- English Studies

- S5 P 2/ M30
- Applied Linguistics
- L. Meriem Ouahidi
Sultan Moulay Slimane University Applied Linguistics
Faculty of Arts and Humanities Semester 5
English Department Prof. M. Ouahidi

Sullabus

Course Objectives
This course aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the key topics in applied
linguistics. It seeks to explain the cognitive, linguistic, personal, and social development
of individuals in a pedagogical context. This particular course also is of help to train
students and make them know more about English language teaching. It studies the
theory and practice of the teaching of English as a foreign language process. The course
also describes the different views of teaching/ learning, motivation, individual
differences, testing, language planning and more related issues.

Course Content
Unit 1: Introduction to Applied Linguistics
- What is Linguistics
- What is Applied Linguistics
- History of Applied Linguistics
- Areas of Linguistics
- Areas of Applied Linguistics
Broad Domains of Applied linguistics?
Subfields of Applied Linguistics
Unit 2: L1 Acquisition Vs Second/Foreign Language
- First Language Acquisition
- Second/ Foreign Language Learning
- Similarities and Differences
- Rapidity and Accuracy of the Acquisition of L1
Unit 3: Theories of language acquisition
Behaviourist Theory
- Principles of behaviourism
- Behaviourism and Language Teaching
- Limitations
Innateness or Mentalist Theory
- Language Acquisition Device
- Universal Grammar
- Critical Period Hypothesis
- Competence Vs Performance
- General Implications
- Limitations of Chomsky’s Theory
Cognitive Theory
- Principles of Cognitivism
- Cognitivism and Language teaching
- Limitations of the cognitive theory
Input or Interactionist Theory
- Principles of Input Theory
- Interactionism and Language Teaching
- Limitations of Input Theory
Unit 4 - Krashen's Monitor Theory of SLA
- The Acquisition Learning Theory
- The Monitor Hypothesis
- The Natural Order Hypothesis
- The Input Hypothesis
- Affective Filter Hypothesis
Unit 5: Contrastive Analysis
- Basic Principles
- Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis
- Problems with CAH
Unit 6: Error Analysis
- Steps of Error Analysis
- Difference between EA and CA
Unit 7: Interlanguage
Unit 8: Learner differences
- Learning styles
- Learning Strategies
- Affective and Cognitive Variables
 Introduction to Applied Linguistics

What is Linguistics?
The scientific study of human language•
• Aims of linguistic theory:
ü –What is human knowledge of language? (Competence)
ü –How is human knowledge of language acquired? (Acquisition)
ü –How is knowledge of language put to use? (Performance /language
processing
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. It tries:
ü first, to observe languages and to describe them accurately,
ü then, to find generalizations within what has been described,
ü finally, to draw conclusions about the general nature of human language.
A Grammar includes everything one knows about the structure of one’s language:
ü Phonetics and Phonology (the sounds and the sound system or patterns)
ü Lexicon (the words or vocabulary in the mental dictionary)
ü Morphology (the structure of words)
ü Syntax (the structure of phrases and sentences and the constraints on well-
formedness of sentences)
ü Semantics (the meaning of words and sentences)
What is applied Linguistics
Many researchers have tried to define or describe what applied linguistic (AL) is,
below are some of these definitions.
Brumfit (1977:93) holds that:
“AL is the theoretical and empirical investigation of real-world problems in
which language is a central issue.”

Grabe (2000:9) proposes that:

“The focus of AL is on trying to resolve language-based problems that
people encounter in the real world, whether they be learners, teachers,
supervisors, academics, lawyers, service providers, those who need social
services, test makers, policy developers, dictionary makers, translators, or
a whole range of clients.”
Grabe notes that distinguishing between What linguistics and AL are concerned
with is to distinguish between theory and practice.
According to Schmitt and Celce-Murcia (2002: 1) AL uses what we know about (a)
language (b) how it is learned and (c) how it is used in order to achieve some purpose
or solve some problems in the real world.
Applied linguistics attempts to make practical use of the knowledge derived from
general linguistic research – in order, for example, to:
ü improve the ways in which a student’s native language is taught
ü help people learn foreign languages more efficiently.
ü write better dictionaries.
ü Improve therapy for people with language problems.
ü search the Internet more efficiently and successfully.
History of Applied Linguistics
The term Applied Linguistics (AL) is an Anglo-American coinage. It was founded
first at the University of Edinburgh, School of Applied Linguistics in 1956, then at
the Center of Applied Linguistics in Washington D.C. in 1957. AL use was
propagated by those who clearly wanted to be known as scientists and not as
humanists.
The British Association of Applied Linguistics (BAAL) was formally established in
1967, with the following aims: "the advancement of education by fostering and
promoting, by any lawful charitable means, the study of language use, language
acquisition and language teaching and the fostering of inter-disciplinary
collaboration in this study" (BAAL, 1994).
It was largely taken for granted in the 1960s and 1970s that applied linguistics was
about language teaching.
Applied Linguistics entails using what we know about language, about how it is
used, and about how it is learned in order to solve some problem in the real world.
AL covers two main points:
ü The study of second and foreign language learning and teaching.
ü The study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems.
Applied Linguistics uses language-related research in a wide variety of fields (e.g.
language acquisition, language teaching, literacy, gender studies, language policy,
 speech therapy, discourse analysis, censorship, workplace communication, media
studies, translation, lexicography, forensic linguistics).

