GROWTH

· Increase in body size and other parts of the human body

· Pertains to quantitative changes in the body and can be measured
· Takes place in the first twenty (20) years of life
· Most rapid during infancy and growth spurt on adolescence/puberty
DEVELOPMENT
· Pertains to qualitative change in the human body and cannot be measured
· It happens from simple to more complex
· Takes place even after 20 years of life
· Refers to our maturation
(Remember that the process of Growth and Development cannot be compared!)
There are two (2) Factors affecting Growth and Development:
1. Heredity (Nature) - refers to the transfer of genes. It also puts limitation in growth and
development.
2. Environment (Nurture) – pertains to the interaction with the surroundings and proper nutrition
acquired.
When a baby is newly born, it is covered with a cheese-like substance called vernix caseosa.
Also covering the newborn is lanugo which is the fine hair-like structure covering the baby.
There are also different types of birth presentations. They are the ff:
1. Cephalic when the head of the baby is presented first during birth giving.
2. Breech when the legs/buttocks are presented, and
3. Transverse when the shoulders of the baby are presented during birth.
During infancy, babies tend to present reflexes. Reflexes are involuntary movements or actions.
Some movements are spontaneous, occuring as part of the baby’s usual activity. Others are
responses to certain actions. Reflexes help identify normal brain and nerve activity. Some
reflexes occur only in specific periods of development. The following are some of the normal
reflexes seen on newborn babies:
1. Root reflex. This reflex begins when the corner of the baby’s mouth is stroked or touched. The
baby will turn his/her head and open his/her mouth to follow and “root” the direction of the
stroking. This helps the baby find the breast or bottle to begin feeding.
2. Suck reflex. Rooting helps the baby become ready to suck. When the roof of the baby’s mouth
is touched, the baby will begin to suck. This reflex does not begin about the 32nd week of
pregnancy and is not fully developed until about 36 weeks.
3. Moro reflex. The Moro reflex is often called as “startle reflex” because it usually occurs when
a baby is startled by a loud sound or movement. In response to the sound, the baby throws back
his/her head, extends out his/her arms and legs, cries, then pulls the arms and legs back in. A
baby’s own cry can startle him/her and trigger this reflex.
4. Tonic neck reflex. When a baby’s head is turned to one side, the arm on that side stretches out
and the opposite arm bends up the elbow. This is often calles as the “fencing” position and lasts
about 6 to 7 months.
5. Grasp reflex. Stroking tha palm of the baby’s hand causes the baby to close his/her fingers in a
grasp. It lasts until about 5 to 6 months of age.
6. Babinski reflex. When the sole of the foot is firmly stroked, the big toe bends back toward the
top of the foot and the other toes fan out. This is a normal reflex until 2 years of age.
7. step reflex. This is also called as the walking or dance reflex because the baby appears to be
dancing or taking steps when held upright.
8. Cremasteric reflex. This reflex is much common to baby boys. When the thigh is stroked
softly, the lower part of the tummy tends to startle or move. This reflex is also observable during
puberty or even among grown up men.
Principles of Growth and Development
1. Cephalocaudal – refers to “from head to tail” development
2. Proximodistal – a development that starts from the center of the body going outward
a. Gross motor skills pertains to larger skills that babies mmake with their arms, legs, feet or with
his entire body such as crawling, running and jumping.
b. Fine motor skills refers to smaller actions such as when a baby picks up things between his
fingers or wriggles his toes on the sand. T also includes moving his/her tongue, mouth and
smaller parts of the body.
Periods of Development
1. Pre-natal period – from conception to birth
2. Infancy – from birth to 18 months old
3. Early childhood -18 months to 6 years
During 3-6 years old, boys tend to display “Pseudomasturbation”. During this period teachers
must be very observant and should not impose threat or punishment when such activity is
observed. If the teacher do so, the child may develop “castration fear” or the fear of having his
genitals being removed. The BEST way to handle such situation inside the classroom is to ignore
the behavior, divert the attention of the child by hand activities and after, explain to the child that
masturbation should be done in private places.
4. Middle and late childhood – from 6 to 13 years (slow growth)
5. Adolescence period from 13 to 19 years . secondary sex characteristics develops
Menarche – menstruation
Thelarche – breast budding
Pseudomenstruation – withdrawal of maternal hormones
6. Early 20-45 years old
7. Middle adulthood 45-65 years old
8. Late 65 years onwards (death)

