UNIT – II

INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR
PERSONALITY: (ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR – DR.S.S.KHANKA)
Personality of an individual also affects human behavior. Personality is the total of an
individual’s psycho-physical systems that determine his/her behavior in a given environment/situation.
There may be so many personalities as many persons. Personality means different things to different
people. To some, it means one’s charm, dress and attractiveness, to others, it means a unitary mode of
response to life situations.

The English word ‘personality’ has been derived from the latin word per sonare. It
means ‘ to speak through’. Originally , the term denoted the masks worn by the actors in the ancient
Greek dramas. In this way, personality is used in terms of physical attractiveness. However, perceiving
personality in terms of external appearance is in narrow sense. Personality includes something more.

‘Personality can e described as how he understands and views himself, and his pattern
of inner and outer measurable traits’.Eg: We find in our day-to-day life that some people are quiet and
passive, while others are loud and aggressive in their behaviours.

Personality can be defined as the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and
interacts with others and environment. In other words, personality is an organized behavior of an
individual to react to a given stimulus in a set manner. This is most often in the form of consistent
response to environmental stimuli.

TYPES OF PERSONALITIES: (ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR – DR.S.S.KHANKA)

Personalities differ in traits. A trait is any distinguishable, relatively enduring way in

which one individual differs from another. The following are the main types of personalities.

Introvert Personalities:

Introvert is one of the two basic orientations of people have. Persons with introvert
orientation are primarily oriented to the subjective world. Such people look inward and experience and
process their thoughts and ideas within themselves. They also avoid social contacts and initiating
interaction with other group mates, withdrawn, quiet and enjoy solitude. People with introvert
personality are found more inclined to excel at tasks that require thought and analytical skill.

Extrovert Personalities:
 Simple speaking, extroverts are just contrary to introverts. Extroverts are friendly,
sociable, lively, gregarious, aggressive and expressing their feelings and ideas openly. Accordingly, they
are more suitable and successful for the positions that require considerable interaction with others.
Sales activities, publicity departments, personal relations unit, etc., are the examples of activities
suitable for extroverts.

INTROVERTS EXTROVERTS
1)Like quiet for concentration 1)Like variety and action
2)Tend to be careful with details, dislike sweeping 2)Tend to work faster, dislike complicated
statements procedure
3)Have trouble remembering names and faces 3)Are often good at greeting people
4)Like to think a lot before they act, sometimes without 4)Often act quickly, sometimes without
acting thinking
5)Work contentedly alone 5)Like to have people around
6)Have some problems communicating 6)Usually communicate freely
7)Tend not to mind working on one project for a long 7)Are often impatient with long slow jobs
time uninterruptedly
8)Dislike telephone intrusions and interruptions 8)Often do not mind interruptions of
answering the telephone

TYPE A PERSONALITY:

Type A people are characterized by hard-working , highly achievement-oriented,

impatient, have sense of time urgency, aggressive, with competitive drive, etc. Such people tend to be
very productive and work very hard. In fact, they are workaholics. Being impatient and aggressive, such
people are more prone to heart attack.

TYPE B PERSONALITIES:

Easy-going , sociable, free from urgency of time, laid-back and non-competitive are the
characteristics of Type B personalities. Such people do better on tasks involving judgements, accuracy
rather than speed and team work.

JUDGING PERSONALITIES:

People with judging personality types like to follow a plan, make decisions and need
only that what is essential for their work.

PERCEPTIVE PERSONALITIES:

These are the people who adapt well to change, want to know all about a job and at
times may get overcommitted.

JUDGING TYPE PERCEPTIVE TYPE

 1)work best when they can plan work and follow
the plan
2)Like to get things settled
3)May decide things too quickly
4)May not notice new things that need to be
done
5)Want only essential things needed to begin
their work
6)Tend to be satisfied once they reach a
judgement on a thing or situations or person
1)Adapt well to changing situations
2)Do not mind leaving things open for alterations
3)May have trouble making decisions
4)May start too many projects and have difficulty in
finishing them
5)Want to know all about their work
6)Tend to be curious and welcome new information
on a thing or a situation or a person

FACTORS INFLUENCING PERSONALITY:(ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR – M.S.MISHRA)

Personality is the outcome of a continuous personal quality development process. The

role of personality becomes clear in a particular situation. Man is born with certain physical and mental
qualities which are developed in the environment of family, society, education, etc. Personality is
recognized in a situation. Personality is the result of personal quality interaction in a particular
condition. The determinants of personality can be classified into three: Heredity, Environment and
Situation.

HEREDITY:

Heredity has a great influence on biological and mental features. Heredity refers to the
transfer of personal characteristics from father and mother to their children. Based on the definition of
personality, it can be said that it includes external appearance, behavior, social stimulus, self inner
awareness as a permanent organizing force, the particular pattern or organization of measurable traits,
both inner and outer. The contribution of heredity to personality development is vividly clear for
developing external appearance, behavior, social stimuli, self inner awareness, organizing traits, etc.
Heredity influences biological features, brain stimulation and bio-feedback.

Biological Features:

Biological features are developed as per the genes of the parents. A person is tall or
short, fat or thin, handsome or ugly, self-confident or perplexed, has high or low blood pressure are
examples of heredity. The endomorphic, mesomorphic and ectomorphic body structures are the results
of genetic transferences. Physical and psychological characteristics are transmitted through heredity.
Personality traits are similar to the parental or forefathers genetic code. Biological features are
transferred from one generation to another because of the molecular structure of the genes located in
the chromosomes. Research has revealed that heredity plays a vital role in shaping the biological
features. Genetic engineering has revealed the similarities in biological features of members of the
same generation. It has revealed that personality traits such as aggressiveness, sensibility, drug
addiction, intelligence, sociability and livelihood are determined by genetic endowment.
Brain Stimulation:

Heredity has a great impact on brain stimulation. Intelligence and emotions are usually
transmitted from one generation to another. Father and children generally adopt the same type of
brain stimulation. The differences are caused by environment. Electrical stimulation of brain (ESB) and
split brain psychology (SBP) are the outcome of genetic transmission. They are helpful in moulding
employee’s behavior. ESB is used for motivating employees towards better performances. Managers
are trained to use SBP for mobilizing employees for proper behavior. Split brain psychology has been
supported by Indian mythology where persons with a broader and smaller forehead, big and small ear
lobe, big and small eyes, stronger right or left hemisphere of brain have certain personal characteristics
and behavior. Persons with a broader right hemisphere of brain have a leaning towards truth, welfare,
beauty, justice and kindness. Similarly, persons having a broader left hemisphere of brain are cruel,
strong, bureaucratic and have criminal tendencies. InKathoupanishad, it is stated that persons with the
right part of their body broader and stronger are kind, sympathetic, emotional, spiritual, holistic, artistic,
creative and helpful as the right side is considered the place of the moon. Similarly, the left is
considered the abode of the sun. consequently, persons having a broader and stronger left part of the
body are strong, cruel, logical, practical, dominant, intellectual, active, dominating and complex.
Ancient Indian books have described the functions of electrical stimulations of the brain as telepathy,
emotion, godly appealing and justice loving.