Areas of Applied Linguistics

Because much of the work in the area deals with foreign language teaching, Applied
Linguistics is often perceived as the field that uses insights from Linguistics for the
benefit of foreign language education. However, such a view overlooks a great deal of
important contributions of Applied Linguistics to a significant number of other areas,
including studies in feminism (Feminist Linguistics), artificial intelligence and
information technology (Computational and Corpus Linguistics), ecological studies
(Eco-linguistics), Lexicography, Language planning and policy. Cook (2003: 8)
presents a list of areas that concern Applied Linguistics and divides this list into three
categories with their subsequent subcategories as the table below shows.
‘Broad’ domains of AL
Language and education: which includes both first- and second-language learning but
also aspects of language impairment such as dyslexia, etc.;
Language, work and law: which includes the analysis of varieties of language used in the
workplace, language planning, forensic linguistics (using language analysis as
evidence in criminal investigations) etc.;
Language, information and effect: analysis of the media, politics, critical discourse
analysis etc.

Language and Language, work and the Language, information

education law and effect

• First language • Workplace • Literary stylistics,

education, communication, • Critical discourse
• Second language • Language planning, analysis,
education, • Forensic linguistics. • Translation and
• Foreign language Interpretation,
education, • Information design,
• Clinical linguistics, • Lexicography.
• Language testing.
What do applied linguists do?
Ø Developing theories and models
Ø Mediating and implementing theories
Ø Analysing language for pedagogical application
Ø Carrying out research into learning and teaching
 English Studies
Semester 5/ P2
Module : 30
Applied Linguistics
Week 3
L. Meriem Ouahidi
2020/2021
 L1 Acquisition/ Target language Learning

First Language Acquisition is the term most commonly used to describe the process whereby
children become speakers of their native language or languages. Language acquisition refers
to the process of natural assimilation, involving intuition and subconscious learning, which is
the product of real interactions between people where the child is an active participant. In fact,
Children acquire language through a subconscious process during which they are unaware of
grammatical rules. They get a feel for what is and what isn’t correct. In order to acquire
language, the learner needs a source of natural communication.

Second Language Acquisition investigates the processes by which children and adults learn
a language other than their mother tongue and ultimately develop proficiency in this
language, with the expectation that findings may be useful in teaching a language other than
L1. Though referred to as ‘second language acquisition’ (known with the acronym SLA), the
language to be taught may not be a second but a third or a fourth language for the person
learning it.

Note that the disciplinary practices and notions developed in these two areas of study have
provided interesting insights about how languages are learned, but they have also naturalized
misconceptions about language, language study and teaching.

Research in SLA (Second Language Acquisition) and the field as a whole is particularly
concerned with those acquiring a second (or, more correctly, an additional) language in the
target language environment; for example, a Spanish or a Chinese immigrant acquiring
English in the U.S., a Pakistani or a Bulgarian acquiring English in the U.K.

Language Learning
The concept of language learning is related to the study of languages and today is still
generally practiced in high schools worldwide. Attention is focused on the language
in its written form and the objective is for the student to understand the structure and
rules of the language through the application of intellect and logical deductive
reasoning. The form is of greater importance than communication. Teaching and
learning are technical and governed by a formal instructional plan with a
predetermined syllabus. One studies the theory in the absence of practice. One values
the correct and represses the incorrect. There is little room for spontaneity. The teacher
is an authority figure and the participation of the student is predominantly passive.
Research has shown, however, that knowing grammar rules does not necessarily result
in good speaking or writing.

Acquisition Learning

implicit, subconscious explicit, conscious

informal situations formal situations

uses grammatical 'feel' uses grammatical rules

stable order of acquisition simple to complex order of learning

Similarities and differences

First and second language acquisition are similar in many ways. We can use our knowledge
and observation about how babies learn language in order to better understand the process as
it is faced by children and adults learning a second language. Although there are many
similarities in these two processes, there are also some important differences between them.

Similarities:

ü Each type of acquisition includes automatic and monitored processes.

ü Comprehension generally precedes production of language forms.

ü Each involves a process of figuring out language rules.

ü Language is learned through observation and practice in communicative interactions.

ü Some aspects of language are learned before others.

ü Errors are a natural part of language acquisition.

Differences:

ü Second language acquisition is built on a prior understanding of how language works.

ü Second language learners may learn languages for many different reasons, unlike first
language learners who need to learn for survival.
 ü Second language learners may start the process of language acquisition at any age.

ü Second language acquisition involves more conscious thought than first language
acquisition.

ü Errors made by first language acquirers are generally accepted and frequently not
corrected; whereas; errors made by second language acquirers are often corrected.

ü First language acquirers are usually in a supportive and warm environment with
plenty of contextual cues ideal for language acquisition whereas second language
acquirers may not be.

