Thesis

Investigations into Hybrid Layered
Manufacturing of Metallic Objects
submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements

for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
by
Suryakumar S
(05410002)
under the supervision of

Dr. K. P. Karunakaran
Department of Mechanical Engineering

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, BOMBAY
Nov, 2009
Approval Sheet
The thesis entitled “Investigations into Hybrid Layered

Manufacturing of Metallic Objects” by Suryakumar S is approved for
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
Examiners
Supervisor
Chairman
Place: IIT Bombay

Date: ___________
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY BOMBAY
Certificate of Course Work
This is to certify that Mr. Suryakumar S was admitted to the

candidacy of the Ph.D Degree on 01/01/2006, after successfully
completing all the courses required for the Ph.D. programme. The
details of the course work done are given below:
Sl. No. Course No. Course Name Credits
1 ME 637 Manufacturing Automation 6
2 ME 617 Rapid Product Development 6
3 MES 801 Credit Seminar 4
Dy. Registrar (Academic Programs)
Place: IIT Bombay

Date: ___________
Abstract
Hybrid Layered Manufacturing (HLM) combines the best features of two well known
and economical processes, viz., arc welding and milling. Although the concept and
techno-economic viability of HLM were demonstrated earlier, the process is yet to
be fine-tuned. Thus the main goal of the present work is “to develop a generic HLM
facility capable of manufacturing/repairing tools and components of various metals
and demonstrate it for diverse applications”.
Based on the geometric complexity of the component, its near-net shape can be
obtained by a combination of (a) Planar/non-planar deposition (b) with/without
undercuts (c) 3-axis/5-axis deposition. To meet these various possible
combinations, a generic HLM facility was evolved. It consists of a 3-axis CNC
machine, a 5-axis CNC machine, two weld-deposition units and a pallet system
connecting the two CNC machines.
Effective integration of the weld-deposition units with the CNC machine is

pivotal in HLM process. The integration was carried out in such a manner that the
weld-deposition can act as an additional feature to an existing CNC machine
without disturbing its other capabilities. Various steps undertaken to ensure this
have been presented.
The modelling of the weld-bead geometry was also carried out assuming it as a
parabola. This model predicts the profile of the bead, for example the width and
height, from the process parameters such as wire and torch speeds. This model
was validated through a series of single-bead experiments comparing the predicted
and measured geometries of the beads.
This single-bead model was further extended for multi-bead deposition. It was
assumed that the overlap volume between two beads fillets the valley between
them. This multi-bead model predicts the layer thickness and yield from the process
parameters which additionally includes the stepover increment. This model helps in
selecting the process parameters for maximum yield and minimum heat input.
The characterization of objects made through HLM, including analysis of their
tensile properties and hardness variation, has been carried out. This facilitates the
identification of suitable domain of applications for HLM process. The diverse
capabilities of HLM in terms of geometric complexity and material variety were
studied extensively. Through a series of experiments, it was found that an
overhang upto 0.6mm can be realized without using any support material, exploiting
the inherent overhanging ability of the weld-bead. This characteristic makes HLM
suitable for the manufacture of dies with conformal cooling ducts and components
with smooth overhangs. Some sample shapes like inverted cone, helical duct,
truncated torus were made to demonstrate the same. HLM is also able to handle a
variety of metals including a tool steels, aluminium etc. The capability of HLM to
produce composite matrix is also studied.
Material saving, elimination of rough machining, reduction of programming time,

elimination of EDM and ability to make conformal cooling ducts are some of the
significant advantages of HLM in tooling applications. Economical manufacture of
composite die with conformal cooling ducts is a unique feature of HLM. Two
industrial trials were carried out to demonstrate the techno-economic viability of
HLM in manufacture of injection moulds. The first case study is a monolithic die pair
made of mild steel; the second is a complex composite mould with hard casing
(P20), soft core (mild steel) and conformal cooling ducts.
The benefits of HLM for die repair was demonstrated through the case study of
a worn out knuckle die of Bharat Forge. This also included investigations into non-
planar deposition and use of self-shielding flux cored wires.
It is possible to realize components with minor undercuts through planar 3-

axis deposition after blinding them. The steps involved in realizing such
components through HLM were discussed with the help of a case study of the
blades of a quadcopter. Subsequently, the method for manufacturing components
through variable axis deposition is presented followed by the post-processing of the
same.
Keywords: Rapid Manufacturing, Layered Manufacturing, Slicing, Arc Welding,

Overhanging features, Process Modelling, Composite Objects, Conformal Cooling Ducts.
ii
Contents
Abstract i
Contents iii
List of Figures viii
List of Tables xiii
Nomenclature xv
Abbreviations xvi
1. Introduction 1
1.1 Rapid Manufacturing 1-1
1.2 Classification of Rapid Manufacturing Methods 1-4
1.2.1 CNC machining 1-4
1.2.2 Laminated manufacturing 1-5
1.2.3 Powder-bed technologies 1-6
1.2.4 Deposition processes 1-7
1.2.5 Hybrid processes 1-7
1.2.6 Rapid casting 1-8
1.3 Motivation for the Project 1-9
1.4 Problem Definition 1-10
1.5 Organization of the Report 1-12
2. Literature Review 2
2.1 Introduction 2-1
2.2 Deposition Processes for Additive Manufacture of Metallic Objects 2-2
2.2.1 Laser-based RM processes 2-3
2.2.2 Electron beam-based RM processes 2-7
2.2.3 Arc-based RM processes 2-7
2.3 Gas Metal Arc Welding 2-12
2.3.1 Metal transfer modes in GMAW 2-13
2.3.2 Bead modelling 2-17
2.4 Stress Relieving and Heat Treatment 2-18
2.4.1 Hot working 2-21
2.4.2 Cold working 2-25
2.5 Slicing 2-29
2.6 Summary 2-33
3. Hybrid Layered Manufacturing 3

3.2 Applications of HLM 3-3
3.3 Methodology 3-7
3.3.1 Calibration of torch offsets 3-7
3.3.2 Geometric processing 3-8
3.3.3 Building the near-net shape 3-10
3.3.4 Stress relieving and/or heat treatment 3-11
3.3.5 Finish machining of the near-net shape 3-13
3.4 Architecture of the Generic HLM Facility 3-13
3.4.1 3-axis CNC machining centre 3-14
3.4.2 5-axis CNC machining centre 3-15
3.4.3 Weld-deposition units 3-16
3.4.4 Pallet system 3-18
3.5 Integration of CNC and Weld-deposition Unit 3-21
3.5.1 Mounting of weld-deposition torch 3-22
3.5.2 Control of weld-deposition unit 3-23
3.5.3 Isolation of CNC machine to the effects of weld-deposition 3-26
3.6 Software for HLM 3-28
iv
3.7 Transfer of CNC program to the controller through DNC 3-31
3.8 Summary 3-33
4. Process Modelling 4
4.2 Modelling of Single Bead Deposition 4-2
4.2.1 Experimental validation 4-5
4.3 Modelling of Multi-Bead Deposition 4-9
4.3.1 Initial model 4-9
4.3.2 Improved model 4-11
4.3.3 Validation 4-21
4.3.4 Optimization of the process parameters 4-23
4.4 Summary 4-25
5. Characterization and Capabilities of HLM 5

5.2 Characterization of HLM Objects 5-2
5.2.1 Porosity 5-2
5.2.2 Hardness 5-3
5.2.3 Tensile strength 5-5
5.3 Feasibility of HLM for a Variety of Metals 5-9
5.4 Geometric Complexity Possible in HLM 5-12
5.5 Building Composite Objects 5-18
5.6 Summary 5-20
6. Applications of HLM for Injection Moulds 6

6.2 Significance of HLM for Injection Moulds 6-2
6.3 Manufacture of Monolithic Injection Moulds through HLM 6-5
6.3.1 Manufacture of the moulds 6-6
6.3.2 Cost and time comparison of HLM and CNC routes 6-9
v
6.4 Manufacture of a Complex Injection Mould through HLM 6-11
6.4.1 Design of conformal cooling ducts 6-12
6.4.2 Pre-processing the CAD model 6-12
6.4.3 Manufacture of the mould 6-15
6.5 Summary 6-18
7. Applications of HLM for Repair 7

7.2 Repair of Forging Dies 7-2
7.2.1 Identification of the zones to be repaired 7-4
7.2.2 Filling the zones to be repaired 7-4
7.3 Summary 7-8
8. Applications of HLM for Components 8

8.2 Planar Deposition using 3-axis HLM after Blinding the Undercuts 8-1
8.2.1 Pre-processing the CAD model for blinding of the undercuts 8-2
8.2.2 Manufacture of the component 8-5
8.3 Variable Axis Deposition 8-8
8.3.1 Variable axis slicing 8-9
8.3.2 Post-processing 8-11
8.4 Summary 8-
9. Conclusions & Future Scope 9

9.1 Conclusions 9-1
9.2 Future Scope 9-10
References R-1
vi
Appendix -A: Optimal Parameters for Al-Mg (ER5356) A-1
Appendix-B: Optimal Parameters for MS (ER70S-6) B-1
Bibliography C-1
Publications based on this Thesis
Acknowledgements
vii
List of Figures
1.1 Applications of RP 1-1

1.2 Classification of RM processes based on various criteria 1-2
1.3 Comparison of surface quality of RM processes using Laser, EB and Arc 1-4
2.1 Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) 2-3

2.2 Boeing components made using LAM 2-5
2.3 Direct Metal Deposition (DMD) 2-6
2.4 Schematic of the rapid direct metal deposition machine 2-6
2.5 Process principle of 3D Welding and Milling 2-9
2.6 Factors influencing the quality of the prototype 2-10
2.7 Schematic of 3DMW process 2-11
2.8 Comparison between GTAW arc and plasma arc 2-11
2.9 Schematic diagram of HPDM 2-11
2.10 Gas Metal Arc Welding process 2-13
2.11 Modes of metal transfer in GMAW 2-14
2.12 Bead overlapping model for MPAW 2-18
2.13 Overlapping for different scan spacing 2-18
2.14 Various stress relieving processes 2-21
2.15 Schematic illustration of PHW process 2-24
2.16 Shot peening 2-26
2.17 Laser peening process 2-27
2.18 Various slicing methods 2-31
2.19 Example of centroidal axis extraction of CAD model 2-31
2.20 Part with non-uniform layers after slicing 2-32
2.21 Slicing results of a unit layer 2-32
3.1 HLM combining the benefits of RP and CNC machining 3-2

3.2 Planar deposition using 3-axis CNC machine 3-5
3.3 Components with slight overhang 3-5
3.4 Planar deposition using 3-axis CNC machine after blinding the undercuts 3-5
3.5 Indexed type 5-axis deposition 3-5
3.6 Continuous type 5-axis deposition 3-6
3.7 Calibration of torch offsets 3-8
3.8 Edge finder 3-9
3.9 Dynamic clamping 3-12
3.10 ARGO 3-axis CNC machine 3-14
3.11 Hermle C30U 5-axis CNC machine 3-15
3.12 Fronius GMAW power sources 3-15
3.13 Droplet detachment in CMT 3-18
3.14 Schematic of CMT equipment 3-18
3.15 HLM facility integrating 3-axis and 5-axis CNC machines 3-19
3.16 Various steps in building the object using HLM 3-20
3.17 Components in the pneumatic cylinder unit 3-22
3.18 Components in the pneumatic cylinder unit 3-23
3.19 Control of weld-deposition unit 3-23
3.20 Frame for mounting DPDT switch and relay on CNC machine 3-25
3.21 Circuit diagram for integration of weld-deposition unit with CNC 3-25
controller
3.22 Universal fixture with coolant ducts 3-27
3.23 Sheet metal shroud to arrest spatter 3-28
3.24 Opening menu of Trishul, HLMSoft 3-29
3.25 Menus of HLMSoft 3-30
3.26 Dialog box of settings 3-30
4.1 Bead geometry 4-2

4.2 Current vs wire speed graph for 0.8mm MS wire 4-3
4.3 Deposition path for analysis of weld-bead profile 4-5
4.4 Experimental validation of the single bead model 4-5
4.5 Predicted vs. measured cross-sectional areas of bead 4-7
ix
4.6 Surface plot of bead height 4-8
4.7 Surface plot of bead width 4-8
4.8 Bead formation in initial model 4-10
4.9 Deposited pattern to model verification 4-11
4.10 Bead cross-section for initial model 4-11
4.11 Bead formation in improved model 4-12
4.12 Different possible bead overlaps 4-12
4.13 Geometry of the bead overlap 4-14
4.14 Different possible roots of k 4-17
4.15 Flowchart of algorithm for numerical analysis 4-19
4.16 Surface plot of yield 4-20
4.17 Bead cross-section for improved model 4-21
4.18 Deposited patters to measure layer thickness experimentally 4-22
4.19 Various stages of a deposited pattern before flattening 4-23
4.20 Predicted vs measured yield for multi-bead deposition 4-23
5.1 Microstructure of HLM matrix 5-2

5.2 Hardness variation along Z direction 5-4
5.3 Specimen for testing the hardness variation 5-4
5.4 Hardness vs. thermal cycles for various heights 5-4
5.5 Thermal distribution along vertical plane in a rectangular block 5-5
5.6 Dimensions of ASTM A370 test specimen 5-5
5.7 Specimen for tensile testing 5-7
5.8 Sample stress-strain diagrams obtained from the tensile tests 5-8
5.9 Ultimate strength in the three different directions 5-8
5.10 Ultimate strength in the vertical direction for different values of current 5-9
5.11 Different directions possible for building slant walls 5-13
5.12 Deposited patterns to analyze the effect of weld-direction 5-14
5.13 Slant walls built using HLM 5-14
5.14 Inverted frustum of cone built through 3-axis deposition 5-14
5.15 A triangular sweep in XY plane built through 3-axis deposition 5-16
x
5.16 A helical triangular duct built using through 3-axis deposition 5-16
5.17 A hallow torus built through 3-axis deposition and adaptive slicing 5-17
5.18 Adaptive slicing used for building the semi-torus 5-17
5.19 Composite dies with soft core and hard surface 5-19
5.2 Two weld-deposition torches mounted near the spindle 5-19
5.21 Pattern for testing the tensile properties of composite deposition 5-19
6.1 Realization of deep features through HLM 6-4

6.2 Conformal cooling ducts 6-4
6.3 CAD model of egg tray and its die pair 6-5
6.4 Weld-deposition process 6-7
6.5 Different intermediate layers of punch 6-8
6.6 Injection mould produced using HLM 6-8
6.7 Egg Tray made through injection moulding of the die pair 6-8
6.8 Comparison of subtractive and HLM routes for egg-tray 6-10
6.9 Views of filtrum – the component for the case study 6-11
6.1 The moulds of filtrum 6-11
6.11 Design of conformal cooling ducts 6-13
6.12 The case and core of the punch 6-14
6.13 The three segments of the punch 6-14
6.14 Various phases in the manufacture of the punch 6-16
6.15 Comparison of subtractive and HLM routes for filtrum 6-18
7.1 LENS being used for repair of aerospace components 7-1