Bio-feedback:

Heredity helps the development of a specific bio-feedback . Bio-feedback training is also

influenced by the environment. It causes brain wave patterns, fluctuations in blood pressure,
temperature, and gastric and saliva secretions. Electronic devices are used to measure the effects of
heart functioning on BFT. Thumb-impression and blood pressure are the outcome of the bio-feedback
which is influenced by heredity. BFT tells us how to control the body process. It has been preached by
Indian philosophers that meditation and self-concentration develop the BFT. The developed brain will
become an asset for human behavior. Heredity has a distinctive impact on bio-feedback training.

Environment:

The environment, wherein a person interacts, has a great impact on personality

development. The environment components are culture, religion, family, school and place of work.

a. Culture: The accepted norms of social behavior are known as culture. The way in which people
behave with others and the driving force of such functions are considered significant
components of culture. Culture is based on tradition. Cultural factors shape one’s personality.
Children brought up in a traditional culture imbibe the qualities of traditional norms, attitudes
and values. Modern culture has inspired children to become independent, free-thinking and
self-developing. The ideology of the culture is imitated by the following generations. The
personality attributes of independence, aggression, competition and cooperation are the
outcome of cultural interaction. Western and oriental culture also have a distinctive role in
 shaping the personality of people. These are subcultures in a particular type of culture which
are also determining factors of personality.
b. Religion: Religion plays a significant role in shaping one’s personality. Hindus have different
personalities from those of Muslims and Christians. Children in Hindu Societies learn from the
very beginning about hard work and god-fearing attitudes. They develop frugality and family
closeness. Protestants are taught ethics, family system, friendship and cooperation. Western
Christians are open, independent, aggressive, industrious and cooperative. Muslims are ready
to undertake any job and profession and acquire varying personalities. They are dogmatic,
superstitious and have close personalities.
c. Family: Children learn from their parents, sisters and brothers. Family is the first factor
affecting personality development, after hereditary characteristics are endowed. The mother is
the first teacher in initiating personality development. The father motivates and modifies the
behavior. The socio-economic class of the family has a favorable impact on the personality.
Rich people have different personalities from those of poor people. In India, caste has
differentiated personality features. Higher caste people are more active and enterprising than
those of lower caste. Children develop themselves on the basis of such models. Social
interactions help in personality modification. Children nurtured under a warm, loving and
stimulating environment are positive and active as compared to children neglected by their
parents. Children develop negative and aggressive personalities when neglected. Over
attention and over indulgence develop destructive personalities. The role of the family can be
better understood in the light of parental and sibling influences.
d. Parental Influences: The positive and negative personalities of children are dependent on their
parents’ characteristics and mutual behavior. Children develop negative personalities if the
parents (mother and father) have no cordial relations. A constantly feuding couple cannot make
their children develop positive attitudes. Maladjusted children have distinctive personalities.
They experience separation trauma. Children of divorces, estranged and unattentive parents
have been found to be inept, hostile and inefficient. Proper parental guidance to children
makes them active and efficient. They develop a lifelong pattern of achievement and upward
movement.
e. Siblings Influence: Siblings of the family have personality impacts on each other. The first child
of the family is found to be more responsible and active than the last child of the family. The
order of birth in the family has seen to influence personality development. If the first child in
the family is a daughter, the subsequent male child will be carefree and comfortable. Similarly,
the first male child is more serious and efficient.
f. School: School mates and peers influence each other in personality development. The learning
process helps in the development of children. Personality is the result of a cognitive and
reinforcement process. The content of learning has a great influence on personality. In India,
primary books include the stories of great men. The behavior and success of great persons
become the reference points for personality development. The school atmosphere, teachers’
behavior and social well-being are the influencing factors of development.
g. Place of work: Employees learn at the workplace and develop personalities consequently. A
person’s ambitiousness and industriousness, career and procession have great impacts on
 personality development. Heredity sets the personality within the limits. The workplace helps
development of persons who adjust themselves to the demands and requirements of their
environment.
Personality development is a socialization process. Organisation is a place of
socialization wherein employees learn from each other, get inspiration and try to modify
their personalities. Seers and peers, friends, working partners, father , mother,
brothers, sisters, relatives , government ideologies, national characters and religious and
cultural institutions are the several factors affecting socialization. Attitudes, values,
behavior, and work style are changed as a result of socialization because people get
training and feedback at the workplace.

Situation:
Personality is known as personal quality and interaction in a situation. Therefore, the
situation plays a vital role in personality development. A situation is an antecedent to behavior. A
person having a pleasant personality may develop anger in a confronting situation. People placed in a
bureaucratic situation become apathetic, aggressive and non-personal. People are changed as per
situations. One cannot be rigid and strong in his personality. A situation influences one’s personality.
Interaction in a particular situation helps in the development of personality. It has been observed that
many arrogant and indisciplined employees became humble and disciplined in a particular situation;
those having a criminal history may become powerful and strong administrators; simple teachers are
converted into aggressive and dominant political leaders as a result of countered situations.

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY (Dr.S.S. KHANKA)

As there are so many definitions of personality, so are theories of personality as well. As such,
there is no consensus among the theorists about the theories of personality. Among several theories,
the more prominent are : type, trait, psychoanalytic, social learning and self theory. A brief discussion of
each follows.

Type Theory:

Like other sciences, the first students of human nature also endeavoured to study human
personality by classifying them into certain types. Personality classification was made on two bases:
(i)Body Build, and (ii) Psychological Factors. In case of body build basis, personalities were classified
into types by establishing relationship between one’s body build/ features and personality. Accordingly,
persons having a short or plumb body build were characterized as sociable and relaxed, tall and thin
persons as restrained, self-conscious and fond of solitude and those with heavy set mascular body build
as noisy, callous and fond of physical activity. Admittedly, an individual’s body build/physique may exert
some influence on his/her personality, yet the relationship between the two seems much subtle than
what such classification implies.
 Personality types on the basis of psychological factors are based on the assumption that
personality is the totality of a person’s interacting sub-systems. Then, personalities are, accordingly,
classified into two types: (i) introverts, and (ii) extroverts. As already mentioned while discussing types
of personalities, introverts are those who primarily look inward at themselves, avoid social contacts and
interaction with others, quiet and enjoy solitude. On the contrary, extroverts are sociable, friendly,
gregarious, aggressive, etc. No doubt, typing personalities into introverts and extroverts looks simple
and interesting, but it does not serve much of its purpose in understanding personalities in more detail
and depth. The reason is that, as stated earlier also, most of the people to be neither introverts nor
extroverts but ambiverts, that is, they are in between the two extremes of introverts and extroverts.

