TOPIC: Types of learning

TYPES OF LEARNING

Learning can be defined in many ways, but most psychologists would agree that it is a
relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience. During the first half of
the twentieth century, the school of thought known as behaviorism rose to dominate
psychology and sought to explain the learning process.

The three major types of learning described by behavioral psychology are classical
conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.
1. Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a learning process in which an association is made between a
previously neutral stimulus and a stimulus that naturally evokes a response.
2. Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a learning process in which the probability of a response
occurring is increased or decreased due to reinforcement or punishment.
3. Observational Learning
Observational learning is a process in which learning occurs through observing and
imitating others.

THEORIES OF LEARNING
(1) Behaviorist Learning Theory
Behaviorism focuses on the idea that all behaviors are learned through interaction
with the environment. This learning theory states that behaviors are learned from the
environment, and says that innate or inherited factors have very little influence on
behavior.

Key Players in the behavioral learning theory:

 Edward Thorndike
- The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R framework of
behavioral psychology: Learning is the result of associations forming between
stimuli and responses.
- He started his research with animals using stimulus-response (classical
conditioning) and developed the idea of Connectionism.

CONNECTIONISM - defines learning as a connection or association of an

increasing number of habits. More complicated associations mean higher
levels of understanding
- He developed the three laws of learning: law of readiness, exercise and effect

Three Laws of Learning

1. Law of Readiness
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It is the primarily law of learning also known as "Law of Action

Tendency.” It deals with attitudes and focuses on "Why should I do this?"
This law suggests that learning takes place when an action tendency is
aroused through preparatory adjustment, set or attitude.
2. Law of Exercise
It is the second law of learning which is also known as the "Law of Use
and Disuse." It suggests that strength of connection is proportional to
frequency, duration, and intensity of its occurrence. According to
Thorndike, the connections or bond made in the brain cortex are
strengthened if the person exercises his brain through
3. Law of Effect
It suggests that responses that cause satisfaction strengthen connections
and discomfort weaken connections. If the responses to the response to
stimulus satisfies the subject, it is learned and selected, while those
responses that are not satisfying are eliminated

 Ivan Pavlov
- He was the first to demonstrate Classical Conditioning
- His observation during his studies of dogs had a major impact on our
understanding of how learning takes place as well as the development of the
school of behavioral psychology.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
- Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning)
is learning through association. In simple terms, two stimuli are linked
together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal.
- This learning process creates a conditioned response through associations
between an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus.

 James Watson
- He was also a proponent of Classical Conditioning, but he took Pavlov's
work to another level
- He emphasized that learning was observable or measurable, not cognitive.
- He believed the key to learning was in conditioning a child from an early age
based on Pavlov's methods

 B.F. Skinner
- He believed that we do have such a thing as a mind, but that it is simply
more productive to study observable behavior rather than internal mental
events.
- He believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes
of an action and its consequences which he called Operant Conditioning

OPERANT CONDITIONING
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- It is the idea that behavior is determined or influenced by its consequences

- This is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for
behavior.
- Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior
and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior.

TYPES OF REINFORCERS (STIMULI)

(1) Primary Reinforcer - stimuli fulfilling basic human drives
(2) Secondary Reinforcer - stimuli that are personally important, such as
approval or friends, winning money, or recognition

TYPES OF REINFORCEMENTS
(1) Positive reinforcement - presenting a reinforcing stimulus
(2) Negative reinforcement - removing/ withdrawing a stimulus or reinforcer

TYPES OF PUNISHMENTS
(1) Positive punishment - presents an unfavorable event or outcome in order to
weaken the response it follows.
(2) Negative punishment - occurs when a favorable event or outcome is
removed after a behavior occurs.

 Albert Bandura
- He was one of the first psychologists to recognize the phenomenon of
observational learning.
- He contributed to the understanding of learning through observation and
modelling which is a part of his Social Learning Theory.
- He conducted a controlled experiment study to investigate if social behaviors
(i.e., aggression) can be acquired by observation and imitation.

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
It takes place by watching others. It occurs when an observer’s behavior
changes after viewing the behavior of a model. An observer’s behavior can be
affected by the positive or negative consequences.

Four processes in observational learning:

(1) Attention
Observers cannot learn unless they pay attention to what’s happening around
them. This process is influenced by characteristics of the model, such as how
much one likes or identifies with the model, and by characteristics of the
observer, such as the observer’s expectations or level of emotional arousal.

