Clinical Review
com
Department of Otolaryngology,
Head, and Neck Surgery, Aberdeen
Royal Infirmary, Aberdeen
AB25 2ZN
Correspondence to:
kim.ah-see@nhs.net
BMJ 2007:334:358-61
doi: 10.1136/bmj.39092.679722.BE
358 BMJ | 17 February 2007 | Volume 334
Sinusitis and its management
Kim W Ah-See, Andrew S Evans
Sinusitis is one of the most common diagnoses in
primary care. It causes substantial morbidity, often
resulting in time off work, and is one of the common-
est reasons why a general practitioner will prescribe
antibiotics.1
Sources and selection criteria
We searched Medline for recent papers (1996-2006)
using “sinusitis”, “rhinosinusitis”, “acute”, “chronic”,
“diagnosis”, and “management” as keywords. We also
searched the Cochrane Database of systematic reviews
using the keywords “sinusitis” and “rhinosinusitis”. In
addition, we used a personal archive of references relat-
ing to our clinical experience and updates written for
Clinical Evidence.
Causes of sinusitis
Sinusitis is generally triggered by a viral upper res-
piratory tract infection, with only 2% of cases being
complicated by bacterial sinusitis.2 About 90% of
patients in the United States are estimated to receive
an antibiotic from their general practitioner, yet in
most cases the condition resolves without antibio‑
tics, even if it is bacterial in origin.3 Most general
practitioners rely on clinical findings to make the
diagnosis. Signs and symptoms of acute bacterial
sinusitis and those of a prolonged viral upper respi-
ratory tract infection are closely similar, resulting in
frequent misclassification of viral cases as bacterial
sinusitis. Boxes 1 and 2 list common and rarer causes
of rhinosinusitis.
Clinical diagnosis and pathophysiology
The term sinusitis refers to inflammation of the
mucosal lining of the paranasal sinuses. However, as
sinusitis is invariably accompanied by inflammation
of the adjacent nasal mucosa, a more accurate term
is rhinosinusitis.
The European Academy of Allergology and Clinical
Immunology defines acute rhinosinusitis as, “Inflamma-
tion of the nose and the paranasal sinuses characterised
by two or more of the following symptoms: blockage/
congestion; discharge (anterior or postnasal drip); facial
pain/pressure; reduction or loss of smell, lasting less
than 12 weeks.” Additional symptoms—such as tooth-
ache, pain on stooping, and fever or malaise—help
make the clinical diagnosis (box 3).4 The European
Academy also suggests that worsening symptoms after
For the full versions of these articles see bmj.
Summary points
Rhinosinusitis is a common primary care condition
Most cases of acute rhinosinusitis resolve with
symptomatic treatment with analgesics
Chronic rhinosinusitis may, however, require referral to an
ear, nose, and throat specialist for possible endoscopic
sinus surgery if medical management fails
Patients with acute facial pain or headache but no other
nasal symptoms are highly unlikely to have rhinosinusitis
Urgent referral is required if complications of rhinosinusitis
are suspected—such as orbital sepsis or intracranial sepsis
five days or persistent symptoms beyond 10 days (but
less than 12 weeks) indicate non-viral rhinosinusitis,
whereas viral disease lasts less than 10 days.4
The definition of chronic rhinosinusitis is nasal con-
gestion or blockage lasting more than 12 weeks and
accompanied by one of the following three sets of
symptoms: facial pain or pressure; discoloured nasal
discharge or postnasal drip; or reduction or loss of
smell (box 4).