Trait Theory:

Some psychologists have tried to understand personality on the basis of individual’s traits. Trait
is an enduring characteristic of a person in which he/she differs from another. Popular human
characteristics include shy, aggressive , submissive,lazy, ambitious, loyal and timid. In practice, the more
consistent the characteristics and more frequently these occur in diverse situations, the more important
traits become in describing a person. Thus, traits can be described as individual variables or
dimensions.

Trait theory is based on the following three assumptions:

1.Traits are common to many individuals but vary in absolute amounts between the individuals.

2.Traits are relatively stable. Their consistent occurance influences the human behavior.

3.One’s trait can be inferred by measuring his/her behavioural indicators.

Allport and Cattell have been among the early psychologists who made efforts to isolate
individual traits. Allport , in his study, identified as many as 17,953 traits. Obviously, predicting human
behavior based on such a large number becomes virtually impossible. Realising the need for reducing
such large number to a manageable one, Cattell first isolated 171 traits and , then, the same reduced to
16 traits, which he termed as source or primary traits. These 16 traits have already been listed while
describing the types of personalities.

Thus, trait theory of personality attempts to understand how a set of personality variables
exerts on one’s behavior. However, this theory suffers from one lacuna is that it is very descriptive
rather than analytical. In fact, no hard evidence supports trait theory as a valid measure of personality.

In recent years, John has propounded a personality model called The Big 5 Model. In this mode,
he advocates that the following five basic personality variables/ dimensions underly all other variables:

1.Extraversion: who is sociable, talkative, and assertive.

2.Agreeableness: One who is goodnatured, co-operative and trusting.

3.Conscientiousness: A Person who is responsible, dependable, persistent and achievement oriented.

4.Emotional Stability: someone characterized by calm, nervous, enthusiastic, depressed and insecure.

5.Openness to Experience: A person who is imaginative, artistically sensitive, and intellectual.

Psychoanalytical Theory:

Psychoanalytical theory is yet another type of personality. The basic notion on which
psychoanalytical theory is based on is that human behavior is influenced more by unseen forces than
conscious and rational thoughts. Sigmund Fraud developed psychoanalytical theory based on his 40
years of writings and clinical practice. Fraud’s clinical experiments on his patients’ behavior led him to
conclude that behavior is mainly influenced by unconscious framework. This unconscious framework is
composed of three elements—id, ego and super ego. Fraud himself considers the division as
hypothetical one rather than specific structures of one’s personality. The reason being the failure of
neuroanatomy in properly locating them within the central nervous system.

A brief description of these three elements i.e., id, ego and super ego, follows:

(i)The Id: The id is innate and the source of psychic energy. It seeks immediate gratification for
biological or instinctual needs. It is like raw and , thus, remains basic to the individual throughout life.
The id follows the basic principal of all human life i.e. , the immediate discharge of psychic energy
(libido) produced by animal drives such as sex and aggression which if pent up, causes tension in the
personality system. The id, by immediately reducing tension, thus, obeys the pleasure principle. As id
knows and obeys no laws and rules, it may result in, as Fraud himself felt, danger for the person concern
and for society as well.

(ii)The Ego: The id is unconscious part while the ego is conscious part of human personality. The ego is
associated with reality. It checks the id through logic and intellect. The ego can best be described as
controlling id through realities. A starving man cannot control or satisfy his hunger simply by eating
images, but by really having food. Thus, here lies the role of ego i.e. reality in satisfying hunger or
reducing tension created by hunger.

(iii)The Super Ego: The super ego represents system of values, norms, and ethic that guide and govern a
person to behave properly in the society. In one sense, the super ego can be described as conscience. It
provides norms and values to ego to determine what is wrong or right at a given time in given
situation/society. In other words, the super ego judges whether an action/ behavior is right or wrong as
per the set norms and standards of the society.

In total , it can be concluded that the id seeks pleasure, the ego verifies reality and the super ego
strives for perfection.

As mentioned earlier, Fraud’s psychoanalytical theory is hypothetical based on theoretical

conception. However, it does not provide any measure for its scientific verification and validity. That is
why this theory is not found very relevant and appropriate in predicting human behavior. Nonetheless,
it provides the idea of unconscious motivation which adds to the understanding of human behavior in a
better manner.

Social Learning Theory:

In fact, human behavior is generally either learnt or modified by way of learning.Learning can
simply be defined as any change in one’s behavior that occurs as a result of experience. In other words,
learning occurs when an individual behaves as a result of experience in a manner different from the way
he/she formerly behaved.

Learning occurs through two ways: (i)Reinforcement , and (ii) Observing others. Learning by
observing others is also called ‘vicarious learning’. The social learning theory emphasizes on how an
individual behaves or acts in a given situation. This theory holds the view that the specific
characteristics of a situation determine how an individual will behave in such situation. His/her
understanding of the situation and behavior evinced in past in similar situations may also influence how
he/she will behave in given situation. Admittedly, situation evokes an individual’s behavioural pattern.
At the same time, it is also true that an individual’s behavior also at times influences the situational
conditions. Individual, by selectively attending to what is happening, can prevent certain conditions
from impinging on him/her . Thus, the relationship between the situation and the individual is of
reciprocal pattern.

Self Theory:

Carl Rogers is credited with self theory of personality. This theory is also described as
‘Phenomenological’ which studies individual’s subjective experience , feelings and his concepts of world
and self. Rogers self theory is composed of perception of the ‘I’ or ‘me’. The following four factors are
included in self theory:

(i)Self-Image: By nature, every person has certain beliefs about what or who he/she is. In other words,
self-image is one’s image of oneself. This is how one sees oneself.

(ii)Ideal-self: The ideal-self refers to what one would like to look like. The basic line of difference
between self-image and ideal-self is that the former indicates the reality of a person whereas the latter
implies the ideality of the person. The latter one, i.e., ideal self stands more important to motivate an
individual to behave in a particular manner.

(iii)Looking Glass-self: This refers to how others are perceiving the individual. In other words , this
means the way an individual thinks people perceive about him and not the way people actually see him.
This indicates that one’s belief about self is a reflection of others’ perception about the person.
(iv)Real-self: The real-self is what one actually is. The first three self-concepts relate to an individual’s
perception about himself/herself. They may be the same or differ from the real-self.