Differences between L1 and L2 acquisition

Feature L1 acquisition L2 (second language) acquisition

1. Overall children normally achieve adult L2 learners are unlikely to

success perfect L1 mastery achieve perfect L2 mastery

2. General Success is guaranteed Complete success is rare

failure

3. Variation little variation in degree of L2 learners vary in overall success and

success or route route

4. Goals target language competence L2 learners may be content with less

than target language competence or
more concerned with fluency than
accuracy

5. Fossilization unknown common, plus backsliding (i.e. return

to earlier stages of development

6. Intuitions children develop clear L2 learners are often unable to form

intuitions about correctness clear grammaticality judgments

7. Instruction not needed helpful or necessary

 8. Negative correction not found and not correction generally helpful or

evidence necessary necessary

9. Affective not involved play a major role in determining

factors proficiency

Cook, V.J., Long, J., & McDonough, S. (1979)

 English Studies
Semester 5/ P2
Module : 30
Applied Linguistics
Week 4/5
L. Meriem Ouahidi
2020/2021
 Language Learning Theories

Over the last fifty years, several theories have been put forward to explain the process by which
children learn to understand and speak a language. Theories about how language is learned
have developed in the broader field of Psychology and specifically in the areas of Cognitive
and Social Psychology. Their concerns include studies which attempt to answer questions
regarding how people learn and/or how they develop knowledge.

These theories can be summarized as follows:

Theory Central Idea Key Figures

Behaviorist Children imitate adults. Their correct utterances are Skinner

reinforced when they get what they want or are praised.

Innateness A child's brain contains special language-learning Chomsky

mechanisms at birth.

Cognitive Language is just one aspect of a child's overall intellectual Piaget

development.

Interaction This theory emphasizes the interaction between children Bruner

and their care-givers.

We shall consider each of these in turn. Before we do, it is important to recognize that they
should not be seen simply as conflicting theories, replacing each other in a sequence. Although
Behaviorism is now seen as offering only a very limited explanation, each theory has added to
our overall understanding, placing emphasis on different aspects of the process.
 Behaviorist Theory

Behaviorism, a predominantly American learning theory, emerged in early twentieth century

and continued to influence other domains of research until the mid-1960s when the cognitive
movement became a powerful force in psychology and education. It was associated with
psychologists like Thorndike and Skinner. Behaviorism had a strong effect on both linguistics
(particularly STRUCTURALISM) and language teaching, with AUDIOLINGUALISM (the
audiolingual method) attempting to apply its tenets.

The ultimate aim behind the rise of the behaviorist approach was to make the study of behaviors
a scientific discipline that seeks to generate scientific explanations for how humans acquire new
behaviors. On this view, any non-observable or unmeasurable behavior will be ignored in the
behaviorist analysis; that is, completely neglecting the mental processes and focusing only on
what can be seen and perceived.

Learning was viewed as a process of habit formation. This process consists of three steps:

▪ Stimulus: a signal from the environment that evokes a reaction.

▪ Response (the learner's reaction to the stimulus).

▪ Reinforcement: a reward for an appropriate response: reinforced

behavior gets internalized, a behavior that is not reinforced is
extinguished.
The behaviorist psychologists developed their theories while carrying out a series of
experiments on animals. They observed that rats or birds, for example, could be taught to
perform various tasks by encouraging habit-formation. Researchers rewarded desirable
behavior. This was known as positive reinforcement. Undesirable behavior was punished or
simply not rewarded - negative reinforcement.

Skinner suggested that a child imitates the language of his/her parents or caregivers. Successful
attempts are rewarded because an adult who recognizes a word spoken by a child will reward
the child. Successful utterances are therefore reinforced while unsuccessful ones are forgotten.
 I- Principles:

Behaviorism bases itself on several assumptions and principles. The main behavioristic
assumption is that the brain is a tabula rasa; we are born with no prior knowledge and everything
we acquire throughout our life is the result of observation and imitation. Behaviorists conducted
multiple experiments on animals to prove their theory of the mind as a blank slate and
generalized their findings on human beings. From the behavioristic point of view, the rigorous
scientific approach applies to animals and humans alike. It is this view of treating human beings
as animals that attracted multiple criticisms later on.

An additional principle of behaviorism is the importance of the environment. People

pick up different behaviors from their environment which can be a reinforcer. If the response
to a certain stimulus, for instance, is positively reinforced, this will assure the reoccurrence of
the same response. This is the process of conditioning.

Table 3: The theory’s main principles

PRINCIPLE DESCRIPTION

Conditioning Learning is seen as a process of developing connections

between events; connections between a stimulus and a
response.

Habit formation An individual responds to a stimulus by behaving in a

particular way. If the behavior is reinforced (i.e. rewards or
punishment) then the likelihood of that behavior occurring on
a subsequent occasion will be increased or decreased. As the
behavior is reinforced, habits are formed.

- Reinforcement: can be positive or negative, the goal is

to increase and encourage behavior.
- Punishment: can also be positive or negative, the goal
is to decrease and eliminate behavior.

Importance of the Learning is a result of environmental rather than genetic

factors. The child is born as a clean slate and the environment
 environment writes its messages on this clean slate.

2- Behaviorism and Foreign Language Teaching:

Behaviorism treats learning as a verbal behavior to be reinforced. Behaviorism did not

only offer methods and strategies to deal with the process of learning alone, but it also offered
technical strategies in managing classroom behaviors. Punishing bad behaviors, while
rewarding good ones, will insure maintaining a favorable learning atmosphere in the classroom,
as Woollard (2010) claims “behaviorist teaching is based on the belief that learning occurs
when the appropriate responses are reinforced and inappropriate responses are ignored or
punished.” (p. 63)

The theory of behaviorism treats the process of first language acquisition as a phenomenon
of imitation. Children imitate what they hear from their parents; parents reinforce their
children’s acquisition. First language acquisition happens through conditioning as a habit
formation. The same view applies to second language learning. Behaviorists claim that learning
becomes a habit by imitations, reinforcements and repetitions. One of the teaching methods that
embraced this view is the audio-lingual method.

