Thus, reading and writing of documents and literature also help in
stimulating and promoting the thinking process.
3.3 REASONING

Reason is the capacity for consciously making sense of things, applying logic, establishing
and verifying facts, and changing or justifying practices, institutions, and beliefs based on
new or existing information. It is considered to be a definitive characteristic of human nature,
and it is associated with a wide range of fields, from science to philosophy.
Reason and reasoning (i.e., the ability to apply reason) are associated with thinking,
cognition, and intelligence. Like habit or intuition, reason is one of the ways that an idea
progresses to a related idea, helping people understand concepts like cause and effect, or truth
and falsehood. We use reason to form inferences conclusions drawn from propositions or
assumptions that are supposed to be true.

It is one of the best forms of controlled thinking consciously towards the solution of a
problem. It is realistic in the sense that the solution is sought always in reference to the reality
of the situation. We can solve many problems in our day-dreams, dreams and imaginations
but they are unrealistic solutions.

As Sherman defined, ―reasoning is a process of thinking during which the individual is aware
of a problem identifies, evaluates, and decides upon a solution‖.
Reasoning is used not only when we want to solve an immediate problem but also when we
anticipate future problems.
1. ―Reasoning is a stepwise thinking with a purpose or goal in mind‖ —Garrett.
2. ―Reasoning is the term applied to highly purposeful, controlled and selective thinking‖—
Gates.
3. ―Reasoning is the word used to describe the mental recognition of cause and effect
relationships, it may be the prediction of an event from an observed cause or the inference of
a cause from an observed event‖—Skinner.

3.3.1 TYPES OF REASONING

Inductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning is the opposite of deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning makes broad
generalizations from specific observations. Basically, there is data, then conclusions are
drawn from the data. This is called inductive logic, according to Utah State University.
"In inductive inference, we go from the specific to the general. We make many observations,
discern a pattern, make a generalization, and infer an explanation or a theory," Wassertheil-
Smoller told Live Science. "In science, there is a constant interplay between inductive
inference (based on observations) and deductive inference (based on theory), until we get
closer and closer to the 'truth,' which we can only approach but not ascertain with complete
certainty."

An example of inductive logic is, "The coin I pulled from the bag is a penny. That coin is a
penny. A third coin from the bag is a penny. Therefore, all the coins in the bag are pennies."
Even if all of the premises are true in a statement, inductive reasoning allows for the
conclusion to be false. Here's an example: "Harold is a grandfather. Harold is bald. Therefore,
all grandfathers are bald." The conclusion does not follow logically from the statements.
Inductive reasoning has its place in the scientific method. Scientists use it to
form hypotheses and theories. Deductive reasoning allows them to apply the theories to
specific situations.
Therefore, Inductive reasoning makes broad inferences from specific cases or observations.
In this process of reasoning, general assertions are made based on specific pieces of evidence.
Scientists use inductive reasoning to create theories and hypotheses. An example of inductive
reasoning is, ―The sun has risen every morning so far; therefore, the sun rises every
morning.‖ Inductive reasoning is more practical to the real world because it does not rely on a
known claim; however, for this same reason, inductive reasoning can lead to faulty
conclusions. A faulty example of inductive reasoning is, ―I saw two brown cats; therefore, the
cats in this neighborhood are brown.‖

Deductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning is a basic form of valid reasoning. Deductive reasoning, or deduction,
starts out with a general statement, or hypothesis, and examines the possibilities to reach a
specific, logical conclusion, according to California State University. The scientific method
uses deduction to test hypotheses and theories. "In deductive inference, we hold a theory and
based on it we make a prediction of its consequences. That is, we predict what the
observations should be if the theory were correct. We go from the general the theory to the
specific the observations," said Dr. Sylvia Wassertheil-Smoller, a researcher and professor
emerita at Albert Einstein College of Medicine.