Box 1 | Common causes of rhinosinusitis
• Viral infection
• Allergic and non-allergic rhinitis
• Anatomical variations
Abnormality of the osteomeatal complex
Septal deviation
Concha bullosa
Hypertrophic middle turbinates
• Cigarette smoking
• Diabetes mellitus
• Swimming, diving, high altitude climbing
• Dental infections and procedures
Box 2 | Rarer causes of rhinosinusitis
• Cystic fibrosis
• Neoplasia
• Mechanical ventilation
• Use of nasal tubes, such as nasogastric feeding tubes
• Samter’s triad (aspirin sensitivity, rhinitis, asthma)
• Sarcoidosis
• Wegener’s granulomatosis
• Immune deficiency
• Sinus surgery
• Immotile cilia syndrome

Box 3 | Symptoms of rhinosinusitis
• Nasal obstruction or congestion
• Hyposmia (reduced sense of smell)
• Facial pressure, pain, tenderness
• Rhinorrhoea (anterior or postnasal)
• Fever or malaise (acute infection)
• Toothache (upper teeth)
Box 4 | Timescale for rhinosinusitis
• Acute: <4 weeks
• Subacute: 4-12 weeks
• Chronic: >12 weeks
• Acute exacerbation: sudden worsening of chronic
sinusitis with return to baseline after treatment
The precipitating factor in acute sinusitis seems to
be blockage of the sinus ostium, typically the maxil-
lary sinus ostium situated under the middle turbinate
(fig 1). It is this obstruction with mucus retention and
subsequent infection that produces the signs and
symptoms characteristic of rhinosinusitis. Whereas
viral upper respiratory tract infections trigger most
cases, the rising prevalence of rhinosinusitis might
relate to a similar rise in incidence of allergic rhini-
tis.5 A small proportion of cases can arise as a result
of dental root infection (odontogenic sinusitis). ���� The
bacteriology of ���������������������������������������
acute rhinosinusitis differs
������������������
from that
of chronic
�������������������������������
rhinosinusitis���������
(box 5).
Are other investigations required?
Additional investigations have been used to help with
diagnosis. A raised erythrocyte sedimentation rate and
C reactive protein have been found to be helpful,6 and
x ray examination of the sinuses, ultrasonography,
computed tomography, sinus puncture, and culture
of aspirate have also been described. None of these,
however, is universally available in primary care, and
heterogeneity in the literature makes it difficult to
recommend an optimal investigation.6
Orbit
Middle
turbinate
Uncinate
process
Septum
Inferior Maxillary
turbinate sinus
Osteomeatal complex
Fig 1 | Anatomy of the osteomeatal complex
BMJ | 17 February 2007 | Volume 334 359
CLINICAL REVIEW
What is the influence of allergy in rhinosinusitis?
In 2001 the ARIA (Allergic Rhinitis and its Impact on
Asthma) Group published a document establishing the
link between the upper and lower airways.7 Evidence
suggests that allergic inflammation affects the entire
respiratory tract as a continuum, with a high propor-
tion of asthmatic individuals having comorbid allergic
rhinitis. The existence of a relation between rhinitis and
asthma is supported by evidence that control of rhinitis
improves asthma control7; this has led to phrases such
as “one airway, one disease.”
The incidence of rhinosinusitis is higher in patients
with allergy (particularly those with IgE mediated aller-
gic rhinitis (25% to 50%)) than in the general popula-
tion, although a causal relation is difficult to show.8-10
Studies have shown a higher prevalence of atopy in
patients with chronic rhinosinusitis,7 9 although this
does not necessarily correspond with clinical allergy.
Several radiological studies have shown an increase in
mucosal abnormalities on computed tomography of
sinuses in allergic patients.10-12 Other studies, however,
suggest that the incidence of infective rhinosinusitis
does not rise during the hay fever season in pollen
sensitive patients.13 Patients with allergy and chronic
rhinosinusitis respond less well to drug treatment,9 and
results of surgical intervention for chronic rhinosinusi-
tis are poorer in patients with allergy than in patients
without.14 15
How is sinusitis treated medically?
The vast majority of patients with acute rhinosinusitis
will get better spontaneously without treatment; some,
however, will develop chronic mucociliary clearance
problems and resultant chronic rhinosinusitis. It is not
possible to predict those who will progress to chronic
disease.
