THINKING &

PROBLEM SOLVING

COURSE INSTRUCTOR: MS. SADAF WAHEED

THINKING:

• Cognitive behavior in which ideas, images, mental representations, or other hypothetical

elements of thought are experienced or manipulated. In this sense, thinking includes
imagining, remembering, problem solving, daydreaming, free association, concept
formation, and many other processes (APA, 2023)
• Thinking in psychology is the process of consciously generating and manipulating
thoughts and ideas in the mind.
• Thinking is the base of all cognitive activities or processes and is unique to human
beings. It involves manipulation and analysis of information received from the
environment.
THINKING

• Building blocks of thoughts are:

• Images: As mental pictures consist of personal experiences of objects, persons or situations, heard and felt.
• Concepts: A concept is a general idea that stands for a general class and represents the common characteristics of all objects or
events of this general class. Concept, as a tool, economize the efforts in thinking
• Symbols and signs: Symbols and signs represent and stand for substitute of the actual objects, experiences and activities.
• Language: Is the most efficient and developed vehicle used for carrying out the process of thinking. When a person reads, writes
or hears words or sentences or observes gesture in any language one is stimulated to think. Thus reading and writing of documents
and literature also help in stimulating and promoting the thinking process.
• Muscular activities: Thinking in one way or the other shows the evidence of the involvement of some incipient movements of
groups of our muscles. A high positive relation has been found to exist for the thinking and muscular activities of an individual.
The more we engage ourselves in thought, the greater is the general muscular tension and conversely as we moved towards
muscular relation, our thought processes gradually diminish.
TYPES OF THINKING

1. Perceptual or Concrete Thinking: This is the simplest form of thinking the basis of this type is perception, i.e.
interpretation of sensation according to one’s experience. It is also called concrete thinking as it is carried out on the
perception of actual or concrete objects and events.

2. Conceptual or Abstract Thinking: Here one makes use of concepts, the generalized objects and languages, it is
regarded as being superior to perceptual thinking as it economizes efforts in understanding and problem-solving.

3. Reflective Thinking: This type of thinking aims in solving complex problems, thus it requires reorganization of all the
relevant experiences to a situation or removing obstacles instead of relating with that experiences or ideas. This is an
insightful cognitive approach in reflective thinking as the mental activity here does not involve the mechanical trial and
error type of efforts.

4. Creative Thinking: This type of thinking is associated with one’s ability to create or construct something new, novel or
unusual. It looks for new relationships and associations to describe and interpret the nature of things, events and
situations. Skinner, the famous psychologist says creative thinking means that the prediction and inferences for the
individual are new, original, ingenious and unusual. The creative thinker is one who expresses new ideas and makes new
observations, new predictions and new inferences.
CONCEPTS AND PROTOTYPES

• There are two other characteristics of thinking that are important in psychology - concept, and
prototype.
• Concept:
A concept is a mental category of similar objects, people, or events. Fruit is an example of a
concept. There are many kinds of fruit that fit into that category in our minds. Even more specifically,
the concept of yellow fruit probably makes you think of bananas and pineapples.
• Grouping information into concepts gives our minds less work to do. Without organizing information
this way, we would have to create a new word for everything! How do we create a concept in our
minds? Creating a concept begins with a prototype!
PROCESS OF CONCEPT FORMATION

• Concept formation is a higher-order mental activity that operates on information processed and stored in
memory after being experienced by our sensory organs.
• This process involves categorizing the data conceptually and applying that knowledge to planning, goal-setting,
problem-solving, and reasoning.
• Information is processed by ventral neural pathways that connect the temporal cortex to the visual cortex.
• Major elements of concept of formation are:

1. Grouping entails the "chunking" of information into larger chunks. Because the performer needs to focus on
groupings of information rather than each item separately, chunking makes the system work more effectively.
Grouping lessens the task's attentional demands and enables people to focus their attention on other, more
crucial stimuli.
2. Differentiation, on the other hand, describes the process through which performers take in more detail from
various stimuli as they get used to them.
PROCESS OF CONCEPT FORMATION

• Step # 1. Observation: The first stage in the formation of concepts is the observation of an event, object
or an experience. This can also be called the stage of becoming aware. This can be either direct or indirect.
• Step # 2. Generalization: Repeated experiences or observations of different objects result in a tendency to
form a general idea.
• Step # 3. Discrimination or Differentiation: Along with generalization and the observation and
organization of similarities among things and objects, the individual also becomes aware of the differences
between them.
• Step # 4. Abstraction: The perceptions and the experiences are now inwardly analysed and re-experienced
in the absence of the objects. This results in an appreciation of similarities and differences. This process by
which the experience is analysed in the absence of actual situations is known as abstraction.
CONCEPT MAP