By repeating the learner develops habits Learning a language is seen as acquiring a set of
appropriate mechanical habits and errors are frowned upon because they lead to the
development of "bad" habits. The role of the teacher is to develop in learners’ good language
habits

3- Limitations of Behaviorism

Although behaviorism is based upon empirical and scientific experimentations, it still neglects
many important concepts. The fact that it disregards any mental activity is one of its biggest
criticisms. Claiming that every aspect of human life is a product of nature, while denying
biological properties, can be seen as a reductionist approach. While there must be some truth in
Skinner's explanation, there are many objections to it.

ü Language is based on a set of structures or rules, which could not be worked out simply
by imitating individual utterances. The mistakes made by children reveal that they
 are not simply imitating but actively working out and applying rules. For example, a
child who says "drinked" instead of "drank" is not copying an adult but rather over-
applying a rule. Such forms are often referred to as intelligent mistakes or virtuous
errors.

ü The vast majority of children go through the same stages of language acquisition. There
appears to be a definite sequence of steps. Apart from certain extreme cases (see the
case of Genie), the sequence seems to be largely unaffected by the treatment the child
receives or the type of society in which s/he grows up.

ü Children are often unable to repeat what an adult says, especially if the adult’s
utterance contains a structure the child has not yet started to use.

ü Few children receive much explicit grammatical correction. Parents are more
interested in politeness and truthfulness.

ü There is evidence for a critical period for language acquisition. Children who have not
acquired language by the age of about seven will never entirely catch up. The most
famous example is that of Genie, discovered in 1970 at the age of 13. She had been
severely neglected, brought up in isolation and deprived of normal human contact. Of
course, she was disturbed and underdeveloped in many ways. During subsequent
attempts at rehabilitation, her caregivers tried to teach her to speak. Despite some
success, mainly in learning vocabulary, she never became a fluent speaker, failing to
acquire the grammatical competence of the average five-year-old.
 English Studies
Linguistics Stream
M30/S5/ P2
Applied Linguistics
M. Ouahidi
 mentalist/ Innatist Theory

The behaviorist theory of language fails to account for the innovative and creative
nature of language use, a phenomenon that the mentalists claim they can account for.
Noam Chomsky published a criticism of the behaviorist theory in 1957. In addition to
some of the arguments listed above, he focused particularly on the impoverished
language Input children receive. Adults do not typically speak in grammatically
complete sentences. In addition, what the child hears is only a small sample of
language.
Children's minds are not blank slates to be filled in by imitating the language they hear
from the environment. Children are born with an innate capacity for language learning
which allows them to discover for themselves the rules underlying the language.
Chomsky concluded that children must have an inborn faculty for language
acquisition.
Main Principles of Innatist Theory
Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is a device proposed to account for the ability of
children to successfully acquire their first language (or languages) in a short period of
time. Children have the ability to distinguish between grammatical and
ungrammatical sentences despite two major factors: the syntax is too complex for them
to learn, and adults produce imperfect speech (false starts, slips of the tongue,
incomplete sentences). The LAD can be defined as an innate built in device that enables
children to acquire language through the use of innate capacities.
Universal Grammar (UG) is another linguistic concept devised by Noam Chomsky.
UG is proposed to explain how children, unconsciously and successfully, acquire the
properties of grammar that go beyond the input in various respects. In other words,
children have a capacity of acquiring the grammar of their first language without the
need to be formally and explicitly instructed about its properties. This natural
acquisition of grammar is universal since children from different parts of the world
share this ability of acquiring their first language grammar.
 a- The critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) by Lenneberg:
The hypothesis maintains that humans are genetically programmed to acquire
knowledge and skills at specific times of their life. After the critical period, it is either
impossible or extremely difficult to acquire those abilities. According to the
hypothesis, if children are not exposed to language before a certain time, they will
never acquire the language. Two famous cases are those of Victor from France and
Genie from California.
b- Competence vs performance:
According to Chomsky, speakers’ performance does not, and cannot, match their
competence since they often produce imperfect data. Speakers produce half-sentences,
phrases or words and their speech is marked by pauses, corrections and
ungrammaticality. Despite this imperfect production of speech, speakers can
understand one another; this is accounted for by supposing speakers have an
underlying competence of which performance is simply a surface representation.
Mentalists have never denied that the exposure to language is necessary. They simply
argue that the environment is not as important as the behaviorists claim. This seems
to apply to second language as well. But is there a concrete mentalist approach to
second language acquisition?
Comparison between Behaviourist and Mentalist Approaches.
BEHAVIOURISTS APPROACH MENTALIST APPROACH
1) Language acquisition is a stimulus- Language is an innate, in-born process.
response process.
2) Language is a conditioned behavior. Language is not a behavior like other
behaviors, but a specific mental process.
3) Children learn language by imitation Children learn language by application.
and analogy.
4) Language learning is based on Language learning is analytical,
practice. generative and creative.
5) The role of imitation, repetition, The role of exposure to language is quite
reinforcement and motivation is very vital.
significant in language learning.
 6) Language acquisition is the result of Language acquisition is the result of
nature. nurture.