Acute rhinosinusitis
The mainstay of treatment for acute rhinosinusitis is
symptomatic relief with analgesics; little evidence sup-
ports the use of antihistamines, intranasal steroids, nasal
douches, or decongestants.16
Some evidence supports the use of antibiotics, with
a 3-5% difference in cure rate compared with placebo,
especially in cases where symptoms are severe, per-
sistent (>5 days),17 or progressive. Evidence suggests
benefit with amoxicillin or co-amoxiclav, as well as
with cephalosporins or macrolides. Resolution rates
for these drugs are reported to be similar, although
cephalosporins and macrolides may have fewer adverse
effects.16 Recent evidence supports the use of a topical
steroid spray in acute rhinosinusitis.18
Chronic rhinosinusitis
Medical treatment options for chronic rhinosinusitis
should begin with topical nasal steroids along with
aggressive treatment of any underlying cause or
comorbid allergy. Oral steroids should be reserved
for refractory cases, particularly when underlying
allergy is present.7 If oral steroids are required, cau-
tion should be taken in at-risk groups, including
CLINICAL REVIEW
Box 5 | Bacteriology of acute and chronic rhinosinusitis
Acute rhinosinusitis
Haemophilus influenzae, Streptococcus pneumoniae
(rarely: anaerobes, Gram negative bacteria, Staphylococcus
aureus, Moraxella catarrhalis, Streptococcus pyogenes)
Chronic rhinosinusitis
Anaerobes, Gram-negative bacteria, S aureus (rarely:
fungal)
Box 6 | Sinister features that should prompt referral to
specialist
• Unilateral signs (for example, unilateral polyp or mass)
• Bleeding
• Diplopia or proptosis
• Maxillary paraesthesia
• Orbital swelling or erythema
• Suspicion of intracranial or intraorbital complication
• Immunocompromised patient
patients with diabetes or active peptic ulceration. It
is often useful to give an intermediate dose of steroid
such as fluticasone nasules or betamethasone drops
to bridge the gap between oral and topical steroid
spray preparations. Once symptoms have resolved, it
is essential to maintain improvement with long term
(>3 months) intranasal steroid treatment in the form
of an aqueous nasal spray.4
Oral antibiotics with anaerobic and Gram negative
cover may be required, although the European Acad-
emy of Allergology and Clinical Immunology found
limited evidence to support their use. They may be
considered in patients who have failed to respond to
initial intranasal steroid therapy or in those who have
severe symptoms with evidence of persistent nasal
sepsis. Symptom relief can be achieved in both acute
and chronic rhinosinusitis with the use of topical saline
douches and sprays.4
Failure to respond to a three month period of ini-
tial medical treatment should prompt referral to an
additional educational resources
Resources for healthcare professionals
• National Electronic Library for Health (www.nelh.nhs.uk/)—an online library the thin medial orbital wall (lamina papyracea) or
for NHS staff, patients and the public
• Cochrane Library (www.thecochranelibrary.com)—contains high quality, structures.
independent evidence to inform healthcare decision making
• BMJ Clinical Evidence (www.clinicalevidence.org)—resource for informing tal bone (Pott’s puffy tumour) and may also destroy the
treatment decisions and improving patient care
• Clinical Knowledge Summaries Service(www.prodigy.nhs.uk/)—up to
date source of clinical knowledge on common conditions for healthcare
professionals and patients
• GP notebook (www.gpnotebook.co.uk)—an online encyclopaedia of
medicine
Resources for patients
• Patient UK (www.patient.co.uk)—free, up to date health information as provided by
general practitioners to patients during consultations
• Facial Neuralgia Resources (www.facial-neuralgia.org)—a “patient to patient” resource for
those with face pain caused by disorders of the cranial nerves
• ENT UK (www.entuk.org/patient_info)—medical information for patients on ear, nose, and
throat disorders, conditions of the head and neck, and facial plastic and cosmetic surgery
360 BMJ | 17 February 2007 | Volume 334
ear, nose, and throat specialist. Additionally, prompt
referral should be considered in cases where sinister or
worrying features exist (box 6).
What is the role of surgery for rhinosinusitis?
Surgery for rhinosinusitis should be considered
only after maximal drug treatment has failed or
complications are suspected. Traditional open sinus
procedures for ���������������������������������
chronic rhinosinusitis have����������
been
largely replaced by endoscopic techniques.19 With a
better understanding of normal mucociliary clearance
pathways and anatomy of the osteomeatal complex
(fig 1), endoscopic sinus surgery is now the mainstay
of surgical treatment for ������������������������
chronic rhinosinusitis��.
Endoscopic sinus surgery entails restoring sinus
ventilation and drainage by careful removal of any
soft tissue obstructing the natural drainage ostia in an
attempt to restore mucociliary function.20 After sur-
gery, intranasal steroids, saline douching, and nasal
toileting are important to help mucosal healing and
avoid the formation of intranasal adhesions.
Surgery in acute rhinosinusitis is reserved for refrac-
tory or complicated cases and takes the form of sinus
lavage to drain pus and decompress the affected sinus.
This can be performed endoscopically or via exter-
nal trephination and is combined with perioperative
antibiotic cover and empirical use of saline douches
and sprays.
What are the complications of rhinosinusitis?