People perceive the same situation differently depending upon their conception of the situation.
This, in turn, influences them to behave differently, Thus, in any attempt of analyzing and
understanding organizational behavior, the self-concept plays a significant role in reacting/behaving in a
particular manner.

LEARNING (DR .s.s. khanka)

DEFINITION:

According to Stephen p.Robbins, “ Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour that
occurs as a result of experience”.

In the opinion of Steers and Porter,” Learning can be defined as relatively permanent change in
behaviour potentiality that results from reinforced practice or experience”.

Components:

a) First, Learning involves change, be it good or bad.

b) Second, the change in behaviour must be relatively permanent. For that matter, a temporary
change in behaviour as a result of fatigue or temporary adaptations are not considered learning.
c) Third, only change in behaviour acquired through experience is considered learning. Therefore,
a change in individual’s thought process or attitudes, if accompanied by no change in behaviour,
would not be learning. For example, the ability to work that is based on maturation, disease, or
physical damages would not be considered learning.
d) Fourth, some form of experience is necessary for learning. Experience may be acquired directly
through practice or observation or indirectly, as through reading.
e) Finally, learning is not confined to our schooling only. As a matter of fact, learning is a life-long
process.

TYPES OF LEARNERS (internet)

The final principle of learning is the learning styles. Learning style refers to the ability of an
individual to learn. A manager’s long –term success depends more on the ability to learn than on the
mastery of the specific skills or technical knowledge. There are four styles people use when learning:

 Activists (accommodation),
 Reflectors (divergence),
 Theorists (assimilation),
 Pragmatists (convergence)
The four styles are based on two dimensions:

1. feeling versus thinking

2. doing versus observing

Activists:

An activists learns by doing and feeling. He/she tends to learn primarily from hands-on
experience. He or she tends to act on gut feeling rather than on logical analysis. An activist tends to rely
more heavily on people for information while making decisions. He/she seeks action-oriented careers
such as marketing, politics, public relations and management.

Reflectors:

A reflector learns by observing and feeling. The reflector has the ability to view
concrete situations from different angles. When solving problems, reflectors enjoys brainstorming. He
or she takes time and analyses many alternatives. Reflector is imaginative and sensitive to the need of
the other people. He/she seeks careers in entertainment, arts and services sector.

Theorists:

A theorists learns by observing and thinking. The theorists is effective at understanding

a wide range of information and putting in to concise and logical form. It is more important for the
theorists that an idea or theory is logical than practical. Theorists tends to be more concerned with
abstract ideas and concept than with people. He/she tends to seek careers in education, information
and science.

Pagmatists:

A pragmatists learns by doing and thinking. The pragmatists seeks practical use of
information. When presented with problems and making decisions, the pragmatists tends to focus on
solution. Pragmatist tends to prefer dealing with technical takes and problem rather than social and
interpersonal issues. Pragmatists seeks technical careers in various field and work at engineering,
production supervision, IT and managerial jobs.

LEARNING PROCESS (M.N.MISHRA)

Stimuli:

Stimuli are any objects and language which draw the attention of people. Employees
get stimuli from the actions of their superiors. Superiors tell and advice employees who pay attention to
these stimuli. All the stimuli may not be fully attended to. Literary works are also stimuli which are
given attention by educated employees. Stimuli are provided at jobs by perks and scores. Universities
and colleges also impart stimuli for learning. Stimuli provides quality performances. Practical training
and vocational teaching are forceful stimuli. The stimuli available at work are numerous . Social,
political, cultural and geographical factors provide varieties of stimuli for learning.

Attention:
 The degree of attention depends upon the nature of stimuli. All stimuli are not paid
attention to . Technical and interesting stimuli are highly attended. Career oriented stimuli are
generally accepted by employees. The personality levels of employees influence their desires to learn,
motives for need fulfillment and tension reduction. Employees having more values of life pay more
attention to the stimuli for acquiring more knowledge and experience. People’s creative attitude are
favourable factors for learning and paying more attention to available stimuli.

Recognition:

Attention-paid stimuli are recognized as acceptable factors of improvement and new

life styles. Employees paying attention to stimuli are recognizing the stimuli for learning purposes. The
levels of recognition depend upon the levels of values, preferences, needs and desires of the employees.
When objectives are unclear, employees do not pay attention and do not recognize the training as a
fruitful process of improvement. In the learning process, unambiguous activities must be observed for
recognition by employees as useful factors for their well being and satisfaction.

Translation:

Recognised stimuli are evaluated at the mental level to eliminate the irrelevant points
for accepting a part of the stimulus for changing behaviour. The evaluation and appraisal of the
recognized stimuli helps in reinforcement. An activity will not take place unless it is found useful by
employees. The translation and evaluation process is a crucial point for implementing the stimuli in
behaviour through reinforcement. Employees behave properly through attitude changes, objectivity,
mental and physical development. It is observed in better performances.

Reinforcement:

Reinforced perception is learning. The perception process includes stimuli, attention,

recognition, translation and behaviour. Perception leads to learning , but perception itself is not
learning unless it is reinforced. Repeated action is reinforcement. Reinforcement maybe positive,
negative, punishment and extinction. Learners learn as per their perception levels. Generally positive
reinforcement is more effective for making permanent changes in behaviour.

Behaviour:

Learning change behaviour through reinforcement of perceived knowledge. It makes

permanent changes in behaviour. A temporary change in behaviour is not learning. Positive behaviour
gives rewards to employees.

Reward:

Employees expect rewards for learning. If the translated behaviour provides a reward, it
is accepted, otherwise it is not accepted. Employees develop their behaviour into habits. Rewards may
be monetary or non-monetary. A non-monetary reward includes job satisfaction, status recognition and
task achievement. Professional satisfaction is attached to the behaviour which influences the form of
reward. The behaviour of employees decides the level and form of reward. The reward reinforcement
makes employees learn more than positive reinforcement behaviour.

Habits:

A permanent change in behaviour becomes a habit which helps continuous

improvement in behaviour and performance. Employees develop the habit of self-appraisal and
development. It helps to instill creativity and confidence in employees who are encouraged to behave
properly again and again. Right behaviour is reinforced repeatedly. Habits help the development of
capability and capacity of employees. Habits translate theoretical knowledge into practice. Skill
development requires habitual performance.

Motives:

Motives depend on the level of satisfaction. Employees getting more satisfaction

through learning develop high motives. Less satisfied learners have low motives. Learning is complete
only when motives are fully realized and translated into efforts.

Efforts:

Habits help achieve good efforts and performance. This is a continuous process. Efforts
are the automatic outcome of good habits which are acquired through the learning process. Self-
development is possible through self-effort. Employees willing to develop themselves are self-
motivated and effort-oriented. Efforts become the stimuli for learning after development of the
standard of employees. Self-learning has been observed when employees have developed good habits
and right motives. The learning process itself provides all these opportunities.