(2) Retention
Observers must not only recognize the observed behavior but also remember it
at some later time. This process depends on the observer’s ability to code or
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structure the information in an easily remembered form or to mentally or

physically rehearse the model’s actions.
(3) Production
Observers must be physically and/intellectually capable of producing the act.
In many cases the observer possesses the necessary responses. But sometimes,
reproducing the model’s actions may involve skills the observer has not yet
acquired. It is one thing to carefully watch a circus juggler, but it is quite
another to go home and repeat those acts.
(4) Motivation
Observers will perform the act only if they have some motivation or reason to
do so. The presence of reinforcement or punishment, either to the model or
directly to the observer, becomes most important in this process.

 Robert Gagne
- He is the proponent of the Hierarchy of Learning which is an arrangement of
8 behaviors ranging from simple to complex.
- His Hierarchy of Learning notes transition from behaviorism to cognitive
psychology.
- According to Gagne, the higher orders of learning in this hierarchy build
upon the lower levels, requiring progressively greater amounts of previous
learning for their success. The lowest four orders tend to focus on the more
behavioral aspects of learning, while the highest four focus on the more
cognitive aspects.

Gagne’s Eight Hierarchy of Learning

(1) Signal Learning
This is the simplest form of learning, and consists essentially of
the classical conditioning first described by the behavioral psychologist
Pavlov. In this type of learning the animal or individual acquires a
conditioned response to a given signal.
(2) Stimuli-response Learning
This is a more sophisticated form of learning, which is also known
as operant conditioning, which was originally developed by Skinner. In
this kind of learning, exemplified by animal training, the animal makes
precise responses to specific stimuli.
(3) Chaining
This is a more advanced form of learning in which the subject develops the
ability to connect two or more previously-learned stimulus-response bonds
into a linked sequence. It is the process whereby most complex
psychomotor skills (eg riding a bicycle or playing the piano) are learned.
(4) Verbal Association
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This is a form of chaining in which the links between the items being
connected are verbal in nature. Verbal association is one of the key
processes in the development of language skills. This type of learning is a
type of chaining, but the links are verbal units.
(5) Discrimination Learning
This involves developing the ability to make appropriate (different)
responses to a series of similar stimuli that differ in a systematic way. The
process is made more complex (and hence more difficult) by the
phenomenon of interference, whereby one piece of learning inhibits
another.
(6) Concept Learning
This involves developing the ability to make a consistent response to
different stimuli that form a common class or category of some sort. It
forms the basis of the ability to generalize, classify etc.
(7) Rule Learning
This is a very-high-level cognitive process that involves being able to learn
relationships between concepts and apply these relationships in different
situations, including situations not previously encountered. It forms the
basis of the learning of general rules, procedures, etc.
(8) Problem Solving
This is the highest level of cognitive process according to Gagné. It
involves developing the ability to invent a complex rule, algorithm or
procedure for the purpose of solving one particular problem, and then
using the method to solve other problems of a similar nature.

Gagne’s Five Learning Outcomes

(1) Intellectual Skills
As the first category in the cognitive domain, intellectual skills outline
how to follow procedures to get things done. There are five different levels
of learning within the intellectual skills category: discrimination, concrete
concept, defined concept, rule, and problem-solving.
(2) Cognitive Strategy
The second type of cognitive skill is a cognitive strategy. There are a few
strategies for learning as well as for thinking, which are also called
metacognitive strategies. Learning strategies include rehearsal,
elaboration, and organizing. Metacognitive strategies include: setting
goals, tracking progress, and modifying strategies. These strategies help
students control their everyday stress, manage their time effectively, and
focus their attention on the task at hand.
(3) Verbal Information
The third category in the cognitive domain, verbal information, is taught
using different techniques to aid in memory recall. Using imagery and
other mnemonic strategies helps students make connections with the
information and remember it more easily. As verbal information is often a
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lot of facts, places and names, the use of learning strategies is meant to
provide cues to one’s memory.
(4) Motor Skills
The only category in the psychomotor domain, motor skills are physical
actions that are assessed in complex performances such as skiing, dancing,
skateboarding, or even writing with a pencil. These movements are
evaluated on accuracy, smoothness, speed, or force. Motor skills are also
known as psychomotor skills due to the coordinated response required.
(5) Attitude
Attitude is found in the affective domain due to its unique state. It is often
challenging to measure attitude, as each individual must declare their own
thoughts. Self-reported questionnaires would be an example of how we
can assess the attitudes of learners. Although it is an internal state of mine,
attitude can be observed in one’s own personal choices or actions.