7.2 Knuckle Die with inset showing the segment to be repaired 7-4
7.3 Relevant portion of the Knuckle die 7-5
7.4 Failed non-planar deposition using MIG welding 7-5
7.5 Effect of torch direction on deposition pattern 7-6
7.6 Non-planar deposition using FCAW-S 7-6
8.1 Components built after blinding the undercuts by AeroMet 8-1
xi
8.2 Modified CAD model of the quad-copter blades 8-3
8.3 Flow chart for removing the undercut surfaces 8-4
8.4 Flow chart for adding the support wall 8-5
8.5 Various stages in the manufacture of the quad-copter blade 8-6
8.6 Comparison of subtractive and HLM routes for quad-copter blade 8-8
8.7 Variable axis slicing 8-10
8.8 Directions of normal, direction and torch unit vectors for a triangle 8-10
8.9 Transformation of axes for 5-axis kinematics 8-15
xii
List of Tables
1.1 Techniques for improving quality and speed 1-2

1.2 Comparison of the deposition and powder-bed technologies 1-7
1.3 Comparison of arc based process with laser and electron beam 1-11
2.1 Comparison of powder and wire feed 2-2

2.2 Various deposition-based RM processes according the energy source 2-2
2.3 Laser sources used by various commercial machines [38] 2-3
2.4 Comparison of hot and cold working 2-30
3.1 Comparison of CNC, RP and HLM approaches 3-3

3.2 Applications of HLM 3-3
3.3 Specifications of the weld-deposition units 3-18
3.4 Input parameters for HLM 3-32
3.5 Various parameters selected for RS-232 communication in HLM 3-32
3.6 RS-232 cable connections for HLM 3-32
4.1 Comparison of predicted and measured cross-sectional areas of weld- 4-6

bead
4.2 Comparison of measured and predicted values of layer thickness and 4-22
yield
5.1 Tensile strength of the HLM object in different directions 5-6

5.2 Variation of tensile strengths along directions and w.r.t. to a billet 5-6
5.3 Types of rollers for various wire materials 5-11
5.4 Filler wire materials used in HLM 5-12
5.5 Tensile properties of composite pattern 5-20
6.1 Commonly used tool materials for different applications 6-2

6.2 Comparison of manufacturing time for egg tray 6-10
6.3 Comparison of manufacturing cost for egg tray 6-10
6.4 Comparison of manufacturing times for filtrum 6-18
6.5 Comparison of manufacturing costs for filtrum 6-18
7.1 Comparison of injection moulds and forging dies 7-1

7.2 Composition of commonly used die tools 7-3
7.3 Welding parameters used for repair of forging die 7-6
8.1 Time and material deposited for each layer 8-6

8.2 Comparison of manufacturing time for quad-copter blade 8-8
8.3 Comparison of manufacturing cost quad-copter blade 8-8
xiv
Nomenclature
Process Modelling:
(a, c) Algebraic parameters of parabola equation
θ Angle of the slant wall with vertical plane
A Area of weld-bead
dw Diameter of filler wire
c Equation of circle filleting the two parabolas
p1 Equation of parabola-1
p2 Equation of parabola-2
m Height of center of fillet circle
h Height of weld-bead
t Layer thickness
R Radius of the fillet
p Step over increment
vt Torch speed
w Width of weld-bead
vw Wire speed
k X-coordinate of the tangency point
η Yield
Post Processing:
CLi Cutter location vector
H Data input format to the 5-axis machine
pi The coordinates of any ith point in a loop
dî Unit vector along loop direction
nî Unit vector along normal direction
tî Unit vector along torch orientation
Abbreviations
CAPP Computer-Automated Part Programming
CL Cutter Location or Centre Line
FCAW Flux Cored Arc Welding
FCAW-S Self-shielding Flux Cored Arc Welding
GMAW Gas Metal Arc Welding
HLM Hybrid Layered Manufacturing
LENS Laser Engineered Net-Shaping
LM Layered Manufacturing
MIG Metal Inert Gas
MS Mild Steel
PWHT Post Weld Heat Treatment
RM Rapid Manufacturing
RP Rapid Prototyping
RT Rapid Tooling
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Rapid Manufacturing
Rapid Prototyping (RP), also known as Layered Manufacturing (LM), is a totally

automatic process of manufacturing objects directly from their CAD models without the
use of any tooling specific to the geometry of the objects being produced. RP adopts a
divide-and-conquer approach in which the complex 3D object is split into several 2D
slices that are simple to manufacture. Furthermore, as the object grows from bottom up,
the chances of collisions are eliminated.
Time compression achieved through RP enabled more design iterations within the
available resources, thus revolutionizing the way products are designed and manufactured
today. Its ability to realize conformal cooling channels and gradient objects are its most
significant advantages. Discoloration of a plastic part caused by glass precipitation was
eliminated by incorporating an insert with conformal cooling channels in its mould
(Figure 1.1a). RP can produce objects with gradient properties of colour, composition
etc., as shown in Figures 1.1b&c. The same for metals are shown in Figures 1.1d&e.
RP cuts down product development time and Rapid Tooling (RT) cuts down
productionizing time. Therefore, Rapid Prototyping & Tooling (RP&T) is an effective
tool where time to market matters. However, use of RP is still limited to the manufacture
of only prototypes, mostly of non-metallic materials. The dream of manufacturing
engineers today is to extend the total automation of prototypes to functional and full-life
components. In other words, RP is evolving into Rapid Manufacturing (RM). This
requires overcoming the following limitations:
• Poor quality
Chapter 1 Introduction 1-2
• Short life
• Low speed
• High cost.
(a) A rapid tool with conformal cooling (b) Stress pattern of a blade (c) Time-delivery drugs produced using
channel built using EoS’s SLS process captured in color using ZCorp’s 3DP Therics’s 3DP
(e) Functionally gradient metallic objects

(d) Ti bone implants made using SLS
using OptoMec’s LENS
Figure 1.1 Applications of RP [1]
Table 1.1 Techniques for improving quality and speed

Improves
Technique Material
Build speed Geometric quality
Faster motion 9 - -
Faster process 9 - -
Multiple tools 9 - Gradient/composite
New slicing concepts 9 9 -
Hybrid systems 9 9 -
Slicing that contributed to RP's total automation is also responsible for these
problems. Today’s rapid prototypes leave much to be desired in terms of the quality of
geometry (accuracy and surface finish) and material (variety, composition, homogeneity,
porosity, proprietary nature etc.). Although various methods of improving the accuracy
like controlling the build orientation are explored by different researchers, objects made
of RP are still inferior in quality [2-4]. One can produce parts out of any material on a
CNC machine by using appropriate cutting parameters. On the other hand, if a new
material is to be used on a RP machine, elaborate experimentation is required to fine-tune

the process for the new material. Due to this as well as the commercial interests, the raw
materials for any RP machine are proprietary and have limited shelf-life. Furthermore, all
RP processes inherently exhibit anisotropy. Due to these quality restrictions, rapid
prototypes have poor life. The cycle time of a mass-produced part through the use of
appropriate tooling is orders of magnitude shorter than that of the prototype. Therefore,
existing RP processes are unacceptably slow and costly for regular production.
Furthermore, in order to cater to the numerous combinations of materials, quality
specifications, production volume, sensitivity to cost etc., a unique strategy like slicing
may not be sufficient for RM; it will require multi-faceted and hybrid approaches.
Figure 1.2 Classification of RM processes based on various criteria
Several options have been explored to improve the build speed and the quality as
listed in Table 1.1. Each RP process usually uses either a thermal or a bonding process,
which may be extrusion (eg.: FDM), polymerization (eg.: SLA, PolyJet of Objet, SGC),
sintering (eg.: SLS of 3DS), melting (eg.: DMLS of EoS), gluing (eg.: 3DP) or cutting
(eg.: LOM). These processes have very high time constants. Therefore, with the advent of
modern drives and controls, the bottleneck is no longer the speed of motion but the speed
of the process. Processes using galvanometer-controlled lasers are faster but are the most
expensive. Although it becomes expensive, some machines use multiple lasers (eg.:
DMLS of EoS). Many non-laser machines have achieved high speed by using multiple
tools (eg.: 3DP of ZCorp, PolyJet of Objet). New slicing methods and hybrid systems are
more attractive as they show improvements both in speed and accuracy. However, these
are radical approaches that demand more intelligent Computer-Automated Part
Programming (CAPP) systems for their complex kinematics.
1.2 Classification of Rapid Manufacturing Methods
To cater to the vast variations of the manufacturing environment, a number of multi-

faceted and hybrid approaches are employed for RM. All these approaches to RM can be
grouped into the following six groups of technologies for metallic objects:
i. CNC machining
ii. Laminated manufacturing
iii. Powder-bed technologies
iv. Deposition technologies
v. Hybrid technologies
vi. Rapid casting technologies.
The first is purely subtractive in nature and the next three are purely additive. Hybrid
RM combines the second, third or fourth with the first to get the benefits of both additive
and subtractive routes. These first five technologies are direct RM and the last is indirect.
The exhaustive classification of various RM processes is given in Figure 1.2. These six
groups of RM technologies are described in the subsequent subsections.
1.2.1 CNC machining
CNC machining is the best of all RM processes to achieve the highest quality of material
and geometry. Accessibility of the cutters is its only limiting factor as in the cases of very
deep, sharp or highly twisted features. Even these can be addressed with subsequent
processes such as EDM. The three facets of CNC machining are the (i) machine tool, (ii)
cutting tool and (iii) CAM software. Modern machine tools with sophisticated controllers
have achieved interpolated traversal speeds close to 60 m/min using traditional rotary
motors and 200 m/min using linear motors. Cemented carbide and ceramic inserts with
several layers of thin hard coatings match such fast machines. These advances in machine
and cutting tools have made High Speed Machining (HSM) a reality. In spite of the
continuous improvements over half a century, the present bottleneck to CNC machining
among its three facets is the CAM software. Not only shall the path of the NC programs
be correct and optimal but its cutting parameters (viz., spindle speed and feed rate) too
shall be safe and optimal. CAPP systems that would automatically generate the CNC
programs have been reported for machining axi-symmetric and prismatic parts; they also
have been developed for 3-axis machining of visible surfaces with a single ball end mill.
But CAPP systems that cater to all machining situations are still elusive. Therefore,
human intervention will be required to direct the CAM software to generate such a fool-
proof and efficient CNC programs. An optimal combination of the NC programmer,
CAM software, machine tool and cutting tool will be the best RM process in terms of
cost, quality and time.
CAPP for subtractive manufacturing proved difficult due to the possibilities of

collisions and the difficulties in the cutter reach. Additive manufacturing in layers made
CAPP relatively easier which is responsible for the total automation in RP (i.e.,
automation of the process as well as the process planning), albeit with some quality
compromises.
1.2.2 Laminated manufacturing
Laminated manufacturing is the simplest additive method. Laminated Object

Manufacturing (LOM) is the first commercial RP process to produce objects by gluing the
suitably profiled paper laminates automatically. LOM deviated from the conventional
wisdom of “cut-then-paste” and adopted “paste-then-cut” approach which resulted in an
inherent support mechanism and simplified the handling of the laminates [5]. Even before
the advent of RP, this concept to build tools for sheet metal manufacture was used by
Nakagawa and group [6]. For obvious reasons, only cut-then-paste approach is suitable
for laminated tools. As injection moulding, pressure die casting or forging involve liquid
or semi-solid material which may ooze into the laminates, tying the laminates is not
suitable for these applications. Therefore, there have been many attempts to develop other
joining methods such as adhesive bonding, brazing, ultrasonic welding and diffusion
bonding. Efforts were also made to minimize the stair step effect through 4-axis
machining/laser cutting of the edges of the laminates or finish-machining the assembled
dies.
1.2.3 Powder-bed technologies
A powder-bed technology is a LM process in which each layer is realized by first

spreading a layer of powder and then joining the particles constituting the desired cross
section of the object using a focused tool. This tool may be an energy source or a liquid
jet such as:
i. a laser (as in SLS),

ii. an electron beam (as in EBM of Arcam),
iii. an electric arc (no process so far),
iv. a jet of liquid binder (as in 3DP).
Most powder-bed technologies for metallic objects require post-processing in a

furnace for removing the binder and/or completing the sintering. Another furnace process
for copper-impregnation is required in some processes to close the surface voids. This is
essential in dies and moulds to improve the polishability and hardly densifies the object;
densification can be achieved through Hot Iso-static Pressing (HIP). The size of the
powder particles limits the layer thickness and hence the accuracy.
1.2.4 Deposition processes
In a deposition technology, the layer is woven with the help of a nozzle through which the
desired material comes out. The layer weaving will generally have two parts, the
boundary profiles and the interiors. FDM is the most popular process of this type for
thermoplastics. Subsequently this concept has been extended for building metallic objects
using weld-deposition. Perhaps, “plastic welding” using a coil of filament adopted in
FDM was itself inspired from GMA welding. The weld-deposition may be done using
laser, electron beam or arc. Table 1.2 gives a comparison of powder-bed and deposition
technologies. Ability to build fully dense as well as gradient objects makes the deposition
technologies more attractive. The only problem with the deposition technologies is the
need for a sacrificial support mechanism required to build overhanging features.
As depicted in Figure 1.2, both the deposition as well as the powder-bed technologies
employ laser, electron beam or arc as the sources of thermal energy for sintering/melting,
in the order of their present popularity.
Table 1.2 Comparison of the deposition and powder-bed technologies

