Professional Documents
Culture Documents
UNIT 2B
“Learning How to Learn”
Three Important Points About Learning:
1. Learning is a process whereby the learner builds meaning through making connections between past
and present experiences.
2. Learning is something that the student does and is not done unto him or her.
3. Learning concerns more than just content but must include thinking processes (e.g. problem- solving,
scientific inquiry) and other types of learning (e.g. motor skills, attitudes, and values).
Gagne then proposes the nine events of instruction together with the involved cognitive processes
which are as follows: 1) gaining attention (reception); 2) informing learners of the objective
(expectancy); 3) stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval); 4) presenting the stimulus (selective
perception); 5) providing learning guidance (semantic encoding); 6) eliciting performance
(responding); 7) providing feedback (reinforcement); 8) assessing performance (retrieval); and 9)
enhancing retention and transfer (generalization). Each step should meet the necessary conditions for
learning as one relates to the other. This then serves as the basis for instructional decisions of the
teacher which include but are not limited to lesson planning and choice/design of instructional
materials.
This theory suggests four key principles. First, different learning outcomes require different instruction.
Second, the events of instruction constitute the different conditions of learning that operate on the
learner. Third, the activities for each instructional event depend on the type of learning outcome
expected. Lastly, learning hierarchies dictate the sequence of instruction including the prerequisite
skills needed.
EARLY CHILDHOOD
o PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT DURING EARLY CHILDHOOD
1. The rapid increase in body size over the first two years tapers off into a slower growth pattern. On
average, children add 2 to 3 inches in height and about 5 pounds in weight each year. Boys continue to
be slightly larger than girls.
2. Large muscles develop before small muscles. Muscles in the body's core, legs, and arms develop before
those in the fingers and hands. Children learn how perform gross (or large) motor skills such as walking
before they learn to perform fine (or small) motor skills such as drawing.
3. The center of the body develops before the outer regions. Muscles located at the core of the body
become more assertive and develop sooner than those in the feet and hands.
4. Development goes from the top down, from the head to the toes. This is why babies learn to hold their
heads up before they know how to crawl.
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
During this stage, children also learn how to use their hands to successfully complete manual activities other
than drawing or writing. For example, they become capable of executing complex detail-oriented craft
projects involving beading, sewing, scrapbooking, and building models and are good at using simple tools.
ADOLESCENCE
o PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT DURING ADOLESCENCE
During this developmental stage, adolescents experience two significant changes in physical development.
These are:
2. PUBERTY
nce of primary and secondary sex characteristics and the point at which the individual becomes physically capable of
on.
SEX CHARACTERISTICS
Primary sex characteristics
Include the development of gonads (testes for boys and ovaries for girls) and the production of sex hormones.
Secondary sex characteristics
Include the development of body form (triangular for boys and hourglass for girls), growth of pubic hairs, and
menarche (first menstrual period for girls) and penis growth for boys. (Gines, et al., 1998)
Gross and fine motor skills improve continuously during adolescence. Adolescents can do more
complex and strenuous activities compare to when they were in their middle childhood.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Group 2
Jean Piaget's Cognitive Development
How children think, explore, and figure things out.
Process by which human beings acquire, organize, and learn to use knowledge.
Development of knowledge, skills, problem-solving, and dispositions, that help children to think about
and understand the world around them.
The growth of a child’s ability to think and reason.
Fostering a child’s cognitive development as soon as he/she was born provides a foundation for the
child’s success in school and later in life.
Sensorimotor Stage
NEONATE [BIRTH TO 1 MONTH]
1-6 MONTHS
Infants learn through the senses.
Learning is strengthened through positive results of
behaviors.
Repetition is made possible when the infant is reminded of the original context.
EXAMPLE:
o When an infant experiences consistent care, he/she feels more secure because his/her basic needs are
being met. This will give the toddler more energy to explore and learn.
6-12 MONTHS
Infants participate in goal-directed behaviors.
Learning now includes the ability to tell the differences between small sets of objects.
Imitation is deferred in consideration of learned behaviors.
12-18 MONTHS
Toddler builds cause-effect relations to actions. A toddler can make a sound by
banging something on the table.
He/she understands that she can make things happen with simple
actions.
Learning is now made possible through constructive play.
CONSTRUCTIVE PLAY
A toddler explores objects that are concealed within view. Hide an object once and then hide it again,
in a different location.
Making a toddler choose where a coin is hidden from both of your hands.
Preoperational Stage
18-30 MONTHS [Preschool Years]
The start of the Preoperational Stage.
Capable of mental representations and symbols.
Intelligence at this stage is intuitive.
Can make mental representations, pretend, and now closer to the use of symbols.
Episodic memory begins and object permanence is achieved.
30-36 MONTHS
Children are able to count.
Can identify basic color words among others.
Children can explain familiar causal relations.
5-6YEARS OLD
Children can differentiate between what is real and what is imaginary.
The ability to encode, make generalizations, and strategize are honed.
Conservation
An understanding that something can stay the same in quantity even though it looks different.
Decentration
Tied to conservation. It’s all about concentrating on several factors at the same time. Children need to
figure out decentration so that they can conserve correctly.
Reversibility
An understanding that actions can be reversed. Sort of like mental gymnastics.
Seriation
Mentally sorting a group of things into some sort of order.
Sociocentricity
The child is no longer egocentric and fully focused on themselves.
Create timelines, three-dimensional models, science experiments, and other ways to manipulate
abstract concepts.
Use brain teasers and riddles to foster analytical thinking.