THEORIES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

All theories of human growth and development has an effect upon decisions made in the
classroom and parental management.
SIGMUND FREUD believes that all human beings pass through a series of Psychosexual
Development. This theory includes pleasure-giving bodies per stages and may result to
“fixation” if cannot be able to move on.
The Psychosexual Development Theory
Stages -Age -Overstimulation -Understimulation-Characteristics
1. Oral -From birth to 18 months –Gullible -Easy to be fooled -Mistrust, alcoholic drinker,
smoker and gossiper -Mouth is the center of pleasure and major source of gratification and
exploration

2. Anal -(toilet training) -18 months to 3 year -Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder, too
obedient -Messy, clumsy, disobedient and rebellious -Anus and bladder as pleasure-giving
bodies
3. Phallic -(Penis) -3-6 years old –Pervert -Frigid impotence, too shy -Genitalia as the source of
pleasure (masturbation).- Develops Elektra and Oedipus complex

4. Latency-(school age) -6- puberty -Workaholic -Failing grades -Energy directed to physical
and intellectual activities. - Sexual responses are repressed. -Normal homosexual stage
(relationship with same sex or “barkada”

5. Genita - Puberty onwards

Energy towards full sex maturity. Reappearance of Oedipus and Elektra complex but directed to
opposite sex
*Oedipus Complex means that the son is more into the mother while Elektra Complex means
that the daughter is more into the father.
*Overstimulation means that when the child during the given age of a particular stage is given
something too much may result to something negative. For example, during the Oral stage, if the
baby doesn’t need a breastfeed but the mother still gives him milk he will become too used to it
resulting to being gullible when he grow up. On the other hand, if the baby is understimulated or
wants milk to the point that he/she is crying but the mother always ignore him/her, then the baby
will grow up as if he/she always wanted to have something in his mouth for he/she was deprived
of it. This may result for him/her to be a drinker, a smoker or gossiper.
Sigmund Freud also developed the differences between our id, ego, and superego.
( moral principle; conscience) EGO
SUPEREGO (reality principle; balances id and ego)
ID (evil; the “I” principle; self-centered
Teachers should be aware of the Psychosexual Development Theory in order for us to fully
understand why some of our pupils/students behave the way they do.

ERIK ERIKSON proposed the Psychosocial Development Theory. According to him under this
theory, crisis must be resolved in order to develop a healthy direction. Take note that the focus
on Psychosocial Development Theory is an important sociocultural determinance of human
development.
The Psychosocial Development Theory
1. Infancy
Psychosocial conflict: Trust VS Mistrust
Task: attachment to the mother/caregiver
If successful: trust in persons/faith and hope about the environment and future
If unsuccessful: difficulties in relating to persons effectively. Fear of the future
2. Toddlerhood (18 months – 3 years)
Psychosocial conflict: Autonomy VS Shame and Doubt
Task: gaining some basic control over self and environment
If successful: sense of self-control
If unsuccessful: severe feeling of self-doubt. Always thinking that he cannot do something.
3. Preschool Age (3 – 6 years)
Psychosocial conflict: Initiative VS Guilt
Task: children are asked to assume more responsibilities, becoming purposeful and directive
If successful: ability to initiate one’s activities
If unsuccessful: sense of inadequacy/guilt
4.School Age (6 – 12 years)
Psychosocial conflict: Industrious VS Inferiority
Task: developing social, physical and learning skills
If successful: competence and ability to work and learn
If unsuccessful: sense of inferiority or difficulty in working and learning
5. Adolescence period (12 – 20 years)
Psychosocial conflict: Identity VS Role Confusion
Task: developing sense of identity
If successful: sense of personal identity
If unsuccessful: role confusion
6. Young Adulthood (20 – 35 years)
Psychosocial conflict: Intimacy VS Isolation
Task: establishing intimate bonds of love and friendship
If successful: ability to love deeply and commit oneself
If unsuccessful: emotional isolation, egocentric (self-directed)
7. Middle Adulthood (35 -65 years)
Psychosocial conflict: Generativity VS Stagnation
Task: fulfilling life goals (family, career, society)
If successful: ability to give and care for others
If unsuccessful: self-absorption, inability to grow as a person
8. Late Adulthood (65 years – death)
Psychosocial conflict: Integrity VS Despair
Task: looking back over one’s life and accepting its meaning
If successful: sense of fulfillment
If unsuccessful: Dissatisfaction with life
As professional teachers, we should know how to prevent crisis to occur on every aspect of
growth and development, especially stages 1-5 for these are the stages where an individual
learner is at school. We should make every tasks given on every aspect of the learner’s life
successful.