Deposition Powder-bed
Explicit support mechanism is required. This has Inherent support mechanism in the form of the
not been identified for metals so far. remaining powder.
Very suitable for gradient objects Not suitable for gradient objects*
Full density can be achieved as melting is Porous structure as the powder is not melted but
involved. only sintered.
Examples: FDM, LENS, LAM and POM. Examples: SLS, 3DP and Arcam.
*
Exception is 3DP which is unique for material addition from two sources.
1.2.5 Hybrid processes
A hybrid RM process is a LM process augmented with material removal. Hybrid

approach is not new to RP. While LOM used laser to cut the contours of the layers, Solid
Ground Curing (SGC) and Sander’s ModelMaker-II used milling to achieve vertical
accuracy. A hybrid RM process uses laminated manufacturing, powder-bed technology or
deposition technology for building the near-net shape and CNC machining to finish it to
the required final dimensions. This two-level approach focuses on material integrity
during material addition and geometric quality during material subtraction. One may
subject the near-net shape to stress relieving or heat treatment as required before
finishing.
1.2.6 Rapid casting
In indirect RM, the CAD model of the part (replica or negative) is first converted into an
intermediate material which could be used as a reusable pattern (eg.: Sand Casting,
Silicon Rubber Moulding), a consumable pattern (eg.: Quasi-hollow resin pattern from
QuickCast, dense polystyrene pattern from SLS), or a sand mould made without a pattern
(eg.: SLS of EoS, 3DP of Soligen, SRM of ACTech). Indirect RM is invariably less
accurate due to the shrinkages and distortions caused by phase changes and certain
allowances. Indirect processes for metals are referred as Rapid Casting.
Four routes of Rapid Casting are depicted in Figure 1.2. The ultimate aim in casting is
to obtain a refractory cavity. While traditionally this mould has been replicated from a
pattern, a few recent processes are able to build (additive) or carve (subtractive) these
moulds directly from their CAD definitions thus alleviating the need for a pattern. The
SLS process (from both EoS and 3DS) and 3DP of Soligen are able to build the sand
moulds/inserts this way. On the other hand, ACTech, Germany machines out the
mould/insert from sand cakes.
Rapid prototypes built using many RP processes such as LOM, FDM, SLS, SLA etc.
can be used as reusable patterns. Many RP machines can build either quasi-hallow
patterns or patterns out of materials with good burning characteristics which can be used
as consumable patterns in Investment Casting. Investment casting is the most accurate
of all casting processes and hence is of great significance. While the investment casting
processes have largely remained the same, RP helps in realizing these patterns quickly.
1.3 Motivation for the Project
Efforts are on to extend the total automation and hence the speed of RP to component
manufacture through the six routes of RM as discussed earlier. As the hybrid RM
combines the benefits of the additive and subtractive approaches, it is the focus in this
thesis. Among the three methods of achieving the near-net shape of the metallic objects,
deposition approach is chosen as it is able to produce fully dense matrix and is amenable
for composite/gradient objects. Figure 1.3 shows some metallic objects realized through
weld-deposition using laser, electron beam and arc. As it is obvious from these figures, all
of them produce only near-net shapes. These rough surfaces more often require finish
machining. Therefore, there are no major differences among laser, electron beam and arc
welding in terms of the finish and material integrity. Arc welding has the added
advantages of higher deposition rates, lower costs and safer operation. Deposition rate of
laser or electron beam is of the order of 2-10 g/min, whereas deposition rate of 50-
130g/min is possible in arc-based RM [7,8]. Table 1.3 gives the comparison arc welding
based RM systems with laser/ electron beam based ones. Although, laser and electron
beam have an edge over arc in the manufacture of tiny objects, they are overkill for the
macro tooling and components.
Hybrid Layered Manufacturing (HLM) developed at IIT Bombay is a promising

process which employs arc as the energy source. Earlier research work demonstrated its
techno-economic viability [9]. However, it was only a pilot project to prove the concept
and feasibility of HLM and had the following limitations:
• Only planar deposition possible

• Limited to uniform slices
• Inability to handle undercuts and hence limited to only tools
• Only injection moulding applications studied
• Investigations done only for mild steel
• Lack of process model and rigorous experimentation and characterization
• Deposition limited only to GMAW.
From these discussions, the need to address the following aspects was felt:
• Non-planar deposition
• Adaptive slicing
• Building tools with conformal cooling channels
• Building components with undercuts
• Harder tool materials and a variety of component materials
• Building tools for other applications (die casting and forging)
• Modelling the deposition process and optimization of the process parameters
• Characterization of the matrix
• Exploring other forms of arc welding (such as self-shielding flux-cored arc welding)
• Use of higher kinematics
• Building composite objects.
In view of the above, arc welding based HLM with the above characteristics has been
investigated in this thesis.
1.4 Problem Definition
The aim of this thesis is to develop a generic HLM facility capable of

manufacturing/repairing tools/components of various metals and demonstrate it for
diverse applications. This involves:
• Modelling the deposition process to establish the dependencies among the process
parameters
• Optimization of the process parameters to minimize the heat input and maximize the
material utilization
• Characterization of the matrix to assess its performance vis-à-vis the subtractive
manufacture
• Exploration of building different geometric features including undercuts; this may

involve planar/non-planar and/or uniform/adaptive deposition; both the deposition and
machining requiring 2.5-axis to 5-axis kinematics
• Manufacture of composite moulds with conformal cooling ducts
• Demonstrations of fresh manufacture and repair of tools and components to establish
HLM’s domain of applications.
(a) LENS (OptoMec) – Laser [10] (b) DLF(FhG, Dresden) – Laser [11] (c) Arcam-electron beam [12]
(d) LAM (AeroMet) – Laser [13] (e) HLM (IIT Bombay) – Arc
Figure 1.3 Comparison of surface quality of RM processes using Laser, EB and Arc sources
Table 1.3 Comparison of arc based process with laser and electron beam
Characteristic Laser or Electron Beam Arc
Quality of Geometry Near-net
Quality of material Same
Power efficiency 2-5% for lasers, about 15-20% for EB > 80%
Powder efficiency of 10-15%. Only
Material utilization Close to 100% as wire is used.
Trumpf’s DMD has close to 50%.
50-130 g/min. Possible to reach about
Speed 2-10 g/min
800g/min with good heat management
The welding system costs from Rs. 4-8
Too expensive. A 1kW RM machine
Cost lakhs and the CNC machine or a robot
costs about Rs. 3.5 crore.
will cost about Rs. 15 lakhs.
Size Bulky Compact
Safety Strict safety regulations to be followed Safe
1.5 Organization of the Report
In this chapter, an introduction to the thesis is presented. It starts with discussion on

various existing LM methods available. Brief comparison of arc based depositing
methods with laser and electron beam methods is also presented. Finally the chapter ends
with definition of the thesis problem and its scope.
An exhaustive literature review is provided in Chapter 2. This covers existing direct

LM methods for metals, understanding of the weld-deposition process, models for
analyzing weld-bead, stress relieving methods and slicing methodologies.
Chapter 3 presents the methodology of HLM along with the design and development
details of the HLM setup integrating weld-deposition unit, 3-axis CNC machine and 5-
axis CNC machine.
The identification of primary process parameters in HLM and modelling of weld-bead

to optimize them are presented in Chapter 4.
Characterization of HLM objects followed by exploration of its diverse capabilities is

discussed in Chapter 5.
Chapter 6 presents the applications of HLM for injection moulds with the help of two
industrial case studies; one of a monolithic die pair and another of a composite mould
with conformal cooling ducts.
Chapter 7 discusses the applications of HLM for repair of objects with focus on dies
and moulds.
The applications of HLM for component manufacture are presented in Chapter 8.
Chapter 9 records the various conclusions arrived at during the project and indicates
the future scope of the work.
Chapter 2
Literature Review
[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13]
2.1 Introduction
As Layered Manufacturing was introduced as a design visualization tool, the early focus
of the research was on the physical realisation of the shape rather than its functionality.
Thus, most of the earlier research on LM processes was concentrated on producing
objects using resins and other non-metals, limiting their applications. The focus of today’s
market on the other hand is primarily on bringing down the product development time
and rapid manufacture of customized components. Thus efforts have been going on to
realise the full potential of LM and extend it for manufacture of metallic objects [14].
Hybrid Layered Manufacturing, is one such direct metallic manufacturing method. The
methodology, subsequent implementation and characterization were arrived upon after
extensive literature survey of the following areas:
• Additive manufacturing processes using weld-deposition

• Gas Metal Arc Welding
• Stress reliving and heat treatment
• Data processing related to RM such as slicing and area-filling.
Rapid Manufacturing of metallic objects using arc weld-deposition is the focus of this
thesis. The literature on arc welding was required for fine tuning the process, while that
on stress relieving was required to decide the appropriate stress reliving methods suitable
for HLM. Understanding the slicing and other data processing methods helped in
improvement of HLM software. The appropriate literature review and inferences are
presented under each of these subsections.
Chapter 2 Literature Review 2-2
2.2 Deposition Processes for Additive Manufacture of Metallic Objects
In additive manufacturing using deposition, the metal is deposited only in the required
regions in a layer-by-layer manner. The material can be fed either in the form of wire or
powder. Table 2.1 gives the comparison of these two methods. The deposition
technologies employ laser, electron beam or electric arc as the sources of thermal energy
for melting the metal, in the order of their present popularity [15]. Table 2.2 lists various
existing technologies in each category. These three groups of deposition processes are
discussed further in the following sub-sections.
Table 2.1 Comparison of powder and wire feed

Characteristic Powder feed Wire feed
Feeding Complex fluidized feeding Easy mechanism of pinch wheel drive
Cost High Low
Accuracy High in conjunction with laser and EB It is difficult and not economical to
as powder particles are fine draw wire below 0.6mm.
Material variation Difficult materials like Ti also possible Harder wires are difficult to draw
Material deposition High Low
rate
Powder efficiency Low (around 10-15%) High (can reach 100%)
Gradient objects Possible Not possible
Amenability to Suitable for laser and electron beam. Suitable for GMAW/GTAW. Not
different process Not suitable for GMAW. A paste form suitable for laser and electron beam as
has been used in a GTAW like process the wire comes in the coil form.
for cladding and not for RM so far.
Table 2.2 Various deposition-based RM processes according the energy source used
Deposition
Direct Metal Deposition (DMD)
Directed Light Fabrication (DLF) [16]
Laser Additive Manufacturing (LAM) [17]
Laser Aided Manufacturing Process (LAMP) [18]
Laser
Laser Based Additive Manufacturing (LBAM) [19-21]
Laser Based Direct Metal Deposition (LBDMD) [22]
Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) [23]
Rapid Direct Metal Deposition [24]
Electron Beam Electron Beam Freeforming [7]
3D Micro Welding (3DMW) [25-27]
3D Welding [28]
3D Welding and Milling [29-31]
Arc Hybrid Layered Manufacturing (HLM) [32,33]
Hybrid Plasma Deposition and Milling (HPDM) [34]
Micro-Plasma Arc Welding (MPAW) [35]
Shape Deposition Manufacturing (SDM) [36]
2.2.1 Laser-based RM processes
Laser Engineered Net-Shaping (LENS) originally developed at Sandia National

Laboratory, USA, and further developed and marketed by OptoMec, USA, is the most
popular commercial laser-based RM process. LENS is capable of handling a variety of
metallic powders including Ti. Its deposition head uses 1 kW or 2 kW laser which is at
the centre. It is surrounded by 2 or 4 nozzles (Figure 2.1b). This head is mounted on a
XYZ manipulator. When the head is moved over a substrate, it create a moving weld pool
into which the powders from the nozzles dive and get integrated (Figure 2.1a). As the
powder used is fine, fluidized feeding using argon is employed. By moving the welding
head along appropriate raster and contouring paths, the object is built in layers. It permits
usage of different powders through different nozzles with the ability to control their flow
rate independently. Thus, LENS is capable of building gradient objects (refer Figure
1.2e). This machine also comes with other types of manipulators upto 5-axis capability.
(a) Schematic of the LENS process (b) Wall-shaped build in progress using the LENS process
Figure 2.1 Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) [37]
Table 2.3 Laser sources used by various commercial machines [38]

Machines Company Laser Power
Sinterstation 2000/2500 DTM CO2 50 W
EOSINT 250 EOS CO2 200 W
EOSINT 270 EOS Ytterbium fibre laser 200 W
LUMEX 25C MATSUURA Pulsed CO2 500 W
TrumaForm LF 250 TRUMPF Disk laser 250 W
Realizer MCP Nd:YAG 100 W
Lasform Aeromet CO2 10–18 kW
LENS 850 Optomec Nd:YAG 1 kW
Trumaform DMD 505 TRUMPF CO2 2–6 kW
LENS can be used well with all kinds of metals including difficult materials like
titanium and other super-hard alloys, which are prone to developing microscopic cracks
when machined [23]. It creates fully dense functional components, and the range of
material properties obtainable through the process exceeds conventional techniques. It
can also cost-effectively build 3D structures with good material properties from a wide
range of alloys, including titanium (Ti–6A1–4V), stainless steel, aluminium and inconel,
and even gradient material compositions [23,39,40]. The process can also repair
components made of non-weldable materials such as nickel–based super alloys [41].
There are many more processes which produce metallic parts using lasers. Most of
them are similar to LENS, and the differences are mainly in the details of machine control
and implementation. The lasers used in these processes are either CO2 or Nd-YAG
(yttrium aluminium garnet); the power can vary considerably from a few hundred watts
up to 18kW. The LENS process uses a Nd-YAG laser. The CO2-based deposition process
has advantages in terms of deposition rate, but loses out on accuracy and generates a
significant heat-affected zone. Nd-YAG laser on the other hand has a much slower
deposition rate but is more accurate [23]. Table 2.3 summarizes various types of lasers
used by different commercial machines for RM.
Laser Additive manufacturing (LAM), developed by AeroMet corp, USA is a similar

RM method aimed at producing large parts from reactive materials such as titanium for
aerospace applications. Preliminary work done by AeroMet indicates that the process is
capable of producing sound Ti-6Al-4V material with acceptable mechanical properties for
a multitude of aerospace applications [17]. They have also supplied non-critical Titanium
components for Boeing with significant success (Figure 2.2). The undercuts of the CAD
model were suppressed and suitable machining allowance was added (Figure 8.1). This
near-net shape was built using an 18 kW laser on a 2.5 axis machine. It was stress
relieved and heat treated and then finish-machined using a 5-axis CNC machine. AeroMet
used this process to build large Ti components such as keels and spars.
Figure 2.2 Boeing components made using LAM [13]
Directed Light Fabrication (DLF) developed at Los Alamos National Laboratory is

also very similar to LENS. Interestingly, it is designed as a retrofitment to an existing
CNC machine, similar to HLM, which is the subject matter of this thesis [16].
While some of the researchers, like Peng et al., and Wang et al., focused on
optimizing the process parameters to improve the accuracy of the process, Laser Based
Additive Manufacturing (LBAM) developed by Southern Methodist University, also
includes real-time sensing of the powder delivery [19-21]. The closed-loop-controlled
three-dimensional laser cladding based on infrared image sensing could successfully
overcome the effect of the thermal variation and thus achieve a consistent processing
quality. This group is also working on Laser-Based Direct Metal Deposition (LBDMD)
with focus on realising slender structures [22].
Direct Metal Deposition (DMD) developed at University of Michigan is another laser

based process which uses a closed-loop control for powder deposition [8,42]. In DMD, a
laser generates a melt pool on a substrate material while a second material is delivered
into the melt pool either as powder or as wire feed which melts and forms a metallurgical
bond with the substrate (Figure 2.3). DMD includes a 6kW RF-excited CO2 laser
integrated with a 5-axis workstation. Powder can be delivered either from the side with an
independent nozzle or with a concentric nozzle where beam and powder come through
the same nozzle. A side injection nozzle can build up volume rapidly whereas the
concentric nozzle can provide better resolution and higher material utilization.
To overcome the height control problem and ensure accuracy without any need of
feed-back control, Choi et al., of Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST)
introduced face milling for every layer after metal deposition [24]. The near-net shape
obtained is finish milled on the same platform. Figure 2.4 shows the schematic diagram of
this process. Its hybrid nature is similar to HLM. They have used this process to
successfully manufacture injection moulds. They also claim using wire as the raw
material instead of powdered metal.
(a) Schematic of DMD process (b) DMD system