Limitations of Chomsky's Theory

Chomsky's work on language was theoretical. He was interested in grammar and
much of his work consists of complex explanations of grammatical rules. He did not
study real children. The theory relies on children being exposed to language but takes
no account of the interaction between children and their caregivers, nor does it
recognize the reasons why a child might want to speak, the functions of language.
 Cognitive Theory

Cognitive psychology in contrast to behaviorism is interested in the way the human

mind thinks and learns. It is interested in the cognitive processes that are involved in
learning and how the learner is involved in the learning process.
Principles of Cognitivism
The Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget placed acquisition of language within the context
of a child's mental or cognitive development. He argued that a child has to understand
a concept before s/he can acquire the particular language form which expresses that
concept. A good example of this is seriation. There will be a point in a child's
intellectual development when s/he can compare objects with respect to size. This
means that if a child is given a number of sticks, s/he could arrange them in order of
size. Piaget suggested that a child who has not yet reached this stage will not be able
to learn and use comparative adjectives like "bigger" or "smaller". The learner is seen
as an active participant in the learning process using various kinds of mental strategies
in order to sort out the system of the language being learnt.

Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. The learner
is seen as an active participant in the learning process using various kinds of mental
strategies in order to sort out the system of the language being learnt. Learning
happens as a result of knowledge transferred from short to long term memory. In
order for this to happen, new information must be linked to old information and
information and concepts must be logically organized. New ideas or concepts are
based upon the learners' current/past knowledge
Cognitivism and Language Teaching
Main principles of Cognitivist approaches to foreign language teaching.
Principle Description
Understanding When the language learner knows about the language (form, meaning
how language and use), s/he will be able to use it meaningfully in speech and writing.
works
 Learning is By working with language, coming into contact with texts and exercising
both inductive with particular elements of language to be taught and learnt (i.e.,
and deductive experiencing them), the learner comes to understand how it works and
may be asked to articulate that understanding or simply to exhibit the
knowledge acquired by putting it into practice. However, since
knowledge is linguistically mediated and is frequently passed on by
others, the learning process requires the transmission of knowledge about
how the language operates; therefore, rules of language use and/or usage
are explained, before or after language practice.
Sequential Since learning is often considered to be a linear process, teaching is
learning usually organized so as to move from easy to difficult; i.e., from that
which is linguistically and cognitively easier to understand, to that which
is considered harder. Spiral learning processes, however, are not
excluded.

§ The role of the teacher is to help learners organize new information for later
recall.
§ Learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts
based upon their current/past knowledge.
§ Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student
continually builds upon what they have already learned.
§ The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and
makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so.
§ As far as instruction is concerned, the instructor should try and encourage
students to discover principles by themselves.
§ The instructor and student should engage in an active dialog (i.e., Socratic
learning).
§ The task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format
appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding
Limitations of the Cognitive Theory
Researchers during the 1960's and 1970's identified shortcomings in Piaget's theory.
First, critics argue that Piaget under estimated children's abilities. Researchers have
found that young children can succeed on simpler forms of tasks requiring the same
skills. Second, Piaget's theory predicts that thinking within a particular stage would
be similar across tasks. In other words, preschool children should perform at the
preoperational level in all cognitive tasks. Research has shown diversity in children's
thinking across cognitive tasks. Third, according to Piaget, efforts to teach children
developmentally advanced concepts would be unsuccessful. Researchers have found
that in some instances, children often learn more advanced concepts with relatively
brief instruction. Researchers now believe that children may be more competent than
Piaget originally thought, especially in their practical knowledge
 Input or Interactionist Theory

In contrast to the work of Chomsky, more recent theorists have stressed the
importance of the language input children receive from their care-givers. Language
exists for the purpose of communication and can only be learned in the context of
interaction with people. Language develops as a result of the interplay between the
child and the environment in which the child grows. Caretaker speech is modified to
suit the capability of the child. This modified language is a crucial element in the
language acquisition process.
Principles of Interactionism
Interactionists such as Jerome Bruner suggest that the language behavior of adults
when talking to children is referred to as child-directed speech or CDS. It is
specially adapted to support the acquisition process. This support is often
described as scaffolding for the child's language. Scaffolding is a term coined to
refer to the support and assistance given by adults, parents, and peers in relation
to a specific difficult task or action. Bruner also coined the term Language
Acquisition Support System or LASS in response to Chomsky's LAD. Brunner
agrees with Chomsky’s notion of LAD. However, Brunner asserts that Chomsky
gives too much importance to this aspect, noting that social context and the
behavior of parents have a significant impact on language development. LAD
cannot function alone and every LAD, therefore, needs a LASS (social interaction).

Lev Vygotsky's theory states that knowledge is co-constructed and that

individuals learn from one another. It is also called a social constructivist theory
because in Vygotsky's opinion the learner must be engaged in the learning process.
Learning happens with the assistance of other people, thus highlighting the social
aspect of the theory.
Interactionism and ELT
The main principles of Interactionist approaches to FL teaching
ü The teacher must try to create a classroom atmosphere which is conducive
to real communication.
ü Real communication involves learners who have a say in what is to be learnt
 (and how), in the classroom interaction to which they have the right to make
basic contributions.
ü In order for interactional modifications to occur in the classroom there must
be a two - way flow of information where both the teacher and the learner
have unknown information to exchange.
ü It is important to use activities that involve an information gap and have an
obvious communicative purpose so that learners feel the need to
communicate.
ü In order for learners to feel motivated to communicate they must be
involved and interested in what is being talked about, in the activities being
carried out. Furthermore, they should be given opportunities to initiate class
activities.
ü Teachers must utilize contributions made by the learners. This will create in
learners a feeling that their personality and what they have to say is
accepted.
Limitations of Input theory
These theories serve as a useful corrective to Chomsky's early position and it seems
likely that a child will learn more quickly with frequent interaction. However, it has
already been noted that children in all cultures pass through the same stages in
acquiring language. We have also seen that there are cultures in which adults do not
adopt special ways of talking to children, so CDS may be useful but seems not to be
essential.
As stated earlier, the various theories should not be seen simply as alternatives.
Rather, each of them offers a partial explanation of the process.
 Krashen’s Monitor Theory of SLA