JEAN PIAGET developed the Cognitive Development Theory wherein according to him,
knowledge is based from prior learning (schema). He also stressed that Constructivism (realting
past knowledge to new ones) is important to the learners’ development.
The Cognitive Development Theory
1. Sensorimotor Stage (birth – 2 years)
· Sensory organs and muscles become more functional
· Movements are primarily reflexive
· All are extensions of oneself
· Routines should be established
2. Preoperational Stage (2 – 7 years)
· Starts to think
· Egocentric
· Cannot accept defeat
· Animism (considering that objects have life)
· Role of playing is emphasized (enhances imagination)
· No sense of conservation and reversibility
3. Concrete – Operational Stage (7 – 12 years)
· Knows how to reason out
· Learns the law of conservation
· Learns to follow abstract reasoning but limited
· They have problems in hypothetical reasoning
4. Formal Operation Stage (12 years onwards)
· Able to solve abstract problems
· Learner is rational and logical

LAWRENCE KOHLBERG based his ideas on the findings of Jean Piaget in studying Cognitive
Development and proposed the Moral Development Theory. According to him, our ability to
choose right from wrong is tied with our ability to understand and reason logically.
The Moral Development Theory
Level 1. Pre-Conventional (Authority figures are obeyed) (birth – 9 years)
Stage 1. Punishment-Obedience Orientation
[if you do good, no punishment]
[if you do wrong, there will be punishment]
Stage 2. Instrumental-Relativist
[I will do good to you if you are good to me]
[I will do bad to you if you are bad to me]
Level 2. Conventional (9 – 13 years)
Stage 3. Interpersonal Concordance (Good Boy Nice Girl Orientation; Morality of Cooperation)
[I am doing this because everyone is doing the same thing]
Stage 4. Law and Order Orientation
Morality of Constraints
Behavior is right when it conforms to the Law
Level 3. Post Conventional (13 years onwards)
Stage 5. Social Contratc Orientation (Morality of Cognition)
Respect the differences in ideas, concepts, orality and religious affiliation
It is wrong to violate others’ rights
Stage 6. Universal Ethics Orientation
[I will do it because I know it is right to do it]
Knowing the Moral Developement Theory, teachers can be guided on making disciplinary
measures in the classroom and managerial processes.

LEV VYGOTSKY proposed the Socio-Cultural Theory. He emphasized that social interaction
plays a very important role in cognitive development. He also believed that individual
development could not be understood without looking into the social and cultural context within
which development happens.
Scaffolding is Vygotsky’s term for appropriate assistance given by the teacher to assist the
learner accomplish a specific task.
Language Development *the best definition of the word is based on how it is being used.
There are four (4) major theorists on Language Developement.
1. BURRHUS FREDERICK SKINNER
· Proposed Operant Conditioning
· Involves reinforcements (rewards)
· “Talk to the child in an adult way”
· Playing Damn Technique – let the child talk
2. NOAM CHOMSKY developed the Language Acquisition Device or Mother Tongue-Based
Technique. He is also the major proponent of the Innatist Theory, which postulates that humans
have innate ability to acquire language; they are genetically preprogrammed for it. All normally
developing children acquire language. He also maintains that language and thought are separate.
3. SOCIAL CONTEXTUAL THEORY. This theory is primarily proposed by Lev Vygotsky
which states that social interaction influences both language and cognitive development
4. COGNITIVIST THEORY (Jean Piaget) maintained that language acquisition cannot take
place until cognitive development has paved the way for it. It asserts taht children develop
knowledge of the world and then “map” thixs knoowledge onto language categories and
relations. From this viewpoint, language development depends on cognitive development, but
not vice versa.

Who are the Exceptional Children? They are children with the following conditions and
difficulties:
1. Aphasia – impairment of any language modality (sound production)
2. Dysphasia – partial impairment of language
3. Dyslexia – special learning disability with written language
4. Dyscalculia – special learning disability with numerical operations
5. ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) – impulsivity in attention and being
hyperactive.
Ritalin – medicine for ADHD. It makes the hyperactive child more hyperactive to make him/her
tired and tend to take a rest.