Figure 2.3 Direct Metal Deposition (DMD) [8]
Figure 2.4 Schematic of the rapid direct metal deposition machine [24]
2.2.2 Electron beam-based RM processes
Fluidized powder feeding uses pressurized argon. Therefore, this method of feeding
powder is not suitable for electron beam deposition which has to maintain a very high
vacuum in the build environment. Hence, in the case of electron beam, only powder-bed
technology and not deposition technology is popular. The RM process of Wanjara et al.,
of Institute for Aerospace Research, Canada is one of the early attempts of electron beam
based deposition. They have overcome the problem of fluidized feeding of the powder by
using a solid wire feed [7]. Electron beam based deposition has the potential for a higher
quality deposit, i.e. build-ups with: (1) lower porosity and (2) fewer inclusions from the
natural oxide present at the surface of powder materials for aerospace grades. However,
controlling the interaction between the electron beam and a thin wire in the fusion zone
requires particular regulation of the wire feeding rate, angle and height in relation to the
beam parameters in order to obtain a sound deposit is a major challenge in this method.
One of the major problems is the wandering of wire coming from a coil against a focused
beam.
As discussed in Chapter 1, electron beam based RM processes are more attractive

than laser based ones due to their higher energy efficiency. However, the need for very
high vacuum and its hindrance to the operation of the subsystems such as dispenser of the
raw material etc., are the bottlenecks to its acceptance. Therefore, it is still an emerging
area for RM applications, be it powder-bed or deposition technology. This explains the
scant of literature available in this area (Table 2.1).
2.2.3 Arc-based RM processes
3D welding was developed at University of Nottingham for producing complex parts

entirely from weld deposition [28]. In this process, a robot that holds the GMAW torch
does the deposition of material. Along with the motion control of the torch as well as the
orientation of the substrate, this robot is also used to control the welding parameters.
Infrared temperature sensor mounted on the robot arm carries out non-contact
measurement of the temperature at the weld pool. If the substrate is too hot, resolution of
weld bead will be poor. Therefore, welding is allowed only if the temperature is below a
threshold preheating. In this method, the process has to wait for long time in order to cool
the substrate.
Shape Deposition Manufacturing (SDM) is another arc based deposition process

which makes use of deposition and milling [43]. It uses a pair of materials, one for model
and the other for support. Copper is used as the support material for steel models. Unlike
the uniform slicing used in 3D welding, it uses very thick segments. These segments are
obtained by splitting the object wherever its normal just becomes horizontal. In any slice,
all regions of the slice where the normals are downward, support is required. This near-
net shape is then finished for the deposition of the model material. Thus each slice is built
by deposition and machining of support and model materials alternately until the entire
slab of the slice is complete. Owing to its 5 axis kinematics and path planning involved,
SDM is not a fully automatic process.
Direct Metal Deposition (DMD) developed at Southern Methodist University, USA is

another 3D Welding process which uses Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) instead of
GMAW [44-46]. Although they used GMAW in the beginning, they subsequently shifted
to GTAW as they found it much more controllable process for deposition with fewer
problems of sputtering, intensive heating, smoke etc. They have also used variable
polarity GTAW for rapid prototyping of aluminium alloys [47]. One of the difficulties
with GTAW is the need for orienting the nozzle of the wire to match the torch direction,
which adds a rotary axis in addition to X and Y during the deposition. Wu and Kovacevic
introduced pulsed-current welding into the GMAW process in order to decouple the metal
transfer process from the base plate heating process [48]. It was also observed that
additional mechanical force resulting from wire electrode oscillation could make the
droplet size smaller and produced a higher droplet transfer rate, thus greatly improving
the droplet transfer process in GMAW.
KIST also has worked in GMAW based hybrid RM process. In fact, they had
mounted on the spindle head of the same CNC machine a laser torch and two GMAW
torches [29-31]. Thus, this platform could be used for both laser and arc deposition
studies. The substrate plate is fixed on top of a preheating fixture mounted on the machine
table (Figure 2.5). Two different welding wire sizes/materials are used in these torches.
Use of different diameter wires permits the interior of the layer to be filled fast by the
thick wire and the periphery by the thin wire accurately. Face milling is performed after
depositing each layer. Although the layers may be deposited in uniform thicknesses, face
milling is used to obtain adaptive layers; however, this is at the expense of material
wastage. In milling operation, the top as well as the sides of the slice is machined to a
specified height and width before depositing new layer upon the previous one. This
procedure is repeated until the entire part is complete. Face milling is performed to
improve the part accuracy and also to make the process more stable for the further
deposition. The process planning system for kind of deposition and machining was
developed by Hur et. al. [49].
Figure 2.5 Process principle of 3D Welding and Milling [30]
Researchers at University of Kentucky, USA have developed a dedicated control

technology, including slicing/ planning, system implementation and post-processing using
GMAW as the deposition process through an integrated and user-friendly environment.
The metal transfer control system is used to control the size and frequency of the droplets
in order to improve the deposition accuracy. In this system, the deposition parameters,
including torch speed, torch inclination, welding current and arc voltage are controlled to
achieve the required density and 3D geometry. Figure 2.6 gives the influence of various
process parameters on the geometric and material properties of the prototype. The
beginning and ending points of welding paths are usually prone to defects due to the
delay between starting/stopping of the welding unit and the actual and the actual
starting/stopping of the welding process. Hence, extra weld procedures known as ramps
were also added to maintain the accuracy and quality at the beginning and ending portions
of each weld pass [50,51].
Figure 2.6 Factors influencing the quality of the prototype [50]
A novel freeform fabrication method named 3D Micro Welding (3DMW) has been
developed using an idea to combine freeform fabrication method with GTAW by
researchers of Osaka University, Japan [25-27]. When pulsed micro-arcs are emitted, the
tip of a thin metal wire with a diameter of 0.1–0.3mm is fused and a micro metal bead is
formed instantaneously. A fused bead is welded to a metal substrate or previously formed
beads. By continuing this process and building up hot beads layer by layer under the
control of CAD/CAM system, 3D metal objects can be produced. It can be applied not
only to titanium, but to other refractory metals such as tantalum, tungsten due to the high
dense energy beam of the micro arc. When two different thin metal wires such as Ti and
Ni, Ni and Al are fed alternately from the opposed spools, it is possible to built 3D
complex structures and components composed of their alloys or inter-metallic compounds
[27]. Figure 2.7 shows the schematic diagram of the 3DMW process. Micro-Plasma Arc
Welding (MPAW) developed at Xi’an Jiaotong University, China used plasma instead to
achieve narrow arc and deposition (Figure 2.8) [35].
Figure 2.7 Schematic of 3DMW process [50]
(a) GTAW arc (b) Plasma arc

Figure 2.8 Comparison between GTAW arc and plasma arc [35]
Figure 2.9 Schematic diagram of HPDM [34]

Another variant of arc based deposition process using a plasma arc is Hybrid Plasma
Deposition and Milling (HPDM), developed at Wuhan University, China [34]. It employs
a combination of plasma deposition as an additive and milling as a subtractive process.
The schematic diagram of the five-axis HPDM machine is shown in Figure 2.9. The
machine has two working procedures: deposition by plasma torch shown on the left and
surface finishing by NC milling head on the right, respectively. In the HPDM process,
plasma deposition is used to deposit single beads side by side. When a layer is deposited,
its top surface is machined using planar milling to obtain a smooth surface. After all the
layers are deposited, the near-net shape is finish-machined on the same platform.
2.3 Gas Metal Arc Welding
In Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) a continuous and consumable wire electrode and a
shielding gas are fed through a welding torch. An electric arc established between the
work piece and the consumable wire electrode continuously melts the wire as it is fed into
the weld puddle. The molten pool is masked by the shielding gas.
The arc, known as plasma, is a column of electrically and thermally excited gas atoms
and ionized metal vapors from the electrode material (Figure 2.10). This plasma is as hot
as 6,000°C. This intense heat causes the gas atoms in the arc to break into positive ions
and electrons. Electrons move from cathode to anode and the positive ions move from
anode to cathode. Although both AC and DC power can be used for arc welding, the most
preferred in GMAW is DC – either in continuous or pulse form.
Welding gas is used for shielding or masking the weld pool from atmospheric
contamination as well as to provide lower Ionization Potential (IP). Depending on the
welding gas used, GMAW may be known as Metal Inert Gas (MIG) or Metal Activated
Gas (MAG) welding. In MIG welding, the shielding gas is an inert gas like He or Ar or
their mixture. MAG welding uses active gases such as CO2, H2 and O2 and their mixture.
When 100% CO2 is used, the MAG welding is also known as CO2 welding.
Figure 2.10 Gas Metal Arc Welding process [52]
2.3.1 Metal transfer modes in GMAW
Metal transfer from the electrode through the arc to the base metal is an interplay of
gravity, electrostatic force, electromagnetic force, surface tension, viscosity and plasma.
The high arc current used in welding creates a very strong magnetic field around the arc.
As the metal melts, a drop grows at the tip of the electrode due to the combined action of
gravity and surface tension. When this drop becomes sufficiently larger, the
electromagnetic force creates necking or constriction just above the drop. Furthermore,
this magnetic force gives a push to the drop thus increasing the rate of separation. The
magnetic force also increases pressure within the drop. This pressure at high currents
causes the drop to become elongated. This gives the drop stiffness and causes it to project
in line with the electrode regardless of the welding position. At still higher arc currents,
this pressure may bust the drop into a spray. This influence of electromagnetic force is
known as the pinching effect.
Owing to the electrostatic force, the arc contains plasma jet and reverse plasma jet.
Plasma jet consisting of positive ions of gases and metal vapor flows from the electrode
to the base metal. The reverse plasma jet, also known as cathode jet, is nothing but the
electron flow from the base metal to the electrode. The molten metal drops in flight are
accelerated towards the base metal by the plasma jet. Under certain conditions, the
reverse plasma jet may interfere with the transfer of metal leading to delay in droplet
detachment and excessive spatter by busting the drop. Surface tension tends to hold the
molten metal drops at the end of the electrode irrespective of the welding position. This
force works against the transfer of metal across the arc. Gravity tends to detach the liquid
drop in down hand welding and restrains the detachment in overhead welding. Among the
forces involved, gravity is the least. The interplay of the above forces causes metal
transfer which can be classified as:
i. Short circuit transfer

ii. Globular transfer
iii. Spray transfer
iv. Pulsed spray transfer.
(a) Short-circuit transfer (b) Globular transfer
(c) Spray transfer (d) Pulse spray transfer

Figure 2.11 Modes of metal transfer in GMAW [53]
Short circuit transfer

In the short-circuiting mode, metal transfer occurs when the electrode is in contact with
the weld pool. In this mode of metal transfer, the relationship between the electrode melt
rate and its feed rate into the weld zone determines the intermittent establishment of an
arc and the short circuiting of the electrode to the workpiece. When the electrode contacts
the molten pool, a short circuit occurs, at which time there is no arc. The current then
begins to rise and heats the wire to a plastic state. At the same time, the wire begins to
deform or neck down because of electromagnetic pinch effect. Eventually, the current
value and resulting pinch force cause a drop of metal to detach into the weld puddle. At
this point, an arc is established. This sequence repeats itself about 50 to 250 times per
second (Figure 2.11a). Since there is no arc established during the short circuit, the
overall heat input is low, and the depth of fusion is relatively shallow. Thus, care must be
taken in selecting the procedure and weld technique to ensure complete fusion when
welding thick metal.
Because of its low heat input characteristics, the process produces small, fast-freezing
weld puddles, which makes it suitable for welding in all positions. Short-circuiting
transfer is also adaptable to welding sheet metal with minimum distortion and for filling
gapped or poorly fitted parts with lesser tendency for burnthrough of the part being
welded.
Globular transfer
Globular transfer is characterized by the transfer of molten metal in large drops across the
arc. This transfer mode takes place when the current and arc voltage are between the
short-circuiting and spray transfer current and voltage levels and occurs with all types of
shielding gas. This was the type of metal transfer originally encountered with the
development of CO2 welding. Globular transfer is characterized by a drop size about two
to four times greater than the diameter of the electrode (Figure 2.11b). In CO2
atmosphere, the droplet is not propelled across the arc because of the repelling forces
acting upward toward the wire tip. These forces tend to hold the droplet on the end of the
wire. During this period, the drop grows in size and transfer eventually takes place either
by gravity or short circuit across the arc gap.
During the 1960’s and 1970’s, globular transfer was a popular mode of metal transfer
for high production sheet metal fabrication. The transfer mode is associated with the use
of cheap 100% CO2 shielding gas. As gravity is instrumental in the transfer of the large
molten droplets, the process is difficult to control, and spatter is severe.
Spray transfer
In spray transfer, the molten metal is propelled axially across the arc in small droplets. In
a gas blend of at least 80% argon the metal transfer changes from globular to spray mode
as welding current increases. Spray transfer in argon has a constricted arc column and
pointed electrode tip (Figure 2.11c). Molten metal transfers across the arc as small
droplets equal to or less than the electrode diameter. The metal transfer is axially directed
to the workpiece.
Since the metal droplets are small, the transfer rate can be as high as several hundred
droplets per second. In this mode, large amounts of heat is involved, which creates weld-
pool with high penetration. Thus, normal spray transfer is limited to flat and horizontal
positions and not used to weld thin materials.
Pulsed spray transfer