Second language acquisition theory seeks to quantify how and by what processes
individuals acquire a second language. The predominant theory of second language
acquisition was developed by the University of Southern California’s Steven Krashen.
Krashen is a specialist in language development and acquisition, and his influential
theory is widely accepted in the language learning community.
Components of Second Language Acquisition Theory

There are five main components of Krashen’s theory (a five-part hypothesis). Each of
the components relates to a different aspect of the language learning process. The five
components are as follows:
The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
According to Krashen, there are two independent but related systems of second
language performance: 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'.
The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of an unconscious process very
similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. It
requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in
which speakers are concentrated not on the form of their utterances, but in the
communicative act. In this system, speakers are less concerned with the structure of
their utterances than with the act of communicating meaning.
The 'learned system' or 'learning' is the product of formal instruction where students
engage in formal study to acquire knowledge about the target language. For example,
studying the rules of syntax is part of the learned system. Formal teaching is necessary
for "learning" to occur, and correction of errors helps with the development of learned
rules. Learning, according to the theory, cannot lead to acquisition It comprises a
conscious process which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the language.
According to Krashen, 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition'.
The Monitor Hypothesis
Conscious learning can function only as a monitor or editor that checks and repairs
the output of the acquired system. The Monitor Hypothesis claims that learners may
call upon learned knowledge to correct themselves when they communicate. Those
learners who focus too much on using correct language forms may not be able to
acquire language readily because of their preoccupation with being correct. It is
incumbent upon the teacher to lessen the pressure of correctness by not focusing on
errors and allowing learners to speak freely even while committing those errors that
are an essential part of language acquisition. Therefore, the monitor should have only
a minor role in the process of gaining communicative competence. Three conditions
limit the successful use of the monitor:
1. Time: There must be sufficient time for a learner to choose and apply a learned rule.
2. Focus on form: The language user must be focused on correctness or on the form of
the output.
3. Knowledge of rules: The performer must know the rules. The monitor does best with
rules that are simple in two ways. They must be simple to describe and they must not
require complex movements and rearrangements.
The Natural Order Hypothesis
According to the Natural Order Hypothesis, the acquisition of grammatical structures
proceeds in a predictable order. Research has shown that certain grammatical
structures or morphemes are acquired before others in first language acquisition of
English, and a similar natural order is found in second language acquisition. Errors
are signs of naturalistic developmental processes, and during acquisition (but not
during learning), similar developmental errors occur in learners no matter what their
mother tongue is.
The Input Hypothesis
This hypothesis argues that learners progress along the natural order only when they
encounter second language input that is one step beyond their current level. Krashen
claims that people acquire language best by understanding input that is a little beyond
their present level of competence. Consequently, Krashen believes that
'comprehensible input' (that is, i + 1) should be provided. The 'input' should be
relevant and 'not grammatically sequenced'.

Comprehensible input, or i+1 is highly required so that a learner can understand what
is being said without being overwhelmed with too much new linguistic information.
The “i” in “i+1” represents what the learner already knows in the language and the
“+1” represents what is being taught. If too much new linguistic information is given
too quickly, i.e., “i+100” then there is little chance that language acquisition will take
place since the learner will be confused and overwhelmed.
The Affective Filter Hypothesis

This hypothesis describes external factors that can act as a filter that impedes
acquisition. These factors include motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety. A low
affective filter is desirable since it facilitates learning this necessary input. The
hypothesis is built on research in second language acquisition, which has identified
three kinds of affective or attitudinal variables related to second language acquisition.
1. Motivation. Learners with high motivation generally do better.
2. Self-confidence. Learners with self-confidence and a good self-image tend to be more
successful.
3. Anxiety. Low personal anxiety and low classroom anxiety are more conducive to
second language acquisition.

The Affective Filter Hypothesis states that acquirers with a low affective filter seek and
receive more input, interact with confidence, and are more receptive to the input they
receive. Anxious acquirers have a high affective filter, which prevents acquisition from
taking place.
Criticism was expressed by McLaughlin (1987). McLaughlin acknowledges Krashen's
attempt to develop an extensive and detailed theory of second language acquisition
but finds it inadequate in that some of its central assumptions and hypotheses are not
clearly defined and thus are not readily testable, e.g. the acquisition-learning
dichotomy is based on “subconscious” and “conscious” processes respectively, which
have not been clearly defined by Krashen although he operationalized them in his
studies. Other assumptions aiming to enhance the explanatory power of the Monitor
Theory are not based on well-established theories and research (e.g. the Natural Order
hypothesis). Furthermore, the role assigned to unconscious learning was found to be
overestimated and exaggerated. Instead subsequent studies drew attention to the role
of consciousness in second language learning and how much learners notice and what
they think as they learn second languages.
 Contrastive Analysis