The learning process is totally associated with the mental process, inspiration and
action. Stimuli reach only the unconscious mind. If it pays attention to stimuli it goes to the inner-level
of the mind at subconscious level. Attention is paid by the subconscious mind which analyses the stimuli
and filters out irrelevant stimuli from the employees angle. The relevant stimuli are attended to, but a
smaller portion of the stimuli attended is recognized by the clear mind. Recognition of stimuli is done
only by the clear mind. The stimuli recognized further go to the inner part of the mind only when the
clear mind has received them and the feeling cell of the mind evaluates their utilities. A felt mind has
the capacity to evaluate and appraise the recognized stimuli. The evaluated stimuli if found correct are
stored at the level of the feeling cell of the mind. The stored stimuli or retention work for mobilizing the
function through reinforcement. Repeat and recall are mobilizing factors for action. Similarly, a tense
mind gets reinforcement; it compels and forces the heart to activate the body for action and behaviour.
Intensity at the mental level activates the heart to function. The level , quality and direction of
intensity give the behavioural function a real shape. Behaviour is the outcome of intensified stimuli and
the heart’s activitisation. Behaviour producing reward helps the mental process to think and rethink
again and again at all the five levels of the mind. The reward itself becomes a stimulus which is
attended, recognized, translated and reinforced respectively by the unconscious, subconscious, clear,
felt and intense mind. It reaches to the heart level, and consequently this process develops into a habit.
Permanent changes in behaviour converge in the form of a habit.

Employees learn to behave properly. The process will be more effective if each and
every process is given due importance and placed at the respective level.

LEARNING THEORIES (ob – Dr.S.S.Khanka)

The most basic purpose of learning theory like any other is to better explain how
learning occurs. Attempts have been made by the psychologists and behavioural scientists to develop
theories of learning. To date, the most widely recognized theories of learning are four : classical
conditioning, operant conditioning, cognitive and social learning theories.

Classical Conditioning:

Classical conditioning is modifying behaviour so that a conditioned stimulus is paired

with an unconditioned stimulus and elicits an unconditioned behaviour. Ivan Pavlov, a Russian
psychologist developed classical conditioning theory based on his experiments to teach dog to salivate
in response to the ringing of a bell. When Pavlov presented meat (unconditioned stimulus) to the dog,
he noticed a great deal of salivation (unconditioned response). But, when merely bell was rung, no
salivation was noticed in the dog. Then, what next Pavlov did was to link the meat and the ringing of
the bell. He did this several times. Afterwards, he merely rang the bell without presenting the meat.
Now, the dog began to salivate as soon as the bell rang. After a while, the dog would salivate merely at
the sound of the bell, even if no meat was presented. In effect, the dog had learned to respond i.e., to
salivate to the bell.

The above cited example is logical, yet classical conditioning has real limitations in its
applicability to human behaviour in organizations – for at least three reasons. First, human beings are
more complex than dogs but less amenable to simple cause-and-effect conditioning. Second, the
behavioural environment in organizations is also complex. Third, the human decision making process
being complex in nature makes it possible to override simple conditioning. Skinner feels that the
complex human behaviour is better learned through operant learning.

Operant Learning:

What Pavlov did for classical conditioning, the Harvard Psychologist B.F.Skinner did for
operant conditioning. Skinner’s operant conditioning is based on the notion that behaviour is a function
of its consequences, which may be either positive or negative. He argued that creating pleasant
consequences to follow specific forms of behaviour would increase the frequency of that behaviour.
The consequences of behaviour are used to influence, or shape, behaviour through three strategies:
reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. Thus, operant conditioning is the process of modifying
behaviour through the use of positive or negative consequences following specific behaviours.
Difference between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning

After going through classical and operant conditioning theories, a few lines of distinction
between the two can easily be drawn as follows:

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING OPERANT CONDITIONING

1. A change in stimulus elicits a particular response.
2. The strength and frequency of classically
conditioned behaviours are determined mainly
by the frequency of eliciting stimulus.
3. The stimulus serving as reward is present
everytime.
4. Responses are fixed to stimulus.
Stimulus serves as a cue for a person to
emit the response.
The strength and frequency of operantly
conditioned behaviours are determined
mainly by the consequences.
The reward is presented only if the
organism gives the correct response.
Responses are variable both in types and
degrees.

Cognitive Theory:

There are some psychologists who believe that neither of the two learning theories
discussed so far can explain all the human learning that takes place. They view that most problem
solving situations are hard to explain in the two manners. It is cognitive theory that explains such
situations.

Let us first understand what cognition means. Cognition refers to an individual’s

thoughts, knowledge, interpretations, understandings or views about oneself, and his/her environment.
Based on it, cognitive theory argues that the person tries to form his/her cognitive structure in memory,
which preserves and organizes all information relating to the events that may occur in learning situation.
Let this be exemplified by an example experimented by Kohler.

Kohler presented two sticks to a monkey in the cage. Both sticks were too short to
reach a banana lying outside cage. This produced an experience, or say, cognition, insight monkey.
What monkey did without any prior exposure, joined both sticks together and pulled the banana inside
the cage. Clearly, learning took place inside the mind of monkey. Thus, the learning process involved in
this case is putting or organizing bits of information in a new manner perceived inside the mind. This
type of learning is very important in organizational behaviour for changing attitudes by the individuals.
That is why, many researchers are currently interested in knowing the relationship between cognition
and organizational behaviour.

Social Learning Theory:

Individuals also learn by observing their models whom they admire. Much of what we
have learned so far came from watching our models like parents, teachers, peers, superiors, motion
pictures and television. Thus, learning through both observation and direct experience has been called
social-learning theory.

In social learning , a person starts displaying his/her behaviour like that of someone else,
i.e. model. For example, a person who has been promoted to a new job/position may imitate some of
the behaviour of his/her predecessor. Like other learnings, social learning too can have negative
consequences. For example, the subordinates of an organization/department can learn to come late or
display temper tantrums if their senior behaves in this manner.

Usually, the influence that a model will have on an individual is determine by the
following four processes:

1.Attention Process: People can learn from their models provided they recognize, and pay attention to
the critical features. In practice, the models that are attractive, repeatedly available, or important to us
tend to influence us the most.

2.Retention Process: A model’s influence depends on how well the individual can remember or retain in
memory the behaviour/action displayed by him/her when the model is no longer readily available.

3.Motor Reproduction Process: Now, the individual needs to convert the model’s action into his/her
action. This process evinces how well an individual can perform the modeled action.