Focus on open-ended questioning.
Organizational strategies
Children are more likely to group items mentally into meaningful clusters of closely associated items (i.e.,
animal, color, food) than younger children.
Elaboration
A process by which the learner builds an internal connection between what is being learned and previous
knowledge.
YOUNG ADULTHOOD
20-40 YEARS OLD
1. Young adults are capable of complex thinking.
Uses more complex thinking focused on personal
decision-making in school and at home.
Show the use of formal logical operations in schoolwork.
Questions authority and society's standards.
Forms and speaks his or her thoughts and views on many
topics. (e.g. what sports or groups he or she prefers)
Intelligence
refers to information processing abilities, such as logical
reasoning, remembering lists, spatial ability, and reaction
Fluid time Decreases
Intelligence the capacity to learn new ways of solving problems and with age
performing activities quickly and abstractly
An individual seems to experience a decrease in the ability to The quantity of creative outputs
generate many novel ideas. However, it is not considered a may decline but not the quality.
decline but a qualitative change in the creative process because
with age comes an increase in crystallized intelligence.
Success in career, change of career or burnout may happen.
In a workplace, middle-aged adults may either gain expertise, more likely to switch jobs as more
attractive opportunities appear, or unsuccessfully manage the stress caused by the workplace resulting
in burnout.
EXAMPLES:
Forgetting names or appointments, but remembering later.
Remember an event that happened in their childhood but can’t remember what they had for
breakfast.
Repeating the same questions that have already been answered during a conversation.
There may be a deterioration of memory and intelligence in certain aspects but there are ways to
compensate.
Conclusion
Major factor that guides teachers in constructing strategies is the different gaps in the students'
learning.
Common factor: knowledge gap
Teachers teach students in a more simple but comprehensive way.
Make interventions if there are still students who cannot follow.
APPLICATION
Subject Mathematics
Topic Trigonometry
PRESCHOOLERS:
By this age, the stage has been set in the earliest years for a child to branch out. As preschool begins your child
can:
Explore independently
Express affection openly, though not always accurately—there can still be much frustration for your
child as language development is still happening
Still show some stranger anxiety
Perfect the temper tantrum—it can be stressful, but tantrums are a normal part of child development
Learn how to soothe themselves
Be more aware of others’ emotions
Cooperate with other children
Express fear or anxiety before an upcoming event (such as a doctor visit)
Thrive on friendships
Want to please friends, as well as be more like their friends
Begin to recognize power in relationships, as well as the larger community
Recognize and fear bullies or display bully-like behavior themselves
As early as 10, children may begin to reject parents’ opinion of friends and certain behaviors—this is a
normal step, but can be especially frustrating for parents visit)
SELF-CONCEPT
Self-concept is how we perceive our behaviors, abilities, and unique characteristics.
COMPONENTS OF SELF-CONCEPT
Self-Image
o refers to how you see yourself at this moment in time. Attributes like physical characteristics,
personality traits, and social roles. All play a role in your self- image.
Self-Esteem
o Self-esteem can be affected by several factors—including how others see you, how you think you
compare to others, and your role in society.
Ideal Self
o The ideal self is the person you want to be. This person has the attributes or qualities you are either
working toward or want to possess. It's whom you envision yourself to be if you were exactly as you
wanted.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Lawrence Kohlberg's Theory
Group 4
Moral development is the gradual development of an individual concept of right or wrong conscious,
religious values, social attitudes and certain behavior.
Especially common in young children, but adults are capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this
stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute.
At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based
on how they serve individual needs. Reciprocity is possible, but only if it serves one's own interests.
Is motivated by the belief in the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of people
Believes in consensus (everyone agrees), rather than in majority rule
Respects the rights of the minority especially the rights of the individual
Believes that change in the law is possible but only through the system
STAGE 6: UNIVERSAL ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles and abstract
reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with
laws and rules.
Believes that there are high moral principles than those represented by social rules and customs
Is willing to accept the consequences for disobedience of the social rule he/she has rejected
Believes that the dignity of humanity sacred and that all humans have value
UNIT 4
GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Gender
The differentiated social roles, behavior, capacities, and intellectual, emotional, and social
characteristics attributed by a given culture to women and men.
The characteristics attributed to women are labeled as feminine and those attributed to men are
labeled as masculine as defined by our society.
Definitions of masculine and feminine often vary from one race and culture to another.
Variations in gender definitions are due to specific economic, political, and social conditions of each
class, culture, or era.
Gender Roles are not inborn. They are learned.
GENDER ATTRIBUTES
Attributes of sex Attributes of Gender
Maleness Masculinity
Femaleness Femininity
Physical Social
Universal Cultural
Congenital Learned Behavior
Unchanging Changes over time
Unvarying Varies within a culture/ among cultures
Sex: in the Realm of the Biological Context
SEX is a biological term: often referred to as the act of mating between two organisms (an act that is part of
the process of biological reproduction). A more technical term for this act is coitus.
This categorization is made according to reproductive function:
1. the female produces the egg cell or ovum
2. the male provides the sperm that fertilizes it
3. Intersex, a rare category that exists
Some people are born with both male and female organs and sometimes called incomplete genitalia. But
these form a very small proportion of the human population.
Besides the fact that the male produces sperm and female produces egg cells, male and female are different
from each other:
A. external genitalia (sex organs)
B. secondary sex characteristics
C. different chromosomal make-up
D. different quantities of various hormones
Male Female
Testosterone Progesterone
Androgen Estrogen