Deductive reasoning usually follows steps. First, there is a premise, then a second premise,
and finally an inference. A common form of deductive reasoning is the syllogism, in which
two statements a major premise and a minor premise reach a logical conclusion. For example,
the premise "Every A is B" could be followed by another premise, "This C is A." Those
statements would lead to the conclusion "This C is B." Syllogisms are considered a good way
to test deductive reasoning to make sure the argument is valid.

For example, "All men are mortal. Harold is a man. Therefore, Harold is mortal." For
deductive reasoning to be sound, the hypothesis must be correct. It is assumed that the
premises, "All men are mortal" and "Harold is a man" are true. Therefore, the conclusion is
logical and true. In deductive reasoning, if something is true of a class of things in general, it
is also true for all members of that class.

According to California State University, deductive inference conclusions are certain

provided the premises are true. It's possible to come to a logical conclusion even if the
generalization is not true. If the generalization is wrong, the conclusion may be logical, but it
may also be untrue. For example, the argument, "All bald men are grandfathers. Harold is
bald. Therefore, Harold is a grandfather," is valid logically but it is untrue because the
original statement is false.

Therefore, in this form of reasoning a person starts with a known claim or general belief, and
from there determines what follows. Essentially, deduction starts with a hypothesis and
examines the possibilities within that hypothesis to reach a conclusion. Deductive reasoning
has the advantage that, if your original premises are true in all situations and your reasoning
is correct, your conclusion is guaranteed to be true. However, deductive reasoning has limited
applicability in the real world because there are very few premises which are guaranteed to be
true all of the time.

A syllogism is a form of deductive reasoning in which two statements reach a logical

conclusion. An example of a syllogism is, ―All dogs are mammals; Kirra is a dog; therefore,
Kirra is a mammal.‖
Syllogistic Reasoning

A syllogism is a logical argument where a quantified statement of a specific form (the

conclusion) is inferred from two other quantified statements (the premises). The quantified
statements are all of the form ―Some/all A are B,‖ or ―Some/all A are not B,‖ and each
syllogism combines three predicates or properties. Notice that ―All A are not B‖ can be
expressed equivalently in natural language as ―No A are B,‖ and ―Some A are not B‖ as ―Not
all A are B.‖ We can see these quantified statements as describing relations between
predicates, which is well-suited to describing hierarchies of properties. Indeed, Aristotle was
also an early biologist, and his classifications of predicates apply very well to reasoning about
species of animals or plants.

Another type of puzzle or problem commonly used to study reasoning is called a syllogism.
The reasoning done with this kind of problem is called syllogistic reasoning. This type of
problem presents two or more premises and asks the reasoner either to draw a conclusion or
to evaluate a conclusion that the problem supplies to see if the conclusion must be true
whenever the premise aretrue.

Categorical syllogisms present premises that deal with classes of entities. As a result, the
premises have words called quantifiers in them. Quantifiers provide information about how
many members of class are under consideration: all, none or some. Certain rules can be used
to draw valid conclusions from categorical syllogisms. Performance on many categorical
syllogisms is error-prone. In general, people tend to be slower and make more errors when
one or more premises are quantified by some or when one or more premises are negative.
Syllogistic reasoning is prone to at least four types of errors. First, there are content effects.
Second, there are so called believability effects.

People are likely to judge as valid any conclusion that reinforces their initial assumptions,
regardless of whether the conclusion follows from their premises. A third variable that affects
syllogistic reasoning performance has to do with premise phrasing. Premises that have
negatives (the word no or not in them) re generally more difficult to work with, result in more
errors and take people longer to comprehend thatpremises that don‘t have negatives in them.
Similarly, quantifiers such as all or none are easier for most people todeal with than
quantifiers such as some.

More generally, it appears that the way information is stated can make a reasoning task more
easy or hard. Presumably, part of the explanation is that semantically complex statements
require more processing resources for the reasoner to comprehend, encode, represent, and
store in working memory. As a result, fewer mental resources are available to tackle other
reasoning processes necessary to draw conclusions or to check for validity.

Lastly, syllogistic reasoning gives rise to a number of errors in understanding what the
premise means. That is, people often make assumptions or alter the meanings of certain terms
such that their interpretations of what the premise mean do not correspond very well with
what the problem actually states.