PAULO FREIRE proposed the Banking Concept of Education. According to him, a child is like
a bank which the teacher deposits knowledge. This is almost the same with John Locke’s Theory
of Tabula Rasa wherein the child is like a blank tablet which during the learning process
becomes filled with knowledge. Apparently, Jean Piaget opposed these for according to him, the
child has prior knowledge already and the teacher gives new knowledge then the child relates it
to what he already know (Theory of Constructivism).

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE AND LEARNING STYLES

1. Two-Factor Theory by Charles Spearman. It supports that intelligence has two factors: a
general mental ability factor (g) which represents what different cognitive tasks have in
common; and many specific factors (s) which include mental abilities (mathematical, mechanical
or verbal skills). Spearman is also the first one to use Psychometric approach to measure or
quantify cognitive abilitiesm or factors taht are thought to be involved in intellectual
performance. Let me give you an example:
Who is more intelligent, an examinee who garnered Top 1 in the Licensure Examination for
Teachers or a dancer who won champion in a national dance competition?
From the example given, we can see that both have exceptional abilities. But in terms of asking
who is more intelligent then it depends on how intelligence is defined. If intelligence is defined
in terms of cognitive abilities, we should say that the examinee who topped the LET is more
intelligent. However, if intelligence is defined in terms of motor skills and bodily kinesthetics,
then the champion dancer is more intelligent.
2. Multiple Intelligence Theory by Howard Gardner. It argues that there are different kinds of
mental abilities that make up different kinds of intelligence. Instead of having only two factors,
there are 9 kinds which include verbal intelligence, musical intelligence, logico-mathematical
intelligence, spatial intelligencce, body kinesthetics intelligence, intrapersonal and interpersonal
intelligence, naturalistic intelligence and existential or moral intelligence.
3. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence. This is divided into three sub theories:
a. Experiential intelligence which is the ability to formulate new ideas;
b. Contextual intelligence which is the ability to adapt to a changing environment; and
c. Componential intelligence which is the ability to think abstractly and process information.
4. Jean Piaget’s Dynamic View. According to him, a person’s intelligence is dynamic, that is, it
changes as a person’s interaction with his or her environment changes.
5. Wechsler’s Global View. David Wechsler made his fame as the developer of the IQ Tests. He
devised teh Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WESC-R). He stressed that
intelligence is the aggregate ot global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think
rationally and to deal effectively with te environment.