The complications of sinusitis are due largely to the
proximity of the paranasal sinuses to the anterior cra-
nial fossa and orbit, as well as the venous drainage of
the mid-facial structures into the intracranial venous
sinuses.21
Up to 75% of orbital infections are attributable to
sinonasal disease, with the ethmoid sinus the primary
source.22 Orbital complications include orbital cellu‑
litis (fig 2), subperiosteal abscess, and intraorbital
abscess, with the potential of blindness as a result of
venous compression around the optic nerve. Orbital
complications occur via direct transmission through
by haematogenous route to the neighbouring orbital
Frontal sinusitis may lead to osteomyelitis of the fron-
mediscan
Fig 2 | Orbital cellulitis

posterior table of the sinus, leading to extradural and
subdural empyema. Sinusitis may also lead to menin-
gitis, intracranial abscess, and cavernous sinus throm-
bosis, the latter occurring via haematogenous spread
through the superior ophthalmic veins or pterygoid
venous plexus.
Contributors: KWA-S participated in the editing and writing of the article,
and ASE did the literature search and contributed to the writing of the article.
KWA-S is the guarantor.
Competing interests: None declared.
1 McCormick A, Fleming D, Charlton J. Morbidity statistics from general
practice. Fourth national study 1991-1992. London: HMSO, 1995.
2 Agency for Health Care Policy and Research. Diagnosis and treatment
of acute bacterial rhinosinusitis. Evid Rep Technol Assess (Summ)
1999;9:1-5.
3 Scheid DC, Hamm RM. Acute bacterial rhinosinusitis in adults: part I.
Evaluation. J Am Fam Phys 2004;70:1685-92.
4 Fokkens W, Lund V, Bachert C, Clement P, Helllings P, Holmstrom M, et
al. EAACI position paper on rhinosinusitis and nasal polyps executive
summary. Allergy 2005;60:583-601.
5 Ray NF, Baraniuk JN, Thamer M, Rinehart CS, Gergen PJ, Kaliner M, et
al. Healthcare expenditures for sinusitis in 1996: contributions of
asthma, rhinitis and other airway disorders. J Allergy Clin Immunol
1999;103(3 pt 1):408-14.
6 Lindbaek M, Hjortdahl P. The clinical diagnosis of acute purulent
sinusitis in general practice—a review. Br J Gen Pract 2002;52:491-5.
7 Bousquet J, van Cauwenberge P, Khaltaev N. Allergic rhinitis and its
impact on asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2001;108(5 suppl):S147-334.
8 Benninger MS, Ferguson BJ, Hadley JA, Hamilos DL, Jacobs M,
Kennedy DW, et al. Adult chronic rhinosinusitis: definitions,
diagnosis, epidemiology, and pathophysiology. Otolaryngol Head
Neck Surg 2003;129(suppl 3):S1-32.
The dizzy clinic and the dictionary (etymology and otology)
In the “dizzy clinic” it is essential to find out whether a
patient has a sensation of motion (vertigo), a feeling of
unsteadiness (dysequilibrium), or both. Patients often
use the word vertigo incorrectly, and frequently admit
that they’ve read about it on the internet.
The American Academy of Otolaryngology Head
and Neck Surgery defines vertigo as “the sensation
of motion when no motion is occurring relative to
the earth’s gravity, in contrast to motion intolerance,
which is a feeling of dysequilibrium, spatial
disorientation, or malaise during active or passive
movement.”1
However, vertigo is defined by the Oxford Dictionary
of English as “a sensation of whirling and loss of
balance, associated particularly with looking down
from a great height, or caused by disease affecting
the inner ear or the vestibular nerve; giddiness.”2
Interestingly, this offers “giddiness” as a synonym for
vertigo. The two are perceived as different entities
in the neuro-otological consultation, with giddiness
having a somewhat looser implication, and potentially
encompassing both vertigo and dysequilibrium.
The Oxford Dictionary of English defines giddy as
“having a sensation of whirling and a tendency to fall
over or stagger; dizzy,” thereby introducing another
synonym (dizzy), which might be considered even less
specific in terms of neuro-otological symptomatology.