4.Reinforcement Process: Individuals become motivated to display the modeled action if incentives and
rewards are provided to them.

ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION (OB – L.M.PRASAD)

Organisational behaviour modification is a sophisticated tool for improving the

organizational effectiveness. Derived and developed from the concept of Skinner’s operant
conditioning, this technique is used to modify or eliminate undesirable behaviour and replace it with
behaviour that is more compatible with goal attainment. Behaviour modification concentrates on a
person’s overt behaviour and this allows a manager to realistically try to observe and deal with outward
manifestations of behaviour. It is built around the use of rewards for observable behaviour. OB Mod
can be defined as the techniques for modifying behaviour of the organizational members so that they
are engaged in desirable behaviour. Robbins has defined OB Mod as follows.

“OB Mod is a programme where managers identify performance- related employee

behaviours and then implement an intervention strategy to strengthen desirable behaviours and
weaken undesirable behaviours”.

Steps in OB Mod:

OB Mod is a tool and , therefore, managers have to go through certain steps to apply it
in practice. OB Mod exercise begins with identification of critical behaviour relevant to organizational
performance. These behaviours are measured, and if there is no discrepancy between desirable
behaviour and measured behaviour, no further action is necessary. However, if there is discrepancy ,
further steps of OB Mod are required . These steps are functional analysis of behaviour, using
intervention strategies for behaviour modification, and finally evaluating whether the behaviour has
been modified in the light of desirable behaviour after the use of intervention strategies. Thus, OB Mod
goes through five steps in modifying the undesirable behaviour. A discussion of these steps is presented
below.

1.Identification of Critical Behaviour:

In order to apply OB Mod , it is necessary that critical behaviours which have significant impact
on the performance outcome of the employees should be identified. Employees may be engaged in
several behaviours in the organization. Out of these, some behaviours may be critical like absenteeism
or attendance, tardiness or promptness, complaints or constructive criticism and doing or not doing a
particular task or procedure and some behaviours may not be critical like bad attitudes or goofing off.
Critical behaviours may be identified through the discussion with the particular employee and his
immediate superior as both are closely intimated with the job behaviours. A systematic behaviour audit
can also be carried on to identify such behaviour. The audit would systematically analyse each job in
question on the pattern of job analysis.

2.Measurement of the Behaviour:

After the critical behaviours are identified, these are measured in terms of the rate at which
these are occurring. If the rate of occurrence is within the acceptable limit (for example, rate of
absenteeism at the rate of one per cent), no action may be required. However, if it is more, it is
required to be changed. Measurement of behaviours can be through either by observing and counting
or by extracting from existing records.

3.Functional Analysis of Behaviour:

Functional analysis involves a detailed examination of present behaviours of the employees to

determine what consequences each of the behaviours produces, what conditions lead to their
occurrences, etc. It pinpoints one of the most significant practical problems of using an OB Mod
approach to change critical performance behaviours. Since only contingent consequences of behaviour
have an impact on subsequent behaviour, functional analysis must make sure that the contingent
consequences are identified. Further, functional analysis often reveals that there are many competing
contingencies for every organizational behaviour, therefore, the analysis must not be deluded by the
contingent consequences that, on the surface, appear to be affecting the critical behaviour.

4.Intervention:

Identification of critical behaviours to change and the factors that cause such behaviours will
determine the development of an appropriate intervention strategy. Intervention is the action taken for
changing the undesirable critical behaviours. Its main objective is to strengthen and accelerate desirable
performance behaviour and /or weaken and decelerat undesirable behaviours. There may be many
intervention strategies that can be used, but the main ones based on the principles of reinforcement, as
discussed earlier, are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement , and withdrawal of positive
reinforcement. The strategies selected must be appropriate to the situation and should produce the
desired result.

5.Systematic Evaluation:

The final step in OB Mod is the systematic evaluation whether the intervention strategies are
working properly or not. Since the basic purpose of OB Mod is to bring change in undesirable
behaviours so as to improve performance, the evaluation must be made on this line. Changed
behaviours can be compared with baseline behaviours and deviations can be noted. If there is positive
change, it suggests that the strategies are successful. However, if the change is not significant, it may
call for adoption for more appropriate strategies.

Contribution of OB Mod:

OB Mod has been applied successfully in many organizations starting from service organizations
to manufacturing organizations, ranging from some people in the organization to the entire
organization. The major strengths of OB Mod are follows:

1.It deals with observed behaviours. Therefore, it can be put to testing.

2.OB Mod presents a set of tools by which people can learn new behaviours and skills thereby

replacing undesirable behaviours.

3.It provides managers various tools for effectively controlling and influencing the behaviours

Employees in the organization.

4.The understanding of OB Mod techniques is comparatively easy. Therefore, managers can use
these without much problems.

Criticisms of OB Mod:

OB Mod has been applied in many organizations with very encouraging results about improving
morale of employees and increased profit. However, because OB Mod has only recently been applied to
industrial settings, few criticisms have been made against this. Such criticisms can be divided into three
categories: metaphysical and ethical, theoretical and general, and practical.

Metaphysical and Ethical Problems:

The critics of OB Mod suggest that this technique is an applied rat morphism and tends to
equate human beings with rats. The basic reason of this criticism is that Skinner’s operant conditioning
principles were developed after a series of experiments with white rats. On ethical ground, the main
objections against OB Mod are as follows:
 1.OB Mod techniques ignore the individuality of man and constitute a threat to the concept of

Personal autonomy. These techniques are employed to manipulate and control the human

beings into another person’s concept of ideal person.

2.Behaviour modification restricts freedom of choice of behaviour. Therefore, this works

against the concept of creativity and innovation. Such things are required for successful

working of the organizations.

3.The idea of changing behaviour through reinforcement under OB Mod tantamount to bribery

as some reward is presented when the person shows the behaviour according to the wishes

the change agent.

Theoretical and General Problems:

There have been some criticisms on theoretical ground particularly on the basis that
conceptualization of OB Mod process is highly oversimplified and many variables affecting human
behaviour have not been considered. The main criticisms in this category are as follows:

1. The OB Mod is based on a simple principle of conditioning. The assumption is made that
individual behaviour is a function of, or is controlled by environmental stimuli, and that forces
internal to the individual have little effect on operant behaviour. However, empirical evidence
suggests that operant behaviour is also a function of certain cognitive and affective variables
residing in the individual like perception, beliefs, expectations,etc. These variables have not
been considered in OB Mod.
2. OB Mod cannot be considered as an innovative and new technique of management. It is just
like old wine in new bottle and new name has been given to the old concepts. In past, many
techniques of behaviour modification have been in practice.