At relatively low currents, GMAW operates in the globular metal transfer mode. When
current is increased, the process transits to spray mode. Although globular transfer takes
place at lower currents, it is difficult to control. Spray transfer on the other hand is limited
by its high current requirement in spite of its better control. Pulsed spray transfer
overcomes the drawbacks of globular transfer while achieving the benefits of spray
transfer by using a pulsed current.
In pulsed spray transfer, the power source provides two output levels: (i) a steady
background level (ii) a pulsed current. The purpose of background current is to maintain
arc whereas peak currents are long enough to make sure detachment of the molten droplet
[54]. The high-output level and facilitates the melting of droplets. The pulsed high current
occurs at regular controlled intervals. The current can be cycled between a high and low
value at up to several hundred cycles per second. Metal is transferred to the workpiece
only during the high current pulse; ideally, one droplet is transferred during each pulse
(Figure 2.11d).
As pulsed GMAW achieves spray transfer mode at lower average current, welding of
thin metals in all positions is possible. The weld spatter is also greatly reduced. Pulsed
GMAW can in principle weld both thin and thick sections giving a consistent quality
weld through spray metal transfer at a relatively low heat input. Owing to these
advantages welding machines based on pulsed GMAW and its higher variants are
preferable for HLM.
2.3.2 Bead modelling
Bead geometry includes bead height, width and penetration. These are important physical
properties of a weldment. The bead cross-sectional area together with its height and width
affects the total shrinkage, which determines largely the residual stresses and thus the
distortion [55]. A number of welding process models exist that cover various aspects
including the relationship between the welding process parameters and the bead
geometry. Many research groups have used Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) models to
predict the geometric parameters of the bead from the process parameters [56,57,55]. As
their primary focus is on the joining applications, good fusion and fast joining are their
major concerns. The penetration characteristics influence the former. In addition to the
bead height and width, the area of the cross-section of the bead has been adequate for the
latter.
Many researchers have explored the use of arc weld-deposition for the near-net
manufacture of the objects till early 2000. The research groups of Dickens, Kovacevic,
Printz and Song are some of the early contributors to this area [28,45,29,58]. Some of
them have also considered the bead profile as it is important for the RM application.
Aiyiti et. al., in their analysis using plasma arc welding have assumed the beads as
overlapping circular arcs and arrived at the most desirable scan spacing (Figure 2.12 &
13) [35]. However, they have not accounted for the additional material in the overlapping
zone. Some researchers including Chan et. al. have used the parabolic approximation for
the cross-sectional profile [57]. These guided the assumption of parabolic bead profile in
this thesis too. Furthermore, how the overlapping material is distributed is also explained
in the present thesis.
Area EAJE: Cross-section profile of the first track; Area GBKG: Original form of the second track before overlapping;
Area ABKJA: Profile of the second track after overlapping; c: Scan spacing; r: Radius of the track cross-section outline
Figure 2.12 Bead overlapping model for MPAW [35]
(a) Large scan spacing (b) Desirable scan spacing (c) Small scan spacing
Figure 2.13 Overlapping for different scan spacing [35]
2.4 Stress Relieving and Heat Treatment
Residual stresses or internal stresses are produced in metals by any operation which
brings about a non-uniform change in shape or volume throughout a work-piece. Such a
change can be effected by operations that cause local plastic flow like heat treating,
quenching, welding, casting, forming, machining, grinding. The stresses may develop
directly by expansion or contraction, and may also result from changes in volume and
coefficient of expansion that accompany metallurgical phase transformations.
Due to the enormous heat generated during welding process, the workpiece develops
high amount of residual thermal stresses. Residual stresses often have a negative effect on
the mechanical properties of a workpiece leading to service failure. They are frequently
the cause for the occurrence of undesirable dimensional changes in the piece upon
machining. Thus they can adversely affect the life of the component manufactured by
HLM process. This section studies various stress relieving process to reduce the thermal
stresses generated during welding.
Residual stresses
Residual stress is defined as “the stress resident inside a component or structure after all
applied forces have been removed”. Compressive residual stress acts by pushing the
material together, while tensile residual stress pulls the material apart. Mathematically,
compressive stress is negative and tensile stress is positive. Stresses can also be
characterized as normal stresses that act perpendicular to the face of a material and shear
stresses that act parallel to the face of a material. There are a total of 6 independent
stresses at any point inside a material (3 normal and 3 shear stresses).
The total stress experienced by the material at a given location within a component is
given by the sum of the residual stress plus the applied stress. Therefore, knowledge of
the residual stress state is important to determine the actual loads experienced by a
component. In general, compressive residual stress in the surface of a component is
beneficial. It tends to increase fatigue strength and fatigue life, slow crack propagation,
and increase resistance to environmentally assisted cracking such as stress corrosion
cracking and hydrogen induced cracking. Tensile residual stress in the surface of the
component is generally undesirable as it decreases fatigue strength and fatigue life,
increases crack propagation and lowers resistance to environmentally assisted cracking.
Types of residual stresses
Based on the scale at which they exist, residual stresses can be categorized as:
Type-I: Macro-stresses occurring over distances that involve many grains within a
material.
Type-II: Micro-stresses caused by differences in the microstructure of a material and

occur over distances comparable to the size of the grain in the material. Can
occur in single-phase materials due to the anisotropic behaviour of individual
grains, or can occur in multi-phase material due to the presence of different
phases.
Type-III: Exist inside a grain as a result of crystal imperfections within the grain. Cam
open cracks and increases crack propagation
The total residual stress at a given location inside a material is the sum of all 3 types
of stresses.
Effects of residual stresses
Residual stresses caused during welding are a major source of crack propagation. Due to
contraction of metal along the length of the weld is partially prevented by the large
adjacent body of cold metal. Hence, residual tensile stresses are set up along the weld
[59]. Modelling and analysis of weldments for thin steel plates, sheet metal, multi-pass
welding, cylindrical pipes, welding sequences by various researchers showed high
residual stresses in welding [60-63]. The finite element models for predicting these
residual stresses were also developed by researchers like Yang and Xiao, Chidiac and
Mirza etc. [64,65].
As residual stresses can adversely affect the performance of a component, it is

important that the magnitude of these stresses be reduced i.e., the metals be stress-
relieved. Figure 2.14 lists the various stress reliving processes. The stress relieving
processes can be mainly categorized into two groups based on the changes in the
metallurgy of the component:
i. Hot working
ii. Cold working
If the process is carried out above the recrystallization temperature of the metal, it is
called hot working. If it is carried below the recrystallization temperature, it is called cold
working. These methods are further elaborated in the following subsections.
Figure 2.14 Various stress relieving processes
2.4.1 Hot working
Hot working refers to the process where metals are deformed above their recrystallization
temperature and strain hardening does not occur. Hot working is usually performed at
elevated temperatures. There are mainly two types of hot working stress relieving
processes in use:
i. Post weld heat treatment

ii. Parallel heat welding
Post weld heat treatment
Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) as the name reflects means heat treating the
workpiece after the welding process is complete. Work- or strain-hardened metals
exposed to the intense localized heat of welding tend to recrystallize and soften in the
Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ). Usually the only area affected is the HAZ. The admixture and
deposited metal do not suffer recrystallization and usually remain as strong as the base
metal [66]. Thus while dealing with work- or strain-hardened steel, failures usually
happen in the HAZ near the weld joint, not directly in the joint.
The heat input during welding determines the width of the HAZ. The higher the heat
input, the wider the HAZ and the slower the cooling rate. Regions subjected to slower
cooling rates are less likely to form martensite. Consequently, post-weld brittleness can
be reduced by preheating the weld to slow the cooling rate; post-heating of the weld to
facilitate slower cooling may also be necessary. This also means that the harder the HAZ,
the more martensite, and the more martensite, the greater the chance for cracking. Due to
the above factors, post-weld heat treatment is often very helpful in maintaining weld joint
strength. The following are some of the benefits of PWHT:
• It softens or tempers any martensite or bainite that has formed in the HAZ.
• It also relieves stresses that can lead to cracking.
• Proper heat treatment can change grain size; modify the ductility, hardness,
toughness, or tensile strength; improve magnetic or electrical qualities and
machinability;
• It can also recrystallize cold-worked metals and even modify the chemical
composition and properties of the metal’s surface.
Control of heating and cooling are critical in deciding the properties of the heat
treated component. Rate of heating and cooling, temperature to which it is heated, etc are
some of those variables. The following are the three widely used PWHT techniques in
various heat treatment facilities [67]:
1. Furnace/Ovens: A furnace or an oven is a heating chamber in which the welded

component is placed. This oven may be heated by many methods like conventional
burning of fuel or by electrical heating. While it is a very common and one of the oldest
known techniques, it is bulky in size and the component has to be transferred into it every
time.
2. Induction heating: Induction heating is the process of heating a metal object by

electromagnetic induction, where eddy currents are generated within the metal and
resistance leads to joule heating of the metal. The induced current flow within the part is
most intense on the surface, and decays rapidly below the surface. So the outside will heat
more quickly than the inside; 80% of the heat produced in the part is produced in the
outer “skin”. This is more suitable for processes where it is desirable to only heat the
particular area/layer and not the whole work-piece.
3. Flame heating: Local post weld heat treatment by gas torch is also employed for heat
treatment in some cases. The gas torch is moved across the work-piece heating the
component. This is a very handy and easy to operate process. However, the controlling of
the torch movement is very important. Non-uniform and improper heating may cause
additional thermal stresses.
There are also a number of methods for controlled cooling, including gradual furnace
cooling, cooling in still air, cooling in agitated air, fan cooling, water cooling, and
allowing the metal to cool buried in sand. The following are the important types of heat
treatment of a component:
1. Annealing: Annealing is a process that produces conditions by heating and maintaining

at a suitable temperature, and then cooling very slowly. It is used to induce softness,
relieve internal stresses, refine the structure and improve cold working properties. There
are three stages in the annealing process, with the first being the recovery phase, which
results in softening of the metal through removal of crystal defects and the internal
stresses which they cause. The second phase is recrystallization, where new grains
nucleate and grow to replace those deformed by internal stresses.
2. Quenching: Quenching refers to heating a metal into the austenitic crystal phase and
then quickly cooling it. Depending on the alloy and other considerations (such as concern
for maximum hardness vs. cracking and distortion), cooling may be done with forced air
or other gas (such as nitrogen), oil, polymer dissolved in water, water, or brine. Upon
being rapidly cooled, the austentite will transform to martensite, a hard brittle crystalline
structure.
3. Tempering: Quenched steel, while very hard and strong, is too brittle to be useful for
most applications. A method for alleviating this problem is called tempering. For most
steels, tempering involves heating to temperatures between 250 and 500 °C, holding that
temperature (soaking) for some time and then cooling slowly over an appropriate length
of time. This heat treatment results in higher toughness and ductility, without sacrificing
all of the hardness and tensile strength gained from rapid quenching. Tempering balances
the amount of hard martensite with ductile ferrite and pearlite.
Depending on the setup of the manufacturing process, appropriate heating method is

chosen.
Figure 2.15 Schematic illustration of PHW process [68]
Parallel heat welding
Thermal stresses in a weldment occur due to the thermal shock between the base plate
and the weldment. It is thus suggested that pre-heating the base plate will reduce the
thermal unevenness, reducing the residual stresses. Lin and Chou developed a technique
called Parallel Heat Welding (PHW) to reduce the residual stresses in a weldment
utilizing this principle [68]. In the PHW process, a pair of parallel heating torches is
attached on both sides of welding torch as a heat source supplied with natural gas. These
torches help in raising the temperature of the base plate. Figure 2.15 gives the schematic
illustration of this process.
2.4.2 Cold working
Plastic deformation which is carried out in a temperature region below recrystallization

temperature is called cold work. Under load, the grain size decreases with strain at low
deformation before reaching a fixed size. Stress relieving thorough cold working methods
can be mainly divided into three different approaches:
i. Mechanical stress relieving

ii. Vibratory stress relieving
iii. Magnetic stress relieving
Mechanical stress relieving
Mechanical Stress Relieving (MSR) is the method of enforcing an external load on the
welded structure where a residual stress exists. Being superposed with the external load,
the highly stressed part starts to behave plastically because the region cannot sustain the
external load anymore. Consequently, the residual stress can be reduced when the
external enforcing load is removed. The following are some of the major methods through
which this is archived:
1. Compressive mechanical loading: In this method a compressive load is applied on the

weldment to reduce residual stresses. Studies by Yang and Lee revealed that the residual
stress relaxation behaviour, for the MSR treatment, is affected by the magnitude and
direction of the mechanical load [69]. MSR treatment can decrease the tensile stress peak
value of axial residual stresses and hoop residual stresses on the outer surface. Moreover,
the peak value of the compressive residual stresses is reduced quickly; making the
residual stresses distribution more uniform [70].
2. Shot peening: In shot peening, the surface of a part is bombarded with small spherical
media called shot. Each piece of shot striking the metal acts as a tiny peening hammer
imparting a small indentation or dimple on the surface. For the creation of the dimple, the
surface layer of the metal must yield in tension (Figure 2.16a). Below the surface, the
compressed grains tries to restore the surface to its original shape producing a hemisphere
of cold-worked metal highly stressed in compression (Figure 2.16b). These overlapping
dimples develop a uniform layer of residual compressive stress.
3. Ultrasonic Impact Treatment: Ultrasonic Impact Treatment (UIT) utilizes ultrasonic

impulse to provide treatment on metals or weldments. The residual stress improvement is
achieved by using an ultrasonic wave vibration with pin impact. The operation is similar
to air hammer and needle peening, but the tool is smaller, lighter and much easier to
handle with less shaking and noise. Tests carried out by Cheng et al., showed that by UIT
induced compressive stresses comparable in magnitude to that achieved through shot
peening. But the compressive stress layer was about double the depth of shot peening
[71]. Based on these results, it was suggested that UIT may have more beneficial effect
on crack initiation life than shot peening due to its deeper compressive stress layer.
(a) Mechanical yielding at point of impact (b) Resulting compression on the surface
Figure 2.16 Shot peening [72]
4. Laser Peening: Laser peening (LP) is a stress relieving process in which a laser beam
is pulsed upon a metallic surface, producing a planar shockwave that travels through the
workpiece and plastically deforms a layer of material (Figure 2.17). LP is an emerging

surface treatment process that uses a laser to produce effects similar to those for shot
peening, but has the potential to offer additional advantages. While the surface residual
stress magnitude achieved by LP is usually comparable to that achieved by shot peening,
the depth of compressive stress from LP is significantly greater, allowing for more robust
fatigue improvements. Resistance to fatigue is further enhanced by a low amount of
coldwork and the preservation of surface quality, as compared to shot peening. While SP
utilizes ball shot that are difficult to controllably project and that suffer from shot
collisions with rebounding shot, LP is a more controlled and precise process that may
provide a more robust fatigue enhancement. Various studies conducted showed that laser
peening resulted in a substantial reduction in fatigue crack growth compared with the as
welded condition and unwelded base material [73-75].
Vibratory stress relieving
Induced vibration energy is used for stress reliving in weldments in some cases. They are
used to obtain three primary benefits in metals. These are identical to those obtained by
conventional thermal stress relief:
• Reduction in distortion during machining