The quantifier some in a premise compounds the difficulties. To say ―some bers are sabs,‖ is
to say only the following: ―at least one ber is a sab, but there may or may not be other bers
that aren‘t sabs, and there may or may not be other sabs that aren‘t bers.‖ Generally, people
wrongly interpret the statement as if it means only that some bers are sabs and that some bers
aren‘t sabs. People make similar mistakes with if-then statements. The statement ―If A then
B‖ does not mean the same thing as ‗If B, thn A‖ but confusing th two constructions is
common.

It has been argued that many errors in drawing deductively valid conclusions can be traced to
misinterpretations of premises. Moreover, the problem persists when people are given
detailed definitions and even a fair amount of practice in applying these definitions. Maybe
the usual everyday understandings of words such as all, some and if-then are so powerful that
people have difficulty ignoring the terms slightly different definitions with reasoning tasks.

3.4 DECISION MAKING

Chocolate or strawberry? Life or death? We make some choices quickly and automatically,
relying on mental shortcuts our brains have developed over the years to guide us in the best
course of action. Other decisions are agonizing, and deliberation drags on inefficiently.
Factors that limit the ability to make good decisions include missing or incomplete
information, urgent deadlines, and limited physical or emotional resources. When making a
decision, we form opinions and choose actions via mental processes which are influenced by
biases, reason, emotions, and memories.

The simple act of deciding supports the notion that we have free will. We weigh the benefits
and costs of our choice, and then we cope with the consequences.

Decision making means deciding to choose one of several alternatives. One day you go to the
market with Rs. 1,000 to buy a saree. The salesman shows you several sarees of similar rate
and you have to decide which saree you would like to buy. This is decision making.
While making such a decision one has to consider, the quality, colour, texture, print etc. of
the saree and whether it will suit her or not. Besides, whether the design of the saree is the
‗in‘ thing, that has also to be considered.

When the budget is fixed or there are few alternatives, the scope of decision making is limited
or narrowed down, and conflict is less. When there are several alternatives there is more
conflict. Sometimes one has also to make a compromise in decision making, i.e. one may not
be very much satisfied with his decision, but he has to make it, due to other constraints. This
is only an example of a simple decision making, which one faces more often in his day today
life.

But occasionally, circumstances became such that one becomes involved in major decisions
which produce tremendous conflict and tension because of the uncertainty or unawareness of
the relative merits and dements of the other alternatives. If the various alternatives do not
differ much in quality or durability, the difference between them is narrowed down and hence
very marginal, this makes decision a smooth process.

Further the decision should be such that it would not create subsequent problems. Sometimes
a wrong choice may have negative, far reaching and unpleasant consequences like decision to
accept or change a job, to study arts or science, selection of subjects in the college carrier, to
leave one political party and join another, to file a divorce, to agree to undergo surgery, to
leave one‘s own country and join a job abroad, more often than not are complex decisions.
Such decisions are usually accompanied by anxiety, tension, fear, doubt and regret.
While making a decision one usually reviews the different aspects of the decision and its
advantages and disadvantages. It is believed that man is a rational organism and he has to
make a choice only after exploring all the available alternatives in terms of their expected
utility and net gain. Since decision making involves complex and complicated judgements, if
not delivered carefully after proper examination and with due reasoning, the decision may be
hasty and erroneous.
It is seen that when there is a crisis of self-confidence or when things are done hastily, the
decisions taken, turn to be bad and unprofitable. Those people who are hasty and over
confident of themselves they take decisions without proper analysis of the situations.
Consequently, such decisions also become bad. Lack of confidence also make many people
indecisive and they cannot take a judicious and logical decision in right time. It is also seen
that some people make bad decisions repeatedly and repent afterwards.

They become complete failures in their personal, social and professional life. Analysis of the
cycle of their personal history reveals that they cannot take right decisions and depend upon
others for help and assistance. If they are asked to make their own decisions, they commit
mistakes and are criticized. Repeated wrong decisions and failure due to wrong decisions,
devaluates their self-confidences and strength of mind. Their self-esteem is at danger. A fear
psychosis develops when they think of taking decisions and thus, they withdraw from taking
a decision.