Practical Problems:

Application of OB Mod presents some practical problems in organizations because

organizational settings are different than those in experimental laboratories. Behaviour modification
has been applied primarily with such groups as younger students in schools, delinquents in institutions,
patients with varying behavioural disorders, and mentally retarded. All these applications have several
things in common like.

1.subjects are dependent upon the therapists;

2.they are submissive to the therapists;

3.they have short-time perspective;and

 4.they perform only those tasks which are assigned to them.

In order to apply behaviour modification, these conditions should be prevalent in organizational

settings. However, organizational settings are different than laboratory settings and , therefore,
behaviour modification cannot be applied in organizational settings, as applicable to laboratory.

No doubt, OB Mod has been criticized both on theoretical and practical grounds; however, its
usage has been increasing in business organizations. This technique can be applied in areas of human
resource management, resocialisation of workers, management by objectives, personnel development,
job design, compensation and alternative rewards, facilitating change by positively reinforcing behaviour
, and organizational design. The various criticisms point out that management should take care of the
shortcomings of the technique while applying it in the organization. Thus, this technique should not be
treated as panacea for all organizational behaviour problems but must be applied within the context of
its limitations and shortcomings.

MISBEHAVIOUR (INTERNET)

Organisational misbehavior is defined as ‘anything you do at work that you are not
supposed to do’. It is also often identified as behaviour that is unacceptable to management and may
significantly disrupt its functioning. Organisational misbehavior is voluntary and committed by choice.
The intention to misbehave is defined as behaviour exhibited by an individual or group that is purposeful
and can be harmful to a person, the work group, or the organization.

Reasons for the Organisational Misbehaviour:

1.To benefit the individual

2.To benefit the organization

3.With the intention to damage and hurt a particular individual, organization asset or social unit.

Types :
Organisational Misbehaviour:

1.Rumour and Gossip:

Although rumour and gossip are often viewed as misbehavior because they are often
assumed to undermine productivity and reduce employee morale, they are however important in the
workplace because they involve detailed knowledge of not just what is happening, but also who is doing
what, with whom, how and why. Broadly, these can be depicted as information, influence and
entertainment.
2.Workplace Romance:

Workplace romance is an informal relationship that occurs between men and women
working together in an organization. The most extreme negative power behavior changes influde
favouritism towards the partner, defected power, ignoring complaints about the partner, promoting the
partner, flaunting and assuming more power.

3.Workplace Sabotage:

Workplace sabotage is another type of misbehavior that demonstrates employees

resistance. Powerlessness is one of the mechanisms that drive employees to engage in sabotage in
order to achieve a sense of authority. It intends to damage, disrupt or subvert the organisation’s
operations by creating unfavourable publicity, embarrassment, delays in production, damage to
property, destruction of working relationships, or the harming of employees or customers.

4.Employee Theft:

Employee theft constitutes one of the most serious types of misbehavior in

organizations. It is estimated that three- quarters of all employees steal from their employers at least
once and many of them repeat such actions on a regular basis.

Common Misbehaviour:

1.Notice Me Behaviours:

These behaviours include clowning, cuteness, some eating problems, interruptions,

shyness, showing-off and whining. They are very common in young children who think that the world
revolves around them.

2.Help Me Behaviours:

These behaviours include incompetence, laziness, forgetfulness and untidiness which

are all great ways to keep parents in childrens service. When parents respond to help me behaviours by
reminding, tidying and doing things for kids soon become helpless.

Both behavior types achieve the goal of attention. You know you have attention-seeking
behaviours if your feel annoyed or frustrated . And you tend to respond by scolding, crrecting,
reminding or doing tasks for kids, which is B-grade attention but good enough at any rate.

3.Make Me Behaviours:

These behaviours include defiance, arguing, dawdling, temper tantrums and

stubbornness. These behaviours let parents that they cant make them do anything they don’t want to
do. The goal is power and control. You know you have power-seeker on your hands if you feel angry.
You actually want to make your child do something. Its not pretty. If you respond by telling them what
to do you often get an argument, more defiance or lack of cooperation. These kids don’t mind a good
scrap

4.Hurt You Behaviours:

These hurtful behaviours include hit, stealing, refusal to cooperate and saying hurtful
things. The behaviours vary but the goal is the same to retaliate or hurt others around them. When
confronted with these retaliatory behaviours you feel hurt or even threatened

Children – Misbehaviour:

1.Attention-Seeking Behaviours:

Attention seeking behaviors include behaviours that result in attention from others,
including negative attention such as being punished or ridiculed. Examples of attention-seeking
behaviours are whining, being silly, or interrupting others. If a behavior results in feelings of annoyance
in others. It is likely an attention-seeking behavior. Giving a child plenty of attention for positive
behavior is the best antidote to attention-seeking misbehavior.

2.Power-Seeking Behaviours:

Power-seeking behaviours are a child’s way of seeking some control over his
circumstances. Examples include debating or arguing, refusal to follow instructions, or tantrums.
Attempts at strict rule enforcement will likely result in more defiant behaviours. An effective strategy
for dealing with power-seeking behaviours is to offer choices rather than demands.

3.Confidence-Seeking Behaviours:

A child who lacks confidence in his abilities may be described as lazy, unmotivated,
sloppy, or forgetful, but these children are saying, “ I cant do it”. This type of behavior often results in
feelings of frustration for others. Parents often reinforce these behaviours by doing the tasks for the
child, rather than encouraging independence. Providing step-by-step instruction for tasks, along with
plenty of positive feedback when each step is accomplished, is a helpful method to correct this type of
behavior.

4.Revenge-Seeking Behaviours:

Revenge-seeking behaviours include bullying, vandalism or aggression against younger

or weaker children. Children exhibiting these behaviours are communicating that they feel unaccepted
and a need to get even. They have usually failed to get their needs met through any of the previous
types of misbehavior. They are seeking emotional responses from others, so responding in a controlled
and consistent manner is most effective. Indicate the rule they have violated, the consequences of
breaking that rule, and then follow through with administering the consequences is essential. Finally ,
providing positive feedback for positive behavior will help ensure that those behavior increase.
MANAGEMENT INTERVENTION OF ORGANISATIONAL MISBEHAVIOUR:
EMOTIONS: (Dr.S.S.Khanka)

Emotions and moods vary from person to person and from time to time in case of same
person and, accordingly affect the behaviour. Before we can proceed with our analysis, it seems
pertinent first to clarify the terms emotions and moods and distinguish between the two.

The three terms affect, emotion, and mood are used interchangeably throughout much
of the literature, without distinguishing between them. The confusion, to some extent, may be a result
of the overlap among the concepts of three terms. Though we do not want to obsess over their
definitions, let us define and clarify the differentiation between these three terms.