• Reduction in distortion over time
• Reduction in weld cracking over time (increased service life)
Figure 2.17 Laser peening process: (a) before and (b) after application of the laser pulse [73]
Based on the vibration frequency, vibration loading can be divided into two
categories:
1. Harmonic vibration load: This process accomplishes stress relief by inducing a

mechanical energy into a workpiece through vibration. Different levels of induced energy
will have different effects on metal. With vibration, as with heat, there is an optimum
energy level that will cause stress relief. All metal components exhibit harmonic and
nonharmonic responses to external energy input. The amplitude of displacement of the
metal component is a function of the induced vibration frequency. When the frequency of
vibration is increased, the metal dissipates the induced energy through internal friction
and results in lower amplitudes.
The amount of energy being dissipated by the metal is its stress-relief potential. This
dissipated energy reaches a maximum near the leading portion of the harmonic curve
(“subharmonic”), which is the optimum stress-relief vibration frequency. Beyond this
range, the metal component cannot dissipate the induced energy and responds with a
violent reaction (higher amplitudes), which is usually observed as bouncing, with high
noise levels. Beyond the harmonic range, the metal regains its capability to dissipate the
induced energy, which results in lower amplitudes. In recent times, many researchers
reported the benefits in reducing residual stresses, by the application of the Vibratory
Stress Relieving (VSR) [76-78]. This process of vibration stress relieving through
harmonic vibrations is also available as a commercial process called “Meta-Lax”
developed by Bonal Technologies, US. A macro-stress reduction upto 25 MPa was
observed in the studies carried out by Sun et al., on D6AC welding steel plates [76].
2. Random vibrational load: This is a method proposed by Aoki et al., for reduction of
residual stress using vibration [79]. In this method, the vibrational load is imposed during
welding. Two kinds of random vibration are used as vibrational loads. One is white noise
which contains all frequency components equally. The other is filtered white noise of
which central frequency is the fundamental natural frequency of the specimen. Residual
stress relieving occurs mainly due to plastic deformation near the bead. Yield force
immediately after welding is very low and a part of the specimen near the bead deforms
plastically under very low external load.
Magnetic stress relieving
This method of using magnetic behaviour for reducing stresses was developed by Tsing
Hua University, China [80,81]. As a new stress reducing method, magnetic treatment can
not only avoid particular harmful effects and drawbacks of heat treatment but also is a
quick operational procedure. Some practical applications have shown that magnetic
treatment can increase the service life of some kinds of machine tools and it was inferred
that the effect is caused by residual stress relief in the tools.
Table 2.4 summarizes the relative merits and demerits of hot and cold stress relieving
methods. Interlayer stress relieving was not useful in HLM as the influenced depth is face
milled. If it is done after face milling, its effect is lost during the deposition of the next
layer. Hence, only post-weld heat treatment is preferred in HLM.
2.5 Slicing
In RP, for realising an object, its 3D model is divided or sliced into several 2D features
with some thickness. The type of slicing currently used by all commercial RP machines is
called uniform slicing of 0th order edge approximation [32]. All the slices of the part of
this type of slicing have the same thickness with their edge surfaces vertical. The bottom
and top contours of any slice are the same in this slicing. While slicing in RP simplifies a
3D manufacturing problem into several 2D manufacturing problems that could be
automated, it is the slicing that also introduces a staircase effect; the resulting stair step
errors limit severely the accuracy of any rapid prototype. In other words, to achieve total
automation by limiting the motions to 2.5 axis kinematics, existing RP processes
compromise on accuracy. The accuracy can be improved by choosing very thin slices but
that would increase the time for producing the part thereby increasing the cost
prohibitively.
Table 2.4 Comparison of hot and cold working

Hot working Cold Working
Lower working forces to produce a given Higher forces required to produce a given
deformation deformation.
Ability to produce a very dramatic shape change in The amount of cold work that can be carried on a
a single working step, without causing large given piece of metal is limited
amounts of internal stress, cracks
Can break up large crystals in the metal, producing Does not alter the grain structure
a favourable alignment of elongated crystals.
Specialized methods are needed to protect the Setup required us simpler.
machines that work for metals with high
recrystallization temperature.
The thermal expansion in heating is high. There is Problems like the oxidation of metals are avoided.
also problem of scale formation on the surface of Hence, dimensional accuracy is better than hot
the hot steel. Hence the surface finish and working due to absence of shrinkage on cooling
dimensional accuracy of hot worked steel is very
poor.
Though the weld section may be small, the whole Localized working possible
of the component has to be subjected to heat
treatment in many cases, involving lot of energy.
Efforts to increase the slice thickness without sacrificing accuracy led to the proposals
for adaptive slicing. Adaptive slicing involves slicing of the CAD model with varying
layer thicknesses. In this, the user specifies a surface finish. The surfaces of high
curvature are then sliced with thinner layer thicknesses and surfaces of low curvature are
sliced with thicker layer thicknesses. Adaptive slicing yields better surface quality, as the
staircase effect decreases and the variations in the surface finish across the layers is
minimized. The main advantage of adaptive slicing is that it gives the user explicit control
over the surface quality. However, most adaptive slicing routines use a single surface
finish for the whole model. But, there are applications where certain part features are
critical and only these features have specific surface finish requirements. This situation is
analogous to machining select surfaces on a cast part. To overcome this problem Mani et
al., developed region-based adaptive slicing approach allowing distinct surface finish
values [82]. This was achieved by slicing the critical surfaces adaptively, while the
interior of the part and other non-critical surfaces are sliced with the maximum possible
layer thickness to reduce the build time. Furthermore, in addition to 0th order edge
surfaces, researchers have considered the use of 1st order, 2nd order or even higher order
edge surfaces as illustrated in Figure 2.18; the 0th order edge is prismatic, the 1st order
edge is a ruled surface, the 2nd order edge is a quadratic surface and so on.
Order of Approximation for the Edge Surface
Zeroth First Higher

Uniform
Slicing
Adaptive
Slicing
Figure 2.18 Various slicing methods [83]
(a) 3D part model. (b) Extracted centroidal information.

Figure 2.19 Example of centroidal axis extraction of CAD model [86]
Although adaptive slicing algorithms for 0th order edge surface usually consider
vertical or squared edge surfaces, in some processes such as FDM they are actually
parabolic. More recently Pandey et al. incorporated this fact in their algorithm for
uniform slicing for FDM and could achieve the same accuracy in less number of layers
[84]. Taylor et al. also have used adaptive slicing with 1st order edge for making plastic
and wooden parts in a process called Solvent Welding Freeform Fabrication Technique
(SWIFT) [85].
Many a time, a component with undercuts can be divided into a few segments each of
which can be built in different orientations so as to avoid the need for support material.
One such segmentation method is developed at Missouri University of Science and
Technology, USA [86]. Adaptive spatial decomposition approach developed by them uses
centroidal axis extraction method for this purpose. The centroidal axis extraction method
decomposes the part model by detecting the change of centroid of pre-sliced layers. For
example, Figure 2.19 shows the CAD model of a part and the centroidal extraction results
of the part model. As the figure shows, the part is decomposed into four components.
Decomposition happens where a certain amount of centroidal information change is
detected.
Figure 2.20 Part with non-uniform layers after slicing [86]
Figure 2.21 Slicing results of a unit layer: (a) one unit layer, (b) slicing results, (c) unit layer
after deposition [86].
This approach is also capable of catering to non-uniform slicing, greatly increasing

the variety of the parts that can be manufactured without the need of support structure.
Non-uniform layer or segment occurs during slicing of a part that has curve features. For
example, Figure 2.20 shows an arch. After adaptive slicing, every slicing layer will be a
non-uniform layer, called a “unit layer”. Every non-uniform layer will be considered a
normal part that is sliced using parallel planes. This means that every non-uniform layer
is composed of uniform layers. Figure 2.21 shows the non-uniform layer sliced into
uniform layers. After the uniform slicing layers of the non-uniform layer are obtained, the
tool path will be generated for every uniform slicing layer to build the non-uniform unit
layer in an alternative direction for every adjacent layer in order to achieve better
deposition coverage. Note that indexing or tilting of the part will be required before
depositing each segment.
2.6 Summary
Extensive literature review in the area of rapid prototyping and manufacturing was carried
out. The following inferences were made:
• Laser, electron beam and arc welding have been used for building near-net shapes.
High cost of laser and electron beam can be justified only for very sophisticated
applications including building of functionally gradient structures such as those in
aerospace and micro features. Note that laser or electron beam deposition also
produces only near-net shape that requires finish machining just as arc welding and
are overkill for regular engineering and tooling applications. The proposed HLM
process which uses GMAW is particularly suited for the rapid manufacture of
comparable quality objects at considerably lower cost.
• Although weld-bead modelling was done by research groups, all of them were
focused on its joining applications and not for deposition. The bead modelling
developed in this thesis addresses this gap. The literature review on bead modelling
guided the assumption of parabolic bead profile. How the overlapping material
between the beads is distributed is not clearly explained in the literature. This too has
been satisfactorily explained in the present thesis.
• Studies on stress relieving revealed that interlayer stress relieving was not useful in
HLM as the influenced depth is face milled or destroyed during subsequent
depositions. Hence, only post-weld heat treatment is preferred in HLM.
• Based on the studies, uniform slicing of the 0th order edge approximation was found
suitable for the deposition in HLM. Although HLM does not have a support
mechanism, segmenting the object and building it in different orientations will enable
building components with undercuts using variable axis kinematics.
Chapter 3
Hybrid Layered Manufacturing
3.1 Introduction
CNC machining, the subtractive manufacturing method, is the most accurate process
capable of producing objects out of any material. However, it requires human intervention
for producing the cutter path and it is difficult or impossible to realize certain features
through machining. Furthermore, a variety of tools are required and a large portion of the
raw material goes waste as chips in CNC machining. The difficulty in developing
foolproof CAPP systems for subtractive manufacturing led to the development of additive
or generative manufacturing methods popularly known as Rapid Prototyping. Essentially
RP is a CNC machine with an embedded CAPP system for generative manufacturing.
Compression of product development cycle, feasibility of small lot production and better
quality of design through more design iterations are the significant benefits of RP. The
success in the CAPP system, and hence the total automation, is attained in RP by
compromising on quality. Rapid prototypes are inferior in geometric quality (accuracy
and surface finish) and material quality (variety and homogeneity) to machined parts.
Subtractive processes can produce good quality parts but are slow; although the
material removal by itself is fast, human efforts required for cutter path generation is the
bottleneck. On the other hand, additive processes are fast but produce poor quality parts.
Hybrid processes judiciously combine the advantages of both these approaches while
carefully filtering out their limitations (Figure 3.1). The additive process focuses on speed
while ensuring the desired material integrity. The resulting object is only near-net as no
attention to the geometric quality is paid at the time of building it in layers. The
inherently fast CNC machining, the subtractive process that follows, ensures the desired
geometric quality. In HLM, the near-net shape is obtained with total automation.
However, the subsequent two stages of stress relieving/ heat treatment and finish-
Chapter 3 Hybrid Layered Manufacturing 3-2
machining have fair amount of human intervention. In other words, HLM does not strive
to achieve total automation but aims at optimal/ economical level of automation.
Figure 3.1 Hybrid Layered Manufacturing combining the benefits of RP and CNC machining
The hybrid approach is not new to RP. RP processes based on laminated

manufacturing cut the slice from the sheet stock. Face/slab milling was used to ensure the
vertical accuracy in Solid Ground Curing (SGC) and ModelMaker II. The focus in this
thesis is the extension of the hybrid approach to metallic objects. Interestingly, there are
already some hybrid approaches like LENS, LAM, DMD, EBM etc. available which
manufacture the near-net shape through LM and finish it using CNC machining.
However, these do not have seamless integration between the additive and subtractive
stages as they occur at different stations. This and the use of laser or electron beam make
them expensive and slow. IIT Bombay’s arc based HLM presented here overcomes these
limitations by making it possible to do near-net metal deposition and finish machining on
the same CNC machine. The following are some significant advantages of this process:
• Seamless integration of material addition and subtraction on the same platform

• Totally automatic manufacture of the near-net shape
• Use of economical, faster and safer GMAW as against laser and electron beam
• Retrofittable to any existing CNC machine, independent of make and age.
• Easy toggling between HLM mode and regular CNC machining mode
• The concepts developed for arc are also extendable for laser.
Table 3.1 Comparison of CNC, RP and HLM approaches

Feature CNC machining RP technologies HLM
Level of automation Low Full Moderate
Cycle time Very high Low Moderate
Accuracy High Low High
Functionally gradient objects Not possible Possible Possible
Life of component Very long Short Moderate
manufactured
Materials possible Any Limited Limited
Skilled manpower for NC Required Not-required Not-required
programming
Complex shapes Not-possible Possible Possible
Table 3.2 Applications of HLM

Deposition Near-net Finish
type deposition machining
Application
Non-
Planar 3-axis 5-axis 3-axis 5-axis
planar
Manufacture of monolithic tools for injection moulding,
9 - 9 - 9 -
die casting and forging
Manufacture of monolithic tools with conformal cooling
9 - 9 - 9 -
ducts for injection moulding and die casting
Manufacture of composite dies and moulds (soft core and
9 - 9 - 9 -
hard casing)
Repair of forging dies - 9 9 - 9 -
Manufacture of components without undercuts 9 - 9 - 9 -
Manufacture of components with little undercuts 9 - 9 - 9 -
Manufacture of complex components through blinding
9 - 9 - - 9
the undercuts for deposition
Manufacture of extremely complex components - 9 - 9 - 9
Depending on the geometric complexity, the deposition may be in planar or non-

planar layers; similarly deposition and finish-machining may involve 2.5-5 axes
kinematics. The various applications of HLM, its methodology and its generic
implementation are described in the subsequent sections.
3.2 Applications of HLM
Table 3.2 presents the various applications of HLM along with their characteristics. The
manufacturing approaches for these various applications can be classified into the
following six methods:
i. Planar deposition in 3-axis HLM

ii. Planar deposition in 3-axis HLM for small undercuts

iii. Planar deposition in 3-axis HLM after blinding the undercuts
iv. Non-planar (conformal) deposition in 3-axis HLM
v. Variable axis deposition
vi. Deposition using multiple welding torches.
Method 1: Planar deposition in 3-axis HLM
In this method, weld-deposition is carried out with the help of a welding torch mounted
on the spindle head of a 3-axis CNC machine. It may be noted that the torch actually
requires only 2.5-axis motions in the planar deposition. This method is applicable only for
the objects free from undercuts, i.e., when the current layer is within the extents of the
previous layer. Thus, this method is the most suitable for manufacture of dies and moulds
which are inherently free from undercuts. This method may be applicable also to some
components which can become free of undercuts through an appropriate choice of build
orientation. An example is shown in Figure 3.2.
Method 2: Planar deposition in 3-axis HLM for small undercuts
Conformal cooling ducts became a reality only after the advent of RP. Building
conformal cooling ducts is easy in powder-based RP processes such as SLS and 3DP.
They are also of good quality. This is because the unused metallic powder acts as the
support. Although these types of features are not possible in depositing technologies, they
are amenable to little overhang from the edge. Figure 3.3 shows some components with
smooth variations manufactured through EBM and LENS.
Method 3: Planar deposition in 3-axis HLM after blinding the undercuts
Some components may have minor undercuts such as slant walls or holes. These
undercuts can be blinded and built using the 3-axis weld-deposition. An example is
shown in Figure 3.4. Its curved wall and horizontal hole are suppressed for weld-
deposition. During finish-machining, these undercuts can be machined using the 3-/5-axis
machine.
(a) Actual part (b) Modified orientation for deposition

Figure 3.2 Planar deposition using 3-axis CNC machine
(a) EBM (b) LENS

Figure 3.3 Components with slight overhang
(a) Actual part (b) Modified CAD model for deposition

Figure 3.4 Planar deposition using 3-axis CNC machine after blinding the undercuts
(a) Actual part (b) Orientation-1 (c) Orientation-2

Figure 3.5 Indexed type 5-axis deposition
Method 4: Conformal (non-planar) deposition in 3-axis HLM
This method is primarily used in repair activities where the worn-out or the damaged zone
is to be refurbished. This is common in forging dies. There are also interesting
applications of this in aero-engines such as the turbine discs and blade tips. In such cases,
the thickness built-up is not high (1-3 layers), but the deposition has to conform to the
damaged surface. Hence unlike the previous three methods which actually require only
2.5 axis kinematics, here the torch may have to undergo simultaneous 3-axis motions.
Method 5: Variable axis deposition
In some components with undercuts, such as the one shown in Figure 3.5, support can be
avoided by changing its orientation. After depositing the features that has no undercuts,
the component is indexed such that the overhang feature now becomes the flat surface.
This is suitable for objects which have abrupt changes in profile. However, in objects
which have continuous features, such as shown in Figure 3.6 or impeller blades,
simultaneous 5-axis motion is necessary. The component under construction is
continuously oriented using the trunion table of the 5-axis CNC machine, while building
so as to obtain favourable gravity conditions. Hence, 5-axis machine with vertical spindle
with the two rotary degrees of freedom on the table is required.
(a) Model-1 (b) Model-2