These are several such persons in the society who because of lack of self-confidence, fear
psychosis and some sort of personality maladjustment fail to take a decision correctly or
cannot take a decision at all. Those persons who are easy goers and do not like to take a risk
also are slow decision makers or are indecisive in nature.
Unfortunately, logical, reasonable and utilitarian decision making which can lead the person,
group or organisation are not commonly observed. Though man is a rational organism, his
thoughts and reasoning are coloured by emotion and sentiments, personal biases, prejudices
and subjectivism.

The head does not always rule the heart, rather quite often the heart rules the head in decision
making which is not unrare. There are also over simplification of facts due to perceptual
distoration like seeing the facts not as they are, but as we are.
This may occur particularly when the issues are complex and complicated, subjective and
emotional. Sometimes the decision maker may refuse to make a decision altogether without
making an effort to choose on the basis of a rational consideration of the alternatives.
As earlier mentioned, when the alternatives are two or three, it is easy to give a decision. But
when the alternatives are more, and all look alike the process of decision making becomes
very complex due to confusion and the job becomes very tough.

In such a situation it will be wise to eliminate some alternatives as soon as possible and then
select between the limited alternatives on the basis of various factors and characteristics.
Effective occupational adjustment involves correct and timely decision making.
Also, decision making is a major managerial requirement. The head of an office or
organisation, an executive, a leader or a supervisor must have decision making ability. The
leader of various political groups should also have the quality to take proper decision at
proper time. The administrative and business tycoons have to take decisions on matters and
issues relating to national and public interest.
If they linger without taking decisions it leads to disaster. Indecisive heads are useless as they
cannot give proper direction and guidance to the subordinates and lower level employees
leading to utter mess in administration and management in social and group life. They prove
complete failures as group leaders. For upward mobility in any situation, decision making
process is of vital importance.

The person sitting in the chair of decision making should not be influenced by fear and
favour. The decision should be reasoned and transparent after careful and meticulous analysis
of all advantages, disadvantages, rules and regulations. In a society in any organisation or
group, be it a family, a club, a business organisation, a government and non-government
office, a public and private sector undertaking, a group, a crowd, decision making is an
important duty of the highest authority.

A decision can be made alone or in consultation with the other members of the organisation.
Leaders of any social, political, economic or administrative organisations have to take
hundreds and thousands of decisions daily. The decisions should never-the-less be reality
oriented. Unrealistic and non- implementive decisions are useless and do not serve any
purpose. Rather they induce confusions and frustrations. Usually flexible and dynamic
personalities are good decision makers.

Decision making is the cognitive process leading to the selection of a course of action among
alternatives. Every decision-making process produces a final choice. It can be an action or an
opinion. It begins when we need to do something, but we do not know what. Therefore,
decision making is a reasoning process which can be rational or irrational, and can be based
on explicit assumptions or tacit assumptions.

Common examples include shopping, deciding what to eat, when to sleep, and deciding
whom or what to vote for in an election or referendum.
Decision making is said to be a psychological construct. This means that although we can
never "see" a decision, we can infer from observable behaviour that a decision has been
made. Therefore, we conclude that a psychological event that we call "decision making" has
occurred. It is a construction that imputes commitment to action. That is, based on observable
actions, we assume that people have made a commitment to affect the action.

3.4.1 STEPS IN DECISION MAKING

Seven most essential steps involved in decision making process are: 1. Define the problem, 2.
Analysing the problem, 3. Developing alternative solutions, 4. Selecting the best type of
alternative, 5. Implementation of the decision, 6. Follow up, 7. Monitoring and feedback.
Decision-making is concerned with the selection of one alternative course of action from two
or more alternative courses of action.

Steps of decision making

Precisely it can be stated as a choice-making activity.