(2) Cognitive Learning Theory

- This theory focuses information processing in relation to the total
environment. It studies developmental stages, understanding multiple forms of
intelligence, problem solving, critical thinking, and creativity.
- Cognitive Learning Theory uses metacognition—“thinking about
thinking”—to understand how thought processes influence learning. It's often
contrasted against—or complemented by—Behavioral Learning Theory,
which focuses on the outside environment's influences on learning.

Key Players in the cognitive learning theory:

 Jean Piaget
- His theory of cognitive development suggests that intelligence changes as
children grow.
- He believed that humans create their own understanding of the world and
believed that learning is caused by two processes: assimilation and
accommodation
- He believed that cognitive development occurs through the interaction of
innate capacities and environmental events, and children pass through a series
of stages which he called the stages of cognitive development.
- Through his studies, Piaget declared that cognitive development occurred in
four stages throughout one’s childhood.

Four Stages of Cognitive Development

(1) Sensorimotor Stage (Age 0-2)
During this stage the infant lives in the present. It does not yet have a
mental picture of the world stored in its memory therefore it does not have
a sense of object permanence.
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(2) Pre-operational Stage (Age 2-7)

Children have made some progress towards detaching their thought from
physical world. However, have not yet developed logical (or 'operational')
thought characteristic of later stages.
(3) Concrete Operational Stage (Age 7-11)
Children can think logically much more successfully if they can
manipulate real (concrete) materials or pictures of them. Piaget considered
the concrete stage a major turning point in the child's cognitive
development because it marks the beginning of logical or operational
thought.
(4) Formal Operational Stage (Age 12-Adolescent)
From about 12 years children can follow the form of a logical argument
without reference to its content. During this time, people develop the
ability to think about abstract concepts, and logically test hypotheses. This
stage sees emergence of scientific thinking, formulating abstract theories
and hypotheses when faced with a problem.

(3) Constructivist Learning Theory

- This theory focuses on encouraging students to use active techniques
(experiments, real-world problem solving) to create more knowledge and then
to reflect on and talk about what they are doing and how their understanding is
changing.
- Constructivist teachers encourage students to constantly assess how the
activity is helping them gain understanding. By questioning themselves and
their strategies, students in the constructivist classroom ideally become "expert
learners." This gives them ever-broadening tools to keep learning. With a
well-planned classroom environment, the students learn HOW TO LEARN.

Key Players in the cognitive learning theory:

 Lev Vygotsky
- He believed children learn about their world through physical interaction.
- He developed the Theory of Sociocultural Development which asserts that
learning is an essentially social process in which the support of parents,
caregivers, peers and the wider society and culture plays a crucial role in the
development of higher psychological functions.
- He argued that culture has a major impact on a child’s cognitive
development.
- He believed that the social interactions with adults and more learned peers
can facilitate a child’s potential for learning.
- He developed the theory of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

It is the distance between the actual development level as determined by
independent problem solving and the level of potential development as
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determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or

in collaboration with more capable peers.’

Scaffolding
It is the process of receiving help from others to master material. It is the
role of teachers and other supporting the learner's development and
providing support structure to get to the next level or stage

(4) Humanist Learning Theory

- This theory focuses on the whole child, their social, psychological, and cognitive
development studies focus on human needs attitudes, feelings and self-awareness.
- It approaches learning as a way to fulfill individual’s potential rather than
meeting specific learning target.
- The humanistic learning theory developed further and harnesses the idea that if
students are upset, sad, or distressed, they’re less likely to be able to focus on
learning. This encourages teachers to create a classroom environment that helps
students feel comfortable and safe so they can focus on their learning.

Key Players in the cognitive learning theory:

 Abraham Maslow
- He is leader of humanistic psychology
- He approached the study of personality psychology by focusing on subjective
experiences and free will.
- Maslow’s research on the Hierarchy of Needs is a major concept within the
humanistic learning theory as it focuses on the whole person, specifically the
cognitive and affective needs of the learner.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

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(4) Humanist Learning Theory

- Connectivism is one of the newest learning theories that suggests students
should combine thoughts, theories, and general information in a useful
manner.
- It accepts that technology is a major part of the learning process and that our
constant connectedness gives us opportunities to make choices about our
learning.
- It focuses on the idea that people learn and grow when they form
connections.