Figure 3.6 Continuous type 5-axis deposition
Method 6: Deposition using multiple welding torches
This method is primarily suitable for manufacture of objects having composite material
properties, like forging hammers, which have a soft core and hard casing. The weld-
deposition is carried out using multiple welding torches having different filler wires.
Simple functionally gradient materials can also be manufactured through this method.
3.3 Methodology
There are typically five stages in building the metallic object using HLM as follows:
i. Calibration of torch offsets

ii. Geometric processing
iii. Building the near-net shape
iv. Stress relieving and/or heat treatment
v. Finish machining
These steps are described in detail in the following sections.
3.3.1 Calibration of torch offsets
Due to their separate positioning, the coordinate frames for the spindle and weld-
deposition are different. As the weld-deposition torch is mounted near the spindle of the
CNC, the offset between these coordinate frames is fixed. Thus, by adding these offsets to
the spindle coordinates, the torch can be positioned at the desired location. Calibration of
these offsets is necessary every time the torch is refitted onto the machine. For measuring
these offsets, an axis-aligned ‘L’ shaped single weld-bead of around 5mm height is
deposited (Figure 3.7). The offsets are measured from the ‘L’ shape using a device called
edge-finder. An edge-finder can measure the coordinate of an edge with an accuracy of
0.01mm. It is used to obtain the X coordinates of the left and right sides of the L-shaped
bead along Y (Figure 3.7a&b). Their average gives the X offset. Similarly, it is used to
obtain the Y coordinates of the front and rear sides of the L-shaped bead along X (Figure
3.7c&d). Their average gives the Y offset. The Z offset is obtained using a plunger dial.
The edge-finder has two plungers held together by a spring (Figure 3.8). After loading
it on the spindle, the plungers are offset a little and then the spindle is run at high speed,
say 1,500rpm. Due to the offset given to the plungers, it rotates with a wobble, as shown
in Figure 3.8a. For finding an edge, the probing end is positioned approximately at the
middle of the edge at a distance. Along Z axis, it is positioned such that the cylindrical
portion of the probing end will be able to touch the edge surface. Then, the edge finder is
moved orthogonal to the edge till it slightly touches it. Further movement is carried out in
smaller increments. During this, the wobble will keep reducing, as shown in Figure 3.8b.
At some position, it will start wobbling again instantly. This value gives the
corresponding axis coordinate of the edge.
(a) Edge-finding in the -X direction (left side) (b) Edge-finding in the +X direction (right side)
(c) Edge-finding in the –Y direction (front side) (d) Edge-finding in the +Y direction (back side)
Figure 3.7 Calibration of torch offsets
(a) Wobbling due to offset given (b) Aligned plungers at the edge
Figure 3.8 Edge finder
3.3.2 Geometric processing
The STL file received from any CAD package may have minor errors such as missing
triangles, overlapping triangles, inverted normals and topological errors. Therefore, it is
preferable to repair it before further processing. The original STL file is usually very fine.
Such fineness is redundant during near-net shape preparation. Moreover, when the fine
STL file is directly used, the path of the torch will consist of very short motions. This
leads to too many interpolation calls, bringing down the torch speed from the value set on
the weld-deposition unit. This mismatch will adversely affect the process. Although this
problem may not exist in modern CNC machines, it is preferable to coarsen the STL file.
Both these standard pre-processings are required in all applications and can be done using
standard packages such as Magics or Deskartes. In addition to this standard pre-
processing, the geometry needs to be slightly modified to suit the application. When the
undercuts is minor, such as slant walls or holes, these can be blinded and built using the
3-axis weld-deposition.
The pre-processed files are input to HLMSoft for the generation of the NC program
that controls the weld-deposition and surface milling tool paths. HLMSoft used for this
purpose are presented later in this chapter.
3.3.3 Building the near-net shape
The near-net shape of the component is realized through GMA weld-deposition in layers.
Based on the geometric complexity of the component, its near-net shape can be obtained
using one of the following four methods:
i. Planar deposition
ii. Non-planar or conformal deposition
iii. Variable axis deposition
iv. Composite deposition.
Planar deposition is adequate for simple applications such as dies and moulds and
requires only 2.5-axis kinematics. Non-planar or conformal deposition will be required in
repair applications where the worn-out/damaged portions are made up. This requires 3-
axis kinematics. More complex geometries such as impellers involve variable axis
deposition in order to achieve favourable gravity conditions. Composite deposition
requires two weld-deposition units loaded with different materials. For instance a
composite object with softer core and harder case can be obtained by depositing softer
material in the interior and harder in the boundary. The following are the major steps
involved in building the near-net shape of the object:
Step 1 - Preparation of the substrate: The weld-deposition has to be carried out on a

metallic substrate. It is preferable to keep the substrate as thick as possible so as to
minimize distortion and amount of material deposition. This is most plausible for dies and
moulds as they invariably have thick sections. The compatible material combination of
the filler wire and the substrate shall be chosen to suit the design requirements. Although
the substrates are usually blocks, it is appropriate to have cylindrical substrates in some
axi-symmetric parts.
Step 2 - Selection of HLM process parameters: The selection of optimal process

parameters, viz., wire and torch speeds and stepover increment are discussed in the next
chapter. In addition, appropriate areafill pattern, layer thickness and machining allowance
are chosen. All these parameters are inputs to HLMSoft. Furthermore, wire and torch
speeds, wire material and diameter, mode of weld-deposition (pulsed, synergic, CMT),
gas mixture etc. are set on the weld-deposition unit.
Step 3 - Preheating of the substrate: In cases of deposition over hard materials such as the
repair of forging dies, preheating will have to be carried out before loading it on the CNC
machine. This can be done in the pallet station in front of the 3-axis CNC machine. This
pre-heated substrate is then sent to the machine table for deposition automatically. The
pallet system designed and implemented for this purpose is discussed later in this chapter.
Step 4 –Weld-deposition: The required layer is built by moving the torch along the tool
paths, thus depositing the material in the required places. The area-filling may follow a
contour-parallel or direction-parallel pattern. Normally the slices are horizontal. However,
non-planar deposition is used in repair activities as well as building complex objects in
variable axis.
Step 5 - Surface milling of the deposited layer: This step removes the scallops and ensures
the desired layer thickness. It also removes the scale of the previous layer so as to provide
a nascent surface for the weld-deposition of the next layer. In planar deposition, simple
face milling is adequate to achieve this. In non-planar deposition, conformal milling using
a ball end mill will be required.
The last two steps are repeated for all the layers leading to the realization of the near-
net shape.
3.3.4 Stress relieving and/or heat treatment
Residual stresses are developed during weld-deposition owing to the high amounts of
non-uniform heat input. These stresses can be relieved either after every few layers (inter-
layer stress relieving) or after the manufacture of the near-net shape. As it is a slow
process, the stress relieving strategies will influence time and cost. In addition to the
literature review, discussions were held with Welding Research Institute of Bharat Heavy
Electricals Limited (WRI-BHEL), Trichy, and a few users of stress relieving.
Accordingly, peening, vibration and heat treatment were identified as the three broad
methods suitable for inter-layer stress relieving. Vibration is actually stress redistribution
rather than relieving. Peening too does not relieve the stresses, but only adds a
compressive layer on the surface that arrests the crack propagation. Thus, complete stress
relieving takes place only in heat treatment due to recrystallization. Hence, it was
concluded that inter-layer stress relieving is redundant in HLM and only post-weld heat
treatment is preferred. In addition, attention should be paid to reduction of heat input and
management of its manifestations as follows:
1. Reducing the heat input at the source: To reduce the heat input during weld-
deposition, Cold Metal Transfer welding machine manufactured by Fronius was chosen
to replace the older generation pulse synergic welding machines. As the name suggests,
‘Cold Metal Transfer’ uses considerable less power than the conventional GMAW
processes, thus reducing the overall heat input [87].
(a) Diaphragm actuator used for dynamic clamping (b) Clamping devise mounted onto the table
(c) Soft clamping before pneumatic activation (d) Rigid Clamping after pneumatic activation
Figure 3.9 Dynamic clamping
2. Unconstrained substrate during weld-deposition: The residual stresses and distortions

are the two interchangeable manifestations of the non-uniform heat input. If the distortion
is prevented by rigid clamping, it may lead to internal stresses. Hence it is preferable to

deposit in unclamped condition so as to allow warping and surface mill in clamped
condition. The distortion is absorbed into the machining allowance. This arrangement for
clamping/unclamping is shown in Figure 3.9a & b. The location pins with conical head
ensure the positional accuracy. During milling the studs are pulled down by the
pneumatic pads to withstand the face milling load. Figure 3.9c & d shows this dynamic
clamping in action. This arrangement is designed such that although it allows for the
warping of the blank, it minimizes the positional dislocation.
3.3.5 Finish machining of the near-net shape
Although the horizontal surfaces of the tool are finished by the face mill during the
deposition stage, the edges of the layers still remain rough. Moreover, some machining
allowance is incorporated during the weld-deposition to accommodate inaccuracies
arising out of stair-step effect and distortion. Thus finish machining of the near-net shape
is carried out to obtain the final dimensions. The path planning for this finish machining
is done using commercially available CAM packages. The accuracy and surface finish of
the HLM object is same as that obtained through the traditional subtractive
manufacturing.
3.4 Architecture of the Generic HLM Facility
The various applications demanding a variety of kinematics for deposition, surface

milling and finish machining are listed in Table 3.2. A generic HLM facility capable of
demonstrating all these approaches was developed consisting of the following sub-
systems:
i. 3-axis CNC machining centre

ii. 5-axis CNC machining centre
iii. Two weld-deposition units
iv. Pallet system connecting the two CNC machines.
It may be noted that a user may require only a subset of this generic facility depending
on his application. For instance, a tool room may require only a 3-axis HLM without any
pallet system.
3.4.1 3-axis CNC machining centre
The 3-axis CNC machining centre of the HLM facility is ARGO 1050P (Figure 3.10).
This machine with the weld-deposition unit mounted on it is in use for more than 2 years
without any damage to either the controller or other machine elements, proving that it is
perfectly safe to integrate weld-deposition with a CNC machine.
Specifications:
Make : Argo, Taiwan Traverses : 1050mm x 505mm x 610mm
Model : MCV 1050P ATC : 20 pockets
Year of Mfr. : 1995 Spindle taper : BT-40
Price : Rs. 15.25 lakhs (used machine) Spindle speed : 6,000rpm
Controller : Fanuc 0MC
Figure 3.10 ARGO 3-axis CNC machine
(a) Basic machine structure (b) Complete machine body

Specifications:
Make : Hermle, Germany Traverses : 650mm x 600mm x 500mm
Model : C30U A-axis : +30° /-115°
Price : Rs. 160 lakhs C-axis : 0 - 360° (infinite)
Year of Mfr. : 2009 Rotary table : Ø 630mm
Spindle taper : HSK 63A ATC : 32 pockets
Spindle speed : 18,000rpm Controller : Heidenhain iTNC 530
Figure 3.11 Hermle C30U 5-axis CNC machine [88]
(a) TransPuls Synergic 4000 (b) Cold Metal Transfer 2700

Figure 3.12 Fronius GMAW power sources [87]
3.4.2 5-axis CNC machining centre
As down-hand weld-deposition is preferable, the rotary degrees of freedom should be on

the table with the spindle head remaining always vertical. Thus, Hermle C30U 5-axis
CNC machining centre was selected. The machine along with its specifications is shown
in Figure 3.11.
3.4.3 Weld-deposition units
The following are the important considerations, in the order of their importance, for
selecting the deposition unit:
• Ability for integration with a CNC machine

• Minimum heat input
• Process stability
• Sharp feature definition
• Minimum machining
• High deposition rate
• Penetration.
Pulsed DC with appropriate ramps is preferable to continuous DC as it gives stable

arc even at a lower mean current, thus reducing the heat input. However, in pulsed
GMAW, the operator is required to set the background current, peak current and their
durations apart from the parameters required to be controlled for successful operation in
normal GMAW. As the relationships among these parameters are too complex, setting
their optimal values manually is too difficult. This led to the development of synergic
GMAW.
In synergic control, when an optimal combination of pulse parameters is set once for a
given wire feed rate and wire diameter, the system maintains the optimality for any
change in the wire feed rate [89]. This implies that the burn off rate matches exactly the
wire feed rate as dictated by the initially set parameters. Thus it becomes a single knob
control. The optimum applications parameters are usually tuned into the welding machine
by means of a microprocessor and a software program. It is possible to achieve high torch
speeds while keeping the spatter low through synergic control. Accordingly, Fronius
TPS-4000, a pulsed synergic GMAW was chosen. This equipment, bought in 2001, was
adequate for building monolithic objects. Building composite objects requires two or
more weld-deposition units. Therefore, Fronius TPS 2700 CMT, a next generation TPS
GMAW machine was procured recently (Figure 3.12b). Table 3.3 lists the specifications
of these two weld-deposition units.
CMT, developed and marketed by Fronius, Austria stands for Cold Metal Transfer,
cold being a relative term in welding. The CMT process is based on the dip-transfer (short
circuit) arc. It generates a deliberate, systematic discontinuity of the arc. In the
conventional GMAW, droplet detachment is effected exclusively by the current flow, i.e.
a relatively high current is necessary to guarantee detachment of the droplet. Although
pulsing of the current decreased the average current of the process, cycles of peak current
are required to assist droplet detachment. In CMT, the droplet detachment is mainly
caused by the backward movement of the wire. Even if the current is kept very low
during the short-circuit phase, detachment of the droplet is still possible by the backward
movement of the wire. The wire is then fed forward again after the droplet detachment.
This forward and back motion takes place at a frequency of up to 70Hz. Figure 3.13
shows various stages in the droplet detachment through CMT. Thus, the process involves
both mechanical and electrical pulsing.
Furthermore, in conventional GMAW, the arc length is calculated based on the

welding voltage detected. As the voltage is also dependent on workpiece surface, welding
speed etc, it sometimes leads to error in the calculation of arc length. In the CMT process
on the other hand, the arc length is adjusted mechanically due to the repeated short-
circuiting and the defined wire retraction, thus reducing the influence of external factors.
In CMT the wire feeder is locate near the welding torch thus eliminating the error due
to slacking of the wire. This also gives greater control over the movement of the wire. A
wire buffer located between the wire feeder and the welding tip “decouples” the two wire-
drives from one another and provides extra storage capacity for the wire. Figure 3.14
shows the schematic diagram of CMT welding equipment.
Figure 3.13 Droplet detachment in CMT[87]
Figure 3.14 Schematic of CMT equipment [87]
Table 3.3 Specifications of the weld-deposition units