1. Define the problem:

The first and the foremost step in the decision-making process are to define the real problem.
A problem can be explained as a question for and appropriate solution. The manager should
consider critical or strategic factors in defining the problem. These factors are, in fact,
obstacles in the way of finding proper solution. These are also known as limiting factors.
For example, if a machine stops working due to non-availability of screw, screw is the
limiting factor in this case. Similarly, fuse is a limiting or critical factor in house lighting.
While selecting alternative or probable solution to the problem, the more the decision-making
takes into account those factors that are limiting or critical to the alternative solutions, the
easier it becomes to take the best decision.
Other examples of critical or limiting factor may be materials, money, managerial skill,
technical know-how, employee morale and customer demand, political situation and
government regulations, etc.

2. Analysing the problem:

After defining the problem, the next important step is a systematic analysis of the available
data. Sound decisions are based on proper collection, classification and analysis of facts and
figures.

There are three principles relating to the analysis and classification as explained below:
(i) The futurity of the decision. This means to what length of time; the decision will be
applicable to a course of action.
(ii) The impact of decision on other functions and areas of the business.
(iii) The qualitative considerations which come into the picture.

3. Developing alternative solutions:

After defining and analysing the problem, the next step is to develop alternative solutions.
The main aim of developing alternative solutions is to have the best possible decision out of
the available alternative courses of action. In developing alternative solutions, the manager
comes across creative or original solutions to the problems.
In modern times, the techniques of operations research and computer applications are
immensely helpful in the development of alternative courses of action.

4. Selecting the best type of alternative:

After developing various alternatives, the manager has to select the best alternative. It is not
an easy task.

The following are the four important points to be kept in mind in selecting the best from
various alternatives:
(a) Risk element involved in each course of action against the expected gain.
(b) Economy of effort involved in each alternative, i.e. securing desired results with the least
efforts.
(c) Proper timing of the decision and action.
(d) Final selection of decision is also affected by the limited resources available at our
disposal. Human resources are always limited. We must have right type of people to carry out
our decisions. Their calibre, understanding, intelligence and skill will finally determine what
they can and cannot do.

5. Implementation of the decision:

Under this step, a manager has to put the selected decision into action.
For proper and effective execution of the decision, three things are very important i.e.,
(a) Proper and effective communication of decisions to the subordinates. Decisions should be
communicated in clear, concise and understandable manner.
(b) Acceptance of decision by the subordinates is important. Group participation and
involvement of the employees will facilitate the smooth execution of decisions.
(c) Correct timing in the execution of decision minimizes the resistance to change. Almost
every decision introduces a change and people are hesitant to accept a change.
Implementation of the decision at the proper time plays an important role in the execution of
the decision.

6. Follow up:
A follow up system ensures the achievement of the objectives. It is exercised through control.
Simply stated it is concerned with the process of checking the proper implementation of
decision. Follow up is indispensable so as to modify and improve upon the decisions at the
earliest opportunity.

7. Monitoring and feedback:

Feedback provides the means of determining the effectiveness of the implemented decision.
If possible, a mechanism should be built which would give periodic reports on the success of
the implementation. In addition, the mechanisms should also serve as an instrument of
―preventive maintenance‖, so that the problems can be prevented before they occur.
According to Peter Drucker, the monitoring system should be such that the manager can go
and look for himself for first-hand information which is always better than the written reports
or other second-hand sources. In many situations, however, computers are very successfully
used in monitoring since the information retrieval process is very quick and accurate and, in
some instances, the self-correcting is instantaneous.

3.4 2 DECISION MAKING STYLES

Many people think that decision-making is a result of personality rather than a strategic
choice. With that said, leaders need to understand that personality can‘t stand in the way of
making critical corporate decisions. Successful leaders can alter their approach to decision-
making to accommodate the demandsof diverse business situations.

Directive Style
Directive Decision-Making: a directive decision-maker typically works out the pros and cons
of a situation based on what they already know. Directive decision-makers are very rational
and have a low tolerance for ambiguity. Their decisions are rooted in their own knowledge,
experience, and rationale, rather than going to others for more information. The upside to this
style is decision-making is quick, ownership is clear, and it doesn‘t require extra
communication. However, directive decisions can sometimes be made impulsively, without
all the necessary information.