• Concept Map
• It is a great use having the concept map in explaining the general principles
formed out of many related ideas. Concept map is also used to explain the mutual
relationships existing between the various general principles.
• The relationship between various ideas put forth in a lesson
and the way they lead to the general principles are understood
with the help of concept map.
PROTOTYPE

• Prototypes are simply representative mental images or examples of a concept. When we match a new item to a
prototype, it creates a pathway of quick sorting for easier recall later on. When you think about fruits, what fruit
comes to mind first? Is it an apple? If so, this is probably your fruit prototype! It tells you what qualifies as fruit
and should get sorted into that category.

• The word “prototype” is used for something original — an original form of something that serves as a standard.

• In cognitive science, prototype theory refers to graded categorization where some members of a category are
more central, or more perfect, than others.

• Prototypes are influenced by many factors including one’s language, social background, and cultural
background. Different people may have different perception and interpretation of same words. For example, the
word “vehicles” may mean buses and cars to a city man, but to a farmer from a mountainous area it may mean
carriages and motorcycles.
BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF THINKING
MODUS TOLLENS & MODUS PONENS

• Modus tollens is a deductive argument form and a rule of inference used to make
conclusions about arguments and sets of arguments. Modus tollens argues that if P is
true, then Q is also true. However, P is false. Therefore Q is also false.
• If the sky is blue, then it is not raining. It is raining. Therefore, the sky is not blue. “The
sky is blue” is the antecedent, while “it is not raining” is the consequent.
• Modus Ponens is referred to also as Affirming the Antecedent and Law of Detachment.
Modus Tollens is often referred to also as Denying the Consequent. Second, modus
ponens and modus tollens are universally regarded as valid forms of argument.
PROBLEM SOLVING

• Problem-solving is an active neurological process that occurs at the initiative of a person

oneself and does not belong to the category of automatic and reflex properties. Any task
requiring a solution is associated with the work of various cognitive skills that need to be
applied to solve an individual problem (“Cognitive psychology,” 2020).
PROBLEM SOLVING CYCLE IN THINKING

• The American psychologist Robert J. Sternberg identified seven steps in problem solving, each of which may be
illustrated in the simple example of choosing a restaurant:
1. Problem identification. In this step, the individual recognizes the existence of a problem to be solved: he
recognizes that he is hungry, that it is dinnertime, and hence that he will need to take some sort of action.
2. Problem definition. In this step, the individual determines the nature of the problem that confronts him. He
may define the problem as that of preparing food, of finding a friend to prepare food, of ordering food to be
delivered, or of choosing a restaurant.
3. Resource allocation. Having defined the problem as that of choosing a restaurant, the individual determines
the kind and extent of resources to devote to the choice. He may consider how much time to spend in
choosing a restaurant, whether to seek suggestions from friends, and whether to consult a restaurant guide.
4. Problem representation. In this step, the individual mentally organizes the information needed to solve the problem.
He may decide that he wants a restaurant that meets certain criteria, such as close proximity, reasonable price, a certain
cuisine, and good service.
5. Strategy construction. Having decided what criteria to use, the individual must now decide how to combine or
prioritize them. If his funds are limited, he might decide that reasonable price is a more important criterion than close
proximity, a certain cuisine, or good service.
6. Monitoring. In this step, the individual assesses whether the problem solving is proceeding according to his
intentions. If the possible solutions produced by his criteria do not appeal to him, he may decide that the criteria or their
relative importance needs to be changed.
7. Evaluation. In this step, the individual evaluates whether the problem solving was successful. Having chosen a
restaurant, he may decide after eating whether the meal was acceptable.
PROCESS OF PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES

• The field of psychology has identified a variety of mental shortcuts which we all tend to use when thinking
and trying to solve our many problems.
• Using an Algorithm:
• Cognitive psychology has identified various strategies for solving problems. One approach is to use an
algorithm, meaning a logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a type of problem. So, if one is asked to
divide 500 by 4, we could use the algorithm we’ve learned to solve long division problems—a process that
would work for any numbers, no matter how complex.
• A problem-solving algorithm is a procedure that is guaranteed to produce a solution if it is followed strictly.
• This is also a very distinct advantage of an algorithm: it will always work to get us a correct answer. But it also
has a downside; it’s time-consuming, and it may be very inefficient.
PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES

• Heuristics:

Another problem-solving strategy that is also designed to be faster than an algorithm is a heuristic. Heuristics are
basically educated guesses, based on general knowledge of the world, which can help us solve problems faster. For
example, heuristics can narrow down what we try when attempting to unscramble the letters that spell psychology. We
probably skip any combinations that never appear in any words we can think of; for example, we can skip two YYs in back
to back combination, and any words that start YP or YG.
Heuristic is unpredictable means that the strategy can be either more or less effective than using an algorithm.
Problem-solving Through Insight:
the final problem-solving approach that we can use—insight, meaning a sudden realization of the solution to a
problem. For example, we might have started solving the psychology anagram with trial and error, and been aware of some
heuristics, but if we found the solution, it was probably by insight. We felt like the answer just came to us.
COGNITIVE BIAS

• Cognitive bias is a systematic thought process caused by the tendency of the human brain to simplify information
processing through a filter of personal experience and preferences. The filtering process is a coping mechanism that
enables the brain to prioritize and process large amounts of information quickly.
• Signs of Cognitive Bias:

1. Only paying attention to news stories that confirm your opinions

2. Blaming outside factors when things don't go your way
3. Attributing other people's success to luck, but taking personal credit for your own accomplishments
4. Assuming that everyone else shares your opinions or beliefs
5. Learning a little about a topic and then assuming you know all there is to know about it
6. When you are making judgments a
CAUSES OF COGNITIVE BIAS

• Cognitive biases can be caused by a number of different things, but it is these mental
shortcuts, known as heuristics, that often play a major contributing role. While they can
often be surprisingly accurate, they can also lead to errors in thinking.
• Other factors that can also contribute to these biases:
• Emotions
• Individual motivations
• Limits on the mind's ability to process information
• Social pressures
TIPS FOR OVERCOMING BIAS

• Research suggests that cognitive training can help minimize cognitive biases in thinking:
1. Being aware of bias
2. Considering the factors that influence your decisions
3. Challenging your biases.
GAMBLER’S FALLACY
GAMBLER’S FALLACY

• The gambler’s fallacy describes our belief that the probability of a random event
occurring in the future is influenced by previous instances of that type of event.
• The Gambler's Fallacy can lead to suboptimal decision-making. We connect events that
have happened in the past to events that will happen in the future. They are seen as causes
or indications of how the future will unravel.
• For instance, when we notice storm clouds in the sky, it is reasonable to assume that it
will rain, and then decide to pack an umbrella. Past experience dictates that storm clouds
are good indicators of rain because they are causally related.
GAMBLER’S FALLACY

• An account of the gambler's fallacy was first published by French polymath Marquis de
Laplace in 1820. In A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities, Laplace noticed that men who
wanted sons thought that each birth of a boy would increase the likelihood of their next
child being a girl.
• Beliefs that resembled gambler’s fallacy were first seen in experimental settings during
the 1960s, when researchers were exploring how the mind makes decisions using
probabilities. In these experiments, subjects were asked to guess which of two colored
lights would light up next. After seeing a succession of one colour being illuminated,
researchers noticed that subjects were much more likely to guess the other.
GAMBLER’S FALLACY

• Why it happens:

The Gambler’s fallacy stems from our tendency to assume that if a random event has occurred
many times in the past, that it will occur more or less often in the future. We do this for several reasons.
One of them is that we don’t like randomness. So, we try to rationalize random events to create an
explanation and make them seem predictable.
• A random event is the product of chance. This makes it unpredictable. Some people find this
exhilarating, but most of us find it unsettling. We like predictability, order, and explain ability in most
aspects of our lives. So, when a random event occurs or is set to happen, we try to rationalize it by
finding patterns or indications in the history of events similar to it-- even when they aren’t actually
related. This is a natural way for our mind to make sense of a chaotic world.
It can affect any of us when we are assessing the probability of a future event by looking at past
events that are similar. We do this all the time in both our personal and professional lives. It is
easy to make the mistake of doing this with events that are causally independent, which can
mess up our predictions surrounding probability and the decisions that follow from them.
• How to avoid it:

To counter the effect of this cognitive bias, we need to recognize the causal
independence of the events in question. This isn’t always easy, especially when we have a vested
interest in their relationship. Thinking through the actual process by which an event occurs may
help us realize that certain past events which resemble it don’t really play a role in it unfolding