Contrastive linguistics was used extensively in the field of Second Language

Acquisition (SLA) in the 1960s and early 1970s, as a method of explaining why some
features of a target language (TL) were more difficult to acquire than others. According
to the behaviorist theories prevailing at the time, language learning was a question of
habit formation, and this could be reinforced or impeded by existing habits. Therefore,
the difficulty in mastering certain structures in L2 depended on the difference between
the learners' mother language (L1) and the target language.
Lado was the first to provide a comprehensive theoretical treatment and to suggest a
systematic set of technical procedures for the contrastive study of languages. This
involved describing the languages (using structural linguistics), comparing them and
predicting learning difficulties. Contrastive analysis (CA) compares languages in
order to determine or account for errors.
Lado’s system of CA is based on a rigorous step-by-step comparison of L1 and L2. This
comparison covers the areas of phonology, grammar, writing system, and culture,
Although Lado (1957) included a comparison of culture, early contrastive studies
focused on what has been described as micro linguistic contrastive analysis (James
1980: 61), that is phonology, grammar, and lexis..
CA is based on a theory of language that claims that language is habit -The major
source of error in the production of the L2 is the L1. Errors can be explained by
considering differences between L1 and L2. -The greater the differences, the greater
the errors. This is what Robert Lado (1957) sums up: "we can predict and describe the
patterns that will cause difficulty in learning, and those that will not cause difficulty,
by comparing systematically the language and culture to be learned with the native
language and culture of the student".
Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis
It predicts areas of difficulties in learning a language. Whenever there are similarities
between the two languages, learning will be much easier, and whenever there are
differences, more difficulties are expected to emerge.
In brief, emerging in the 50s, contrastive analysis hypothesis CAH was rooted in
behavioristic and structural approaches. Its main claim was that the principle barrier
to SLA-second language acquisition-is interference of L1 system with the second
language system. Therefore, the scientific structural analysis of two languages would
yield a taxonomy of linguistics that contrasts between them, which would help the
linguist to predict areas of difficulties a learner would encounter.
The pedagogical materials that resulted from contrastive analysis were based on a
number of assumptions:
Basic Principles
ü One can account for errors by considering differences between the L1 and the
L2.
ü A corollary to the previous item is that the greater the differences, the more
errors will occur.
ü What one has to do in learning a second language is learn the differences.
Similarities can be safely ignored as no new learning is involved. In other
words, what is dissimilar between two languages is what must be learned.
ü Difficulty and ease in learning is determined respectively by differences and
similarities between the two languages in contrast.
ü Language is a habit and learning a second language is acquiring new habits.
ü The basic source of errors in second language learning is interference from the
first language (negative transfer/ interference).
Problems with the CAH
During the 1970s, the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis began to fall out as research
showed that many L2 “errors” were not the result of transfer. These errors either
looked like those that children learning the L1 would make (although we don’t really
call what children do “errors”), or their source was ambiguous (see error analysis). In
addition, research also found that similarities across languages led to errors that could
persist; that is, when the function of structures in two languages were similar but not
the same, learners showed evidence of transfer resulting in errors that persisted over
time. Finally, some of the errors predicted by the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis did
not occur in the speech analyzed by researchers.
 Error Analysis

Error analysis is a research tool characterized by a set of procedures for identifying,

describing, and explaining L2 learners’ errors. Error analysis emerged as a reaction to
the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis and the associated theory of behaviorism. Much
of the early work in error analysis focused on determining whether SLA was the result
of L1 transfer or creative construction.
In recent years, studies of second language acquisition have tended to focus on
learners’ errors since they allow for prediction of the difficulties involved in acquiring
a second language. In this way, teachers can be made aware of the difficult areas to be
encountered by their students and devote special care and emphasis to them. Error
Analysis (EA) is a type of linguistic analysis that focuses on the errors’ learners make.
Error analysis is useful in second language learning because it will reveal to teachers,
syllabus designers and textbook writers the problem areas. It can be used to design
remedial exercises and focus more attention on the trouble spots. Corder (1974, p.125)
stated that “The study of errors is part of the investigation of the process of language
learning.
Richards et al (1992) mentioned that the study of errors is used in order to (1) identify
strategies which learners use in language learning, (2) identify the causes of learners’
errors, and finally (3) obtain information on common difficulties in language learning
as an aid to teaching or in development of teaching materials ( cited in Khansir 2008)
A great deal of the work on error analysis was carried out within the context of the
classroom. The goal was clearly one of pedagogical remediation. There are a number
of steps in conducting error analysis.
Steps of Error Analysis
ü Collect data: Although this is typically done with written data, oral data can also
serve as a base.
ü Identify errors: What is the error (e.g., incorrect sequence of tenses, wrong verb
form, singular verb form with plural subject)?
ü Classify errors: Is it an error of agreement? Is it an error in irregular verbs?
ü Quantify errors: How many errors of agreement occur? How many irregular
verb form errors occur?
 ü Analyze source:
ü Remediate: Based on the kind and frequency of an error type, pedagogical
intervention is carried out.
Error analysis provides a broader range of possible explanations than contrastive
analysis (CA) for researchers/teachers to use to account for errors as the latter only
attributed errors to the native language. In comparison, there are two main error-types
within an error analysis framework: interlingual and intralingual. Interlingual errors
can be attributed to the native language (i.e., they involve cross-linguistic
comparisons). Intralingual errors are due to the language being learned, independent
of the native language.
Error analysis was not without its detractors. One of the major criticisms of error
analysis was directed at its total reliance on errors to the exclusion of other
information. That is, critics argued, one needs to consider non errors as well as errors
to get the entire picture of a learner’s linguistic behavior.
Difference between Error Analysis and Contrastive Analysis
Error analysis differs from contrastive analysis.
1. Contrastive analysis starts with a comparison of systems of two languages and
predicts only the areas of difficulty or error for the second language learner; whereas,
error analysis starts with errors in second language learning and studies them in the
broader framework of their sources and significance.
2. EA, unlike CA, provides data on actual attested problems and so it forms a more
efficient basis for designing pedagogical strategies.
3. EA provides feedback to the linguist, especially the psycho-linguist interested in the
process of second language learning in ascertaining:
a. Whether the process of acquisition of first language and second language learning
are similar or not?
b. Whether children and adults learn a second language in a similar manner or not?
5. EA provides evidence for a much more complex view of the learning process-one in
which the learner is seen as an active participant in the formation of and revision of
hypotheses regarding the rules of the target language
6. CA studies Interlingual errors (interference); whereas, EA studies intralingual errors
besides Interlingual.
In spite of the rejection of contrastive analysis by some second language acquisition
researchers, most teachers and researchers have remained convinced that learners
draw on their knowledge of other languages as they try to learn a new one. Current
research shows that L1 influence is a subtle and evolving aspect of L2 development.
Learners do not simply transfer all patterns from L1 to L2, and there are changes over
time, as learners come to know more about the L2 and thus to recognize similarities
between L1 and L2 that were not evident in earlier stages of L2 acquisition.
 Interlanguage