•FREUD'S PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

STAGE: Oral
AGE: Birth to 1 1/2 y/o
CHARACTERISTICS:
>Center of pleasure- mouth (major source of gratification and exploration)
>Primary need- security
>Major conflict- weaning
STAGE: Anal
AGE: 1 1/2 to 3 y/o
CHARACTERISTICS:
>Source of pleasure- anus and bladder (sensual satisfaction and self control)
>Major conflict- toilet training
STAGE: Phallic
AGE: 4 to 6 y/o
CHARACTERISTICS:
>Center of pleasure- child's genital (masturbation)
>Major conflict- Oedipus and Electra Complex
STAGE: Latency
AGE: 6 y/o to puberty
CHARACTERISTICS:
- Energy directed to physical and intellectual activities
- Sexual impulses repressed
- Relationship between peers of same sex
STAGE: Genital
AGE: Puberty onwards
CHARACTERISTICS:
- Energy directed towards full sexual maturity and function and development of skills cope with
the environment
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•HAVIGHURTS DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE AND TASKS
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE:
Infancy vs. Early Childhood
DEVELOPMENTAL TASK:
- Eat solid foods, walk, talk
- Control elimination of wastes
- Relate emotionally to others
- Distinguish right from wrong
- Learn sex differences
- Achieve personal indepence
- Form simple concepts of social and physical reality
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE: Middle Childhood
DEVELOPMENTAL TASK:
- Learn physical skills required for games
- Build healthy attitudes towards oneself
- Learn to socialize with peers
- Learn appropriate masculine or feminine role
- Gain basic reading, writing and math skills
- Develop attitudes toward social groups
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE: Adolescence
DEVELOPMENTAL TASK:
- Mature relationship same age of both sexes
- Accept own body
- Emotional independence from parents
- Prepare for an occupation
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE: Early Adulthood
DEVELOPMENTAL TASK:
- Select a partner
- Learn to live with a partner
- Start a family, manage home
- Establish occupation, career
- Civic responsibilities
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE: Middle Adulthood
DEVELPMENTAL TASK:
-Fullfill civic and social responsibilities
- Relate one's partner
- Adjust to physiological changes
- Adjust to aging parents
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE: Later Maturity
DEVELOPMENTAL TASK:
- Adjust to health status
- Adjust to retirement altered income
- Adjust to death of spouse
- Establish satisfactory living arrangement
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•SULIVAN'S INTERPERSONAL MODEL OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
STAGE: Infancy
AGE: Birth to 1/2 yrs
DESCRIPTION:
- Infant learns to rely on caregivers to meet needs & desires.
STAGE: Childhood
AGE: 1 1/2 to 6 yrs
DESCRIPTION:
- Child begins to learn and to delay immediate gratification of needs & desires.
STAGE: Juvenile
AGE: 6 to 9 yrs
DESCRIPTON:
- Child forms fulfilling peer relationship.
STAGE: Preadolescence
AGE: 9 to 12 yrs
DESCRIPTION:
- Child relates successfully to same-sex peers.
STAGE: Early Adolescence
AGE: 12 to 14 yrs
DESCRIPTION:
- Adolescent learns to be independent & forms relationships with members of the opposite sex.
STAGE: Late Adolescence
AGE: 14 to 21 yrs
DESCRIPTION:
- Person establishes an intimate, long lasting relationship with someone of the opposite sex.
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•PIAGET'S PHASES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
PHASE: Sensorimotor AGE: Birth to 2 yrs
DESCRIPTION: Sensory organs & muscles become more functional
Stages of Sensorimotor
>Stage 1: Use of reflexes
Age: Birth to 1 month
Description: Movements are primarily reflexive
>Stage 2: Primary circular reaction
Age: 1- 4 months
Description: Perceptions center around one's body. Objects are perceived as extension of the self
>Stage 3: Secondary circular reaction
Age: 4- 8 months
Description: Becomes aware external environment initiates acts to change the movement
>Stage 4: Coordination of secondary schemata
Age: 8- 12 months
Description: Differentiates goals and goal directed activities
>Stage 5: Tertiary circular reaction
Age: 12- 18 months
Description: Experiments with methods to reach goals, develops rituals that become significant
>Stage 6: Invention of new means
Age: 18- 24 months
Description: Uses mental imagery to understand the environment , uses fantasy
PHASE: Preoperational AGE: 2- 7 years
DESCRIPTION: Emerging ability to think *children use symbolism ( images and language ) to
reprsent and understand various aspects of environment
Stages of Preoperational
>Pre-conceptual Stage
Age: 2- 4 years
Description: Thinking tends to be egocentric, Exhibits use of symbolism
>Intuitive Stage
Age: 4- 7 years
Description: Unable to break down a whole into separate parts, able to classify objects according
to one trait
PHASE: Concrete Operations AGE: 7- 11 yrs
DESCRIPTION: Learns to reason about events between here and now, can understand basic
properties of and relations among objects and events, able to solve concrete problem in logical
fashion
PHASE: Formal Operations AGE: 11 + yrs
DESCRIPTIONS: Able to see relationships and to reason in the abstract, becomes more
scientific in thinking, capable of systematic and deductive reasoning
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•KOHLBERG'S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
LEVEL AND STAGE
Level I: Pre-Conventional (Birth to 9 years)
DESCRIPTION: Authority figures are OBEYED. Misbehavior is viewed in terms of damage
done.
STAGES
>Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation
Description: A deed is perceived as WRONG if one is punished; the activity is right if one is not
punished.
>Stage 2: Instrumental-Relativist Orientation
Description: RIGHT is defined a that which is acceptable to and approved by the self. When
actions satisfy one's needs, they are right.
LEVEL II: Conventional (9-13 years)
DESCRIPTION: Cordial interpersonal relationships are maintained.
>Stage 3: Interpersonal concordance
Description: Authority is RESPECTED
>Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation
Description: Individual feels "duty bound" to maintain social order. Behavior is RIGHT when
it CONFORMS TO THE RULES.
LEVEL III: Post-Conventional (13 + years)
DESCRIPTION: Individual understands the MORALITY of having democratically established
laws.
>Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation
Description: It is WRONG TO VIOLATE OTHERS RIGHT
>Stage 6: Universal Ethics Orientation
Description: The person understands the principles of human rights and personal conscience