The origin of the word vertigo is in the Latin vertere,
meaning to turn. Conversely, the word giddy is
believed to be derived from the Old English word
gidig, meaning insane or, literally, possessed by a
god. To complicate matters further, the word dizzy is
defined by the Oxford Dictionary of English as “having
or involving a sensation of spinning around and losing
one’s balance” and has its origin in the Old English
BMJ | 17 February 2007 | Volume 334 361
CLINICAL REVIEW
9 Benninger MS. Rhinitis, sinusitis and their relationship to allergy. Am J
Rhinol 1992;6:37-43.
10 Krouse J. CT stage, allergy testing and quality of life in patients with
sinusitis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2000;123:389-91.
11 Baroody FM, Suh SH, Naclerio RM. Total IgE serum levels correlate
with sinus mucosal thickness on CT. J Allergy Clin Immunol
1997;100:563-8.
12 Ramadan HH, Fornelli R, Ortiz AO, Rodman S. Correlation of allergy
and severity of sinus disease. Am J Rhinol 1999;13:345-7.
13 Karlsson G, Holmberg K. Does allergic rhinitis predispose to sinusitis?
Acta Otolarygol Suppl 1994;515:26-8.
14 Osguthorpe JD. Surgical outcomes in rhinosinusitis: what we know.
Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1999;120:451-3.
15 Lane AP, Pine HS, Pillsbury HC III. Allergy testing and immunotherapy
in an academic otolaryngology practice: a 20 year review. Otolaryngol
Head Neck Surg 2001;124:9-15.
16 Ah-See KW. Sinusitis (acute). Clinical Evidence www.clinicalevidence.
org/ceweb/conditions/ent/0511/0511_contribdetails.jsp
17 Williams Jr JW, Aguilar C, Cornell J, Chiquette E. Dolor RJ, Makela M, et
al. Antibiotics for acute maxillary sinusitis. Cochrane Database Syst
Rev 2003;(2):CD000243.
18 Meltzer EO. Intranasal steroids: managing allergic rhinitis and
tailoring treatment to patient preference. Allergy Asthma Proc
2005;26:445-51.
19 Kennedy DW, Bolger WE, Zinerich SJ. Diseases of the sinuses;
diagnosis and endoscopic management. Hamilton and London:
Decker, 2001.
20 Meeserklinger W. Role of the lateral nasal wall in the pathogenesis,
diagnosis and therapy of recurrent and chronic rhinosinusitis.
Laryngol Rhinol Otol 1987;66:293-9.
21 Ferguson BJ, Johnson JT. Infectious causes of rhinosinusitis. In:
Cummings CW , Haughey BH, Thomas JR, Harker LA, Flint PW, Haughey
BB, et al. Cummings otolaryngology: head & neck surgery. 4th ed.
Philadelphia: Mosby, 2005.
22 Friedman DP, Rao VM, Flanders AE. Lesions causing a mass in the
medial canthus of the orbit: CT and MR features. Am J Roentgenol
1993;160:1095-9.
word dysig, meaning foolish and thought to be related
to Low German dusig, meaning giddy, and old High
German tusic, which translates as foolish or weak.
In view of the etymological data, there is little
wonder that we often struggle to elicit a clear clinical
history in the dizzy clinic. Although clinicians
maintain a tendency to reserve the term vertigo for a
sensation of spinning or movement, our patients may
well be using terms as defined by the Oxford Dictionary
of English and treating the words vertigo, giddiness,
and dizziness as synonymous.
The Oxford Dictionary of English has created several
controversies since it was first published in 1998.
Its first editor claims that it is based on modern
understanding of language. It apparently derives from
a “corpus linguistics of contemporary used English,”
meaning that it is compiled on the basis of the way
people actually use words, as opposed to the correct
way to use them. The Daily Telegraph described it
as a “dumbed down version of the [Oxford English
Dictionary],” while a language researcher writing in the
Guardian commented that “if we go on doing this, we
shall create a ghetto class who can’t write application
letters and won’t get jobs.” The reality for clinicians is
that this “dumbing down” of our language might be a
barrier to accurate history taking in the clinical setting.
It reminds me of something my father used to tell
me: “Just because everyone else is doing it, doesn’t
mean it’s right.” Perhaps he was correct after all.
Emma Stapleton clinical research fellow, University of Edinburgh
(emmastapleton@doctors.org.uk)
1 American Association of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery
Committee on Hearing and Equilibrium. Ménière’s disease: criteria for
diagnosis and evaluation of therapy for reporting. Otolaryngol Head
Neck Surg 1995;113:181-5.
2 Oxford Dictionary of English. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.