This style of decision-making lends itself well to situations characterized by stability,

repeating patterns, and consistent events. Reserve directive decisions for instances where
there is a clear and undisputed cause-and-effect relationship; in other words, a right answer
exists and is understood collectively.

A leader needs to sense the situation, categorize it as a scenario that calls for a direct decision
and respond appropriately. Make sure there are best practices in place for recurring processes.
When classifying the situation, remember to ask yourself: is this my decision to make, and do
i have all the required information to make this decision? Delegate if necessary, but
remember to communicate in clear, direct language. It‘s a leader‘s job to understand when
extensive, interactive communication is unnecessary and to make direct decisions based on
the information they already have.
When operations are running smoothly, it‘s easy for leaders to fall victim to complacency.
Leaders need to be mindful of the changing complexity of particular situations. If you start
using direct decisions to make complex jobs simple, you need to change your approach.
Understand that changing circumstances call for changing decision-making styles.

Analytic Style
Analytic decision-making Analytic decision-makers examine much information before taking
action. For example, analytic leaders rely on direct observation, data, and facts to support
their decisions. However, unlike directive decision-makers, an analytic decision-maker will
seek information and advice from others to confirm or deny their own knowledge. These
decision-makers have a high tolerance for ambiguity and are very adaptable, but they like to
control most aspects of the decision process. This style is a well-rounded approach to
decision-making but can be time-consuming.

Analytic decisions are helpful in situations where there may be more than one right answer.
Use this style of decision-making to solve problems where the cause-and-effect relationship is
discoverable but not immediately apparent. Primarily, you‘re using this approach to explore
several options or solutions and using fact-based management to guide appropriate action.
Unlike directive decision-making, leaders need to analyse all the information available to
them before deciding on a course of action. It‘s beneficial to assemble a team of industry
experts to assist with analytic decisions; however, leaders need to consider conflicting advice
and ideas openly. At the same time, leaders need to consider the viewpoints of non-experts in
order to make the most of the analytic decision-making process.

The most significant warning sign of overuse of the analytic decision style is analysis
paralysis. If you find yourself functioning in a state of over-analysing or over-thinking
without action or reaching a decision, you need to drop this approach.

Concenptual Style
The conceptual decision-making style takes a more social approach compared to the directive
or analytic methods. Conceptual decision-makers encourage creative thinking
and collaboration and consider a broad array of perspectives. These decision-makers are
achievement-oriented and like to think far into the future when making important decisions.
Apply conceptual decision-making to problems that involve many competing ideas. This
style of decision is best suited for situations characterized by unpredictability and suited
to creative and innovative approaches. In these scenarios, you find there is no immediate
solution, but patterns emerge over time. Using a conceptual style of decision-making
accounts for long-term planning and unknown variables.

For conceptual decision-making to be effective, leaders need to create an environment that

encourages experiments designed to reveal instructive patterns over time. As well, leaders
need to make a point of increasing interaction and communication. Create groups of people
who can contribute innovative ideas and help with the development and delivery of complex
decisions. Patience is key, and leaders need to give themselves time for reflection.
If the decision you need to make involves a situation that needs structure and defined
outcomes, you shouldn‘t use a conceptual approach. As well, decisions that need to drive
immediate results and circumstances where there is little room for error do not fall under
conceptual decision-making.
Behavioral Style
Behavioural decision-making Behavioural decision-makers try to make sure everyone works
well together. Like the conceptual style, behavioural decision-making is group-oriented;
however, rather than brainstorming potential solutions, the group is given the options
available to them. From there, the group discusses the pros and cons of each choice. This
style of decision-making considers many different outlooks and opinions in the process.
Like conceptual decision-making, the behavioural style requires proactive communication.
This style takes a more introspective approach by discussing solutions that have worked in
the past rather than trying to reveal new patterns.