In the 1970's, a number of researchers began to call attention to the fact that, although
the language produced by L2 learners did not conform to the target language, the
`errors' that learners made were not random, but reflected a systematic, if incomplete,
knowledge of the L2 (Corder, 1967). The notion of 'interlanguage' has been central to
the development of the field of research on second language acquisition (SLA) and
continues to exert a strong influence on both the development of SLA theory and the
nature of the central issues in that field. The term interlanguage (1L) was introduced
by the American linguist Larry Selinker to refer to the linguistic system evidenced
when an adult second language learner attempts to express meanings in the target
language.
The interlanguage is viewed as a separate linguistic system, clearly different from
both the learner's 'native language' (NL) and the 'target language' (TL) being learned,
but linked to both NL and TL by interlingual identifications in the perception of the
learner. A central characteristic of any interlanguage is that it fossilizes — that is, it
ceases to develop at some point short of full identity with the target language. Thus,
the adult second-language learner never achieves a level of facility in the use of the
target language comparable to that achievable by any child acquiring the target as a
native language. There is, thus, a crucial and central psycholinguistic difference
between child NL acquisition and adult second language (L2) acquisition: children
always succeed in completely acquiring their native language, but adults only very
rarely succeed in completely acquiring a second language.
The central object of interlanguage research is to explain this difference — essentially,
to describe and explain the development of interlanguages and also to explain the
ultimate failure of interlanguages to reach a state of identity with the target language.
(Tarone, 2006, p. 747).
Interlanguage has other names by different linguists. Corder (1971) calls it
idiosyncratic dialect (each individual has his own dialect). He says that this dialect of
the learners is (I) regular, (2) systematic and (3) meaningful. William Nemser (1971)
termed it Approximative system'. (Approximation to IL) to identify a learner's
linguistic system which is distinct from his mother tongue and the target language
s/he is attempting to learn. By the term 'Approximative’, he means that the learner is
progressing towards the TL, and his system is developmental in nature. The term
system implies that he is using a set of rules and hence his language is not random.
Finally, J.C. Richards gives it the name 'Transitional competence' since it refers to the
learner's competence at a particular time.
 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING1

- Angelis P. (2001). The Roots of Applied Linguistics in North America. Colloquium

on the Roots of Applied Linguistics in Different Contexts. St Louis: AAAL
Bloomfield. L. (1933). Language. London: Allen and Unwin.
- Brumfit C. (1977). How Applied Linguistics is the same as any other Science.
International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 7(1 ), pp.86-94.
- Davies, A. & Elder, C. (2006). The Handbook of Applied Linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell
Publishing Ltd.
- Davies, A. (2001). British Applied Linguistics. Colloquium on the Roots ofApplied
Linguistics in Different Contexts. St Louis: AAAL
- Grabe, W, (2002). Applied Linguistics: An Emerging Discipline for the Twenty-First
Century. in: B. Kapla (Ed.). Oxford Handbook of Applied Linguistics. Oxford
University Press.
- Grabe, W. (Ed.). (2000). Applied Linguistics as an Emerging Discipline. Annual
Review of Applied Linguistics 2.
- Lewis, M. (2001). Looking Ahead in Applied Linguistics. Applied Linguistics
Association of Australia Newsletter, New Series 44t pp. 18-19.
- McNamara,. T. (2001). The Roots of Applied Linguistics in Australia. Colloquium on
the Roots of Applied Linguistics in Different Contexts. St Louis: AAAL
- Schmitt, N. & Celce - Murcia, M. (2002). "An Overview of Applied Linguistics." In:
N. Schmitt. (Ed.). An Introduction to Applied Linguistics. London: Arnold, pp. 1-
16.
Widdowson, H. (2000). On the Limitations of Linguistics Applied. Applied Linguistics,
21(1 pp.3-25

1
“Applied Linguistics” has been adopted and adapted from different sources; some of them
are mentioned above.