Of late, the term emotion has become a major variable in psychology and has been
receiving increasing attention in the field of organizational behaviour. Similar to other psychological
constructs, the exact definition and meaning of emotion are not totally agreed upon. Different authors
have defined emotions differently. According to N.H. Frijda, “Emotions are intense feelings that are
directed at someone or something”. In practice, we show our emotions when we are happy about
something, angry at some person, and afraid of something. For example, we feel happy or glad when
we see our friend after a long time , become angry when our directives are not followed by our
subordinates, and we become afraid of technological changes to replace us in our organization. Thus,
emotions can best be described as how a person feels about something.

Types of Emotions:

What are the types of emotions? Or how many emotions are there? Like the meaning of
emotion, there is also not total agreement on the types of emotions. Some try to list as many number
of emotions as they can. The list includes anger, contempt, enthusiasm, envy, fear, frustration,
disappointment, disgust, happiness, hate, hope, jealousy, joy, love, pride, surprise, and sadness. There
are other researchers who try to limit emotions into a few primary or basic ones such as anger, disgust,
fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. They argue that all the others are composed of some of these six
basic emotions. Some researchers have tried to place these six basic emotions along a continuum
ranging from happiness, surprise, fear, sadness, anger to disgust.

1)Positive Primary Emotions:

a)Love/Affection: Acceptance, adoration, longing, devotion, infatuation

b)Happiness/ joy: Cheerfulness, contentment, bliss, delight, amusement, enjoyment, enthrallment,

thrill, euphoria, zest.

c)Surprise: Amazement, wonder, astonishment, shock.

2)Negative Primary Emotions:

a)Fear: Anxiety, alarm, apprehension, concern, qualm, dread, fright, terror

b)Sadness: Grief, disappointment, sorrow, gloom, despair, suffering, dejection.

c)Anger: Outrage, exasperation, wrath, indignation, hostility, irritability.

d)Disgust: Contempt, disdain, abhorrence, revulsion, distaste.

e)Shame: Guilt, remorse, regret, embarrassment, humiliation.

EMOTIONAL LABOR: (ANNA UNIVERSITY)

Meaning:

Emotional labor is an employee’s expression of organizationally desired emotions during

interpersonal transaction at work. The term “ emotional labor” was first defined by the sociologist Arlie
Hochschild as the “management of feeling to create a publicity observable facial and bodily display”.

Following her piece in which she coined this term, several conceptualizations of
emotional labor have been proposed. Some conceptual ambiguity persists, but each conceptualization
has in common the general underlying assumption that emotional labor involves managing emotions so
that they are consistent with organizational or occupational display rules, regardless of whether they are
discrepant with internal feelings.

According to Morris and Feldman, “Emotional labor is the effort, planning , and control
needed to express organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions”.

According to Hochschild, jobs involving emotional labor are defined as those that:

1)Require face-to-face or voice-to-voice contact with the public;

2)Require the worker to produce an emotional state in another person;

3)Allow the employees to exercise a degree of control over their emotional activities. Display rules refer
to the organizational rules about what kind of emotion to express on the job.

Forms of Emotional Labor:

Employees can display organizationally- desired emotions by acting out the emotion.
Such acting can take two forms:

1)Surface acting, involves “painting on” affective displays, or faking; Surface acting involves an
employee’s (presenting emotions on his or her “surface” without actually feeling them. The employee
in this case puts on a façade as if the emotions are felt, like a “persona”).

2)Deep acting wherein they modify their inner feelings to match the emotion expressions the
organization requires.

Though both forms of acting are internally false, they represent different intentions.
That is, when engaging in deep acting, an actor attempts to modify feelings to match the required
displays, in order to seem authentic to the audience (“faking in good faith”); in surface acting, the
alternative strategy, employees modify their displays without shaping inner feelings. They conform to
the display rules in order to keep the job, not to help the customer or the organization, (“faking in bad
faith”). Deep acting is argued to be associated with reduced stress and an increased sense of personal
accomplishment; whereas surface acting is associated with increased stress, emotional exhaustion,
depression, and a sense of inauthenticity.

Emotional Labor in Organizations:

In past, emotional labor demands and display roles were viewed as a characteristics of
particular occupations, such as restaurant workers, cashiers, hospital workers, bill collectors, counselors,
secretaries, and nurses. However, display rules have been conceptualized not only as role requirements
of particular occupational groups, but also as interpersonal job demands, which are shared by many
kinds of occupations.

Determinants of Using Emotional Labor in Organization

1)Societal, occupational, and organizational norms,; for example, empirical evidence indicate that in
typically “busy” stores there is more legitimacy to express negative emotions, than there is in typically
“slow” stores , in which employees are expected to behave accordingly to the display rules; and so, that
the emotional culture to which one belongs influences the employees commitment to those rules.

2)Dispositional traits and inner feeling on the job; such as employee’s emotional expressiveness, which
refers to the capability to use facial expressions, voice, gestures, and body movements to transmit
emotions ; or the employee’s level of career identity (the importance of the career role to one’s self-
identity), which allows him or her to express the organizationally-desired emotions more easily,
(because there is less discrepancy between his or her expressed behaviour and emotional experience
when engage their work).

Supervisory regulation of display rules; That is, Supervisors are likely to be important definers of
display rules at the job level, given their direct influence on worker’s beliefs about high-performance
expectations. Moreover, supervisors impressions of the need to suppress negative emotions on the job
influence the employees impressions of that display rule.

Implications of Emotional Labor:

Researches indicate that emotional labor jobs require the worker to produce an
emotional state in another person. For example, flight attendants are encouraged to create good cheer
in passengers and bill collectors promote anxiety in debtors.

Research on emotional contagion has shown that exposure to an individual expressing

positive or negative emotions can produce a corresponding change in the emotional state of the
observer.
 Accordingly, a recent study reveals that employees’ display of positive emotions is
indeed positively related to customers’ positive affect.

Positive affective display in service interactions, such as smiling and conveying

friendliness, are positively associated with important customer outcomes, such as intention to return,
intention to recommend a store to others, and perception of overall service quality.

There is a growing body of evidences that emotional labor may lead to employees’
emotional exhaustion and burnout over time, and may also reduce employee’s job satisfaction. That is,
higher degree of using emotion regulation on the job is related to higher levels of employees’ emotional
exhaustion , and lower levels of employees’ job satisfaction.

There is empirical evidence that higher levels of emotional labor demands are not
uniformly rewarded with higher wages. Rather, the reward is dependent on the level of general
cognitive demands required by the job. That is, occupations with high cognitive demands evidence
wage returns with increasing emotional labor demands; whereas occupations low in cognitive demands
evidence a wage “penalty” with increasing emotional labor demands.