Leaders need to open up lines of communication in this style of decision-making. Again,

create groups of people who can contribute their opinions and encourage democratic
discussions. When employing the behavioural decision-making style, don‘t just impose a
course of action. Instead, look at what decision creates the most harmony within the
organization.

If group discussion sessions never reach an agreement, you may need to consider another
approach. In contrast, if new ideas never come up or no one challenges opinions, behavioural
decision-making may not be the best option either. While this style of decision works to
benefit the group as a whole, it requires a definite and decisive leader to get things
accomplished. If necessary, look for ways and experiments to force people to think outside of
what‘s familiar.

The most influential leaders learn how to adjust their style of decision-making to suit
particular circumstances. Different contexts and situations call for individual managerial
responses and sometimes multiple approaches to decision-making. By understanding the
various forms of decision-making and staying aware of warning signs – leaders can learn
how to make better decisions in a variety of complex contexts.

3.5 SUMMARY

Thinking, the manipulation of information occurs for a wide range of what appear to be very
different tasks. Psychologists draw distinctions among types of problems and among types of
thinking. However, whether the cognitive processes used for different tasks are themselves
really different in kind. An alternative possibility is that what look like different kinds of
thinking really stem from different combinations of the same cognitive processes.

A focus on the development of thinking competencies within specific areas of the curriculum
and across it not only serves as a core integrative function, it also has the potential to provide
continuity in approaches to learning from Prep to Year 10 and to emphasise the view that
such knowledge, skills and behaviours are important to lifelong learning. To emphasise this,
teachers model skilful and effective thinking and make their own thinking explicit as part of
their everyday practice.

Thinking skills can be defined in a variety of ways. Many different taxonomies and models
for teaching thinking have been developed. Each classification scheme has its strengths and
weaknesses. However, whatever the system or systems being used, all seek to improve the
quality of student thinking.
The above discussed are various types of thinking which come across in our lives even when
we decide or make simple decisions.

The tools of thinking discussed above help us in more efficient thinking and makes it easier
for us to understand signs, language etc. while we perform our activities. Thus, reasoning is a
highly specialized thinking which helps an individual to explore mentally the cause and effect
relationship of an event or solution of a problem by adopting some well-organized systematic
steps based on previous experience combined with present observation.
Thus, deductive reasoning is the ability to draw some logical conclusions from known
statement or evidences. Here one starts with already known or established generalized
statement or principle and applies it to specific cases whereas inductive reasoning is a
specialized thinking aimed at the discovery or construction of a generalized principle by
making use of particular cases, special examples and identifying of elements or relations.

Syllogistic reasoning has also drawn the attention of cognitive scientists, who try to draw
conclusions about what goes on in the human brain when we combine predicates and reason
about objects. As with propositional reasoning, one then finds differences in performance that
do not always match what our methods say, calling attention to the issue how the brain
represents objects and their properties and relations. From another point of view, the
diagrammatic aspect of our methods has attracted attention from cognitive scientists lately. It
is known that the brain routinely combines symbolic language-oriented and visual and
diagrammatic representations, and the Venn Diagram method is one of the simplest pilot
settings for studying how this combination works.

Decision making requires setting goals; gathering information; organizing, combining, and
evaluating information; and making a final selection. Because the processes can be so
complex, it is perhaps snot surprising that decision making can go wrong or be suboptimal in
number of ways. People‘s intuition about uncertainty and probability, heir means of acquiring
and or remembering relevant information can be easily shown to be error-prone.There are
steps to ensure that people make consistently excellent choices, including gathering as much
information as possible, considering all the possible alternatives, as well as their attendant
benefits and costs, and taking the time to sleep on weightier decisions.

3.6 SUGGESTED QUESTIONS

1. Define thinking
2. Explain the styles of Decision Making.
3. Explain the process of thought formation.
4. Explain the types of thinking.
5. Define reasoning.
6. Explain inductive reasoning
7. Explain deductive reasoning
8. Explain syllogistic reasoning.
9. Explain the meaning of Decision making.
10. Define decision making.
11. Explain in detail the steps involved in Decision Making.
12. Explain the tools of thinking.