Specifications
Feature
TPS 4000 CMT 2700
Make Fronius Fronius
Model TransPuls Synergic 4000 TransPuls Synergic 2700 CMT
Torch Push type Push-pull CMT type
Modes of operation Pulsed, synergic Pulsed, synergic, CMT
Input power 3 400V 50/60Hz 12.2 kVA 3 400V 50/60Hz 6.6 kVA
Welding current range 3-400 A 3-270 A
Open circuit voltage 70 V 50 V
Working voltage 14.2 - 34.0 V 14.2 – 27.5 V
Efficiency 88% 87%
3.4.4 Pallet system
The pallet system integrates the 3-axis and 5-axis CNC machines. Typically the job can
shuttle between the two machine tables through this system. In addition, if pre-heating is
required, as in the case of forging die repair, that can be done on the pallet station in front
of the corresponding CNC machine. This pallet system evolved after several design
iterations and consists of the following sub-systems:
i. Pallet
ii. Two booms, one in front of either machine
iii. Two boom rests, one in front of either machine
iv. Two pallet stations, one in front of either machine
v. Conveyor.
Figure 3.15 depicts the 5-axis HLM machine in the default condition, i.e., both booms
are raised and the pallet is inside the 3-axis machine. In this condition, there is sufficient
working space for the operator. All the sub-systems are marked in this figure. The
swinging of the booms, pallet pushing and clamping of the pallet as well as the substrate
on it are hydraulically operated. The actual conveying of the pallet between the tables via
the pallet stations is achieved with the help of electrically operated chain-roller system.
Figure 3.16 illustrates one situation in which the near-net shape is fully realized in the 3-
axis machine and is finish machined in the 5-axis machine.
Figure 3.15 HLM facility integrating 3-axis and 5-axis CNC machines
(a) Default position (pallet is in 3-axis machine, both

(b) Weld-deposition is over on the 3-axis machine. Boom
booms are raised and the welding equipment is ready to
1 is lowered to form the bridge.
deposit)
(c) The pallet is moves from the 3-axis machine table to

(d) Boom 1 is raised
Pallet Station 1 through the boom
(e) The pallet reaches Pallet Station 2 (f) Boom 2 is lowered to form the bridge
(g) The pallet is moved from Pallet Station 2 to the 5-axis (h) Boom 2 is raised. The layer is finish machined on the
machine table through the boom 5-axis machine
(j) The pallet with the finished component returns to Pallet

(i) Boom 2 is lowered to form the bridge
Station 2 for unclamping
Figure 3.16 Various steps in building the object using HLM
3.5 Integration of CNC and Weld-deposition Unit
Synergic integration of weld-deposition unit with the CNC machine independent of its
make and age is a key aspect in HLM. The integration has to be done in such a manner
that the weld-deposition can act as an additional feature without disturbing the other
capabilities of the CNC machine. During the retrofitment, changes to the mechanical and
electrical systems are done without the need for any proprietary information from the
machine builder or the control developer. The following are some of the issues to be
addressed to achieve this:
Mechanical issues:
• Mounting of the welding torch on the side of the spindle head so that weld-deposition
is controlled through the same CNC controller.
• Ability to retract the torch during regular operations of the CNC machine
• Suitable mechanism to take away the excess heat generated during weld-deposition
• Appropriate safeguards to protect the machine elements from occasional spatter
Electrical and control issues:

• On/off of the weld-deposition unit through the CNC program
• Easy and quick changeover between HLM mode and regular CNC mode
• Elimination of any direct electrical contact between the CNC controller and the weld-
deposition unit.
The implementation details for achieving these objectives are presented in the
following sub-sections.
Figure 3.17 Components in the pneumatic cylinder unit
3.5.1 Mounting of weld-deposition torch
During the fabrication of the near-net shape, weld-deposition and surface milling will
happen alternately. Though many CNC machines have Automatic Tool Changer (ATC)
arrangement, the torch cannot be accommodated in one of the pockets as it has a long
hose. This problem was overcome by mounting the torch on the side of the spindle head.
Initially, the torch was mounted on a pneumatically operated slide with about 50mm
traverse (Figure 3.17). During the face milling operations, the thickness of the machined
surface is normally between 0.5mm to 1.0mm. Any occasional weld blobs due to slow
interpolation are never more than 2.0mm. Therefore, the pneumatically operated slide was
subsequently replaced by a longer slide in which the torch is about 5mm above the face
mill at its bottom-most position (Figure 3.18a). When the mode is changed from HLM to
regular CNC machining, the torch can be lifted well above the machining zone by
supporting it with a rod as shown in Figure 3.18b.
(a) Torch in the downward position ready for deposition (b) Torch in the lifted position not in use
Figure 3.18 Components in the pneumatic cylinder unit
2 step mode 4 step mode

(b) Control Panel of the Welding Unit
Shorted
(a) GMAW power source (c) Connector for Automatic Control of Welding
Figure 3.19 Control of weld-deposition unit
3.5.2 Control of weld-deposition unit
Figure 3.19b shows the control panel of the weld-deposition unit. It shows two modes of
torch operations. One is called “2-step mode” and the other is “4-step mode”. In the 2-
step mode, the trigger has to be held pressed throughout welding. When the trigger is
released, welding will stop. On the other hand, in the 4-step mode, welding starts the
moment the trigger is pressed; it continues even after the trigger is released. In this mode,
the same trigger should be pressed once more to stop welding. In other words, the trigger
acts as an on/off switch in 2-step mode and it acts as a toggle switch in 4-step mode.
Thus, 4-step mode is preferred for manual operations and 2-step is suitable for automatic
applications. Figure 3.19c shows the connector for automatic control of welding. When
the two bottom pins shown in the figure are shorted, weld-deposition unit is switched on
and is switched off when open. This can be accomplished through a binary output from
the CNC machine. The following are some of the considerations regarding this binary
output:
• Need for a specific pair of M codes and a corresponding relay to control the weld-
deposition unit.
• Availability of an extra relay in the CNC machine for this purpose.
• In the absence of an extra relay, identification of an existing relay that can be
redirected for on/off of the weld-deposition unit without affecting the other functions
of the CNC machine.
• Provision for operating the machine in both HLM and regular CNC mode.
• Minimum changes for switching between HLM and regular CNC modes are
desirable. Even an unskilled operator must be able to switch from one mode to
another easily.
• As HLM is envisioned as a retrofitment to an existing machine, the integration must
be generic in nature, applicable to majority of the CNC machines.
If the CNC machine has a spare relay, it can used to on/off weld-deposition. But many
old CNC machines do not have spare relays. Also, use of existing relay will ensure that
the process can be extended to any CNC machine. An existing relay meant for another
purpose can be re-routed to activate weld-deposition unit. But the relay chosen must be a
non-essential relay during the HLM process and shall be addressable by a pair of M-
codes. A typical CNC milling machine uses relays for spindle on/off, coolant on/off, tool
clamp/unclamp etc. Among these, relays for spindle and tool clamping cannot be
disturbed as they are required during near-net shape fabrication. However coolant relay
can be spared. Therefore the coolant relay is identified for HLM implementation in the
absence of spare relays. Most CNC controllers use M08/M09 for coolant on/off.
M08/M09 will control weld-deposition in HLM mode and coolant in regular CNC mode.
Switching between HLM and regular CNC mode was achieved by using a Double
Pole Double Throw (DPDT) switch. Figure 3.20 shows this DPDT switch and the
detailed circuit diagram for integrating welding process with CNC machine is shown in
Figure 3.21. When the switch is in Regular position, the circuit is connected to coolant
motor. When the DPDT switch is toggled to HLM position, the circuit is connected to the
weld-deposition unit.
HLM
Regular
DPDT DPDT
Relay Switch
.
Figure 3.20 Frame for mounting DPDT switch and relay on CNC machine
Figure 3.21 Circuit diagram for integration of weld-deposition unit with CNC controller
As shown in the circuit diagram of Figure 3.21, when the DPDT switch is in HLM
mode, the M08/M09 signal is routed to a DPDT relay. When this DPDT relay is
energized, it shorts the connectors of weld-deposition unit, hence switching it ON. When
the DPDT switch is in regular mode the M08/M09 signal controls the coolant flow.
3.5.3 Isolation of CNC machine to the effects of weld-deposition
Frequent current fluctuations are inherent in welding and hence it was believed to
generate spikes. CNC controllers are very sensitive to these spikes; the effect of the
spikes may be as simple as just loss of memory to damage to the circuits. Due to this
reason, CNC installations used to be kept away from the welding units. Therefore the
proposal to retrofit the CNC machine with the welding unit was received sceptically.
However, modern welding units with their built-in isolation systems emit negligible
spikes and the CNC controllers also have become more robust and forgiving. Therefore,
these fears are found invalid today. In other words, it was required to prove these
apprehensions wrong. The following were addressed for achieving physical and electrical
isolation of CNC machine and welding unit:
• Electrical isolation of the CNC machine with the weld-deposition unit to ensure that
the spikes generated during the welding process do not affect the CNC machine.
• The heat generated during weld-deposition should be carried away, so as not to affect
the table, guide ways and other parts of the CNC machine.
• Protection of CNC machine elements from occasional spatter.
Electrical isolation was ensured by eliminating any type of direct electrical contact
between the CNC machine and weld-deposition unit. This was achieved with the help of
the DPDT relay. Proper grounding of the equipment was also required to ensure that any
fluctuations or spikes generated during the process are transferred quickly to the ground,
without affecting the CNC machine.
The job is mounted on a fixture of dimensions 1000mm x 500mm x 30mm with zig-
zag cooling ducts (Figure 3.22). This fixture can be used during regular as well as HLM
operations. It has a grid of M12 tapped holes at intervals of 25mm. These are used for
clamping the substrate plate, vice and other clamping devices. During weld-deposition,
coolant will be circulated through the zig-zag ducts to take away the excess heat. All the
features of this fixture, including the Ø8mm x 500mm through holes were machined on
the 3-axis CNC machine itself. In the generic HLM facility, this fixture is been replaced
by a pallet.
Another major concern during weld-deposition is the spatter. It may stick to vital
machine elements like spindle head, tool holder and face milling cutter. To overcome this
problem, it was preferable to enclose the substrate with a shroud (Figure 3.23).
(a) CAD model
(b) Fabricated fixture

Figure 3.22 Universal fixture with coolant ducts
Figure 3.23 Sheet metal shroud to arrest spatter
3.6 Software for HLM
The principal difference between a CNC machine and a RP machine is the level of
automation. While the CNC machine requires a skilled NC programmer to convert the
CAD model into NC program, the RP machine can use the CAD model itself directly as it
is capable of converting it into the NC program. In other words, a RP machine is nothing
but a CNC machine embedded with a successful CAPP system for additive
manufacturing. HLMSoft is the heart of the HLM process as it generates the tool path of
the weld-deposition and surface milling from the geometry of the object. The following
are the activities accomplished by HLMSoft:
• Read the CAD model (in .stl format)

• Generate the slices
• Generate the weld-deposition path for each slice from its contours using the area-
filling module. Weld-deposition consists of countouring paths and area-filling paths,
the latter may be either a direction-parallel (zig-zag or raster) or contour-parallel
(spiral);
• Generate tool path for the surface milling operation
• Post-process these paths into the machine-compatible NC file.
HLMSoft was developed to run under Microsoft Windows platform. The code was
developed using Microsoft Visual C++ language. The Graphic User Interface (GUI) was
developed using Microsoft Foundation Classes (MFC) and OpenGL graphics library, the
former for menus, dialog boxes and icons and the latter for graphic rendering. The
geometric and topological information are stored and handled using a triangular
polyhedral solid modelling kernel called Trishul. This kernel was developed in-house.
Figure 3.24 Opening menu of Trishul, HLMSoft
Trishul is a project as well as the work space. Trishul project handles the GUI. Trishul
workspace is designed as an environment for any software development using triangular
polyhedral solid modelling. It can host any number of applications such as STL repair and
different types of RP processes such as HLM and Segmented object Manufacturing
(SOM). Each such application will be a project in Trishul workspace. HLMSoft is the
project catering to the application of HLM. The opening screen of Trishul is shown in
Figure 3.24. Among the pull down menus, File, View and HLMSoft only will be
relevant to this project.
File does only two things. Its first function is to open a STL file and store it in an
internal format. When this is invoked, a file open dialog box appears using which the user
can browse and choose the required STL file. Note that HLM accepts only STL file as
input. The other function of ‘File’ is simply ‘Exit’.
‘View’ is used for the various viewing transformations viz., “zoom in”, “zoom out”,
“zoom fit” “zoom window”, “pan” and “rotate”. Figure 3.25b shows the viewing
functions. Note that most of the commands that can be performed using the pull down
menus through a few clicks can also be done using the single click of corresponding
icons.
(a) File menu (b) View menu (c) HLMSoft menu

Figure 3.25 Menus of HLMSoft
Figure 3.26 Dialog box of settings
The menu items available under HLMSoft are shown in Figure 3.25c. These are:
• Settings
• Generate Welding Path
• Generate Milling Path

• Execute All Steps
• Simulation.
When ‘Settings’ is chosen, the dialog box shown in Figure 3.26 appears. Using this
dialog box, the user can input the required parameters for welding as well as milling
processes listed in Table 3.4.
After setting the required parameters, the welding and milling paths can be generated
by clicking those items. The output is in the form of a NC file. This NC file is sent to the
CNC controller through DNC described subsequently.
The data structures for storing various entities and the algorithms for reading the STL
file, slicing, offsetting the contours, area-filling etc. were available in the form of the in-
house developed kernel [9]. The additional algorithms developed in this thesis are
described in appropriate chapters.
3.7 Transfer of CNC program to the controller through DNC
The CNC program generated by HLMSoft is transferred to CNC machine through DNC.
DNC also enables the flow of the CNC program back to the PC. If the program is small, it
is transferred to the memory of the CNC machine in one go. Once the transfer is over, the
DNC link is no longer required while using the CNC program. This type of DNC is
known as Distributed Numerical Control (DNC-I). When the CNC program is too large to
for the memory of the CNC machine, a few CNC blocks are transferred to the buffer of
the CNC machine from which it is executed. When the buffer is consumed, the DNC
transfers next set of CNC blocks. This type of drip feed can handle huge CNC programs,
but the DNC link has to be on as long as the program is running. This type of DNC is
known as Direct Numerical Control (DNC-II).
Table 3.4 Input parameters for HLM

• Type of area-fill (direction-parallel or contour-parallel)
• Slice thickness
Welding related parameters • Step over increment
• Torch speed
• Machining allowance
• Diameter
Surface milling related parameters • Spindle speed
• Feed rate.
• Torch offset in X with respect to spindle
Offsets • Torch offset in Y with respect to spindle
• Torch offset in Z with respect to spindle
• Nozzle gap
Table 3.5 Various parameters selected for RS-232 communication in HLM

Parameter Value
Baud speed 9600
Data bits 7
Parity Even
Stop bits 1
Handshake Xon/Xoff
Table 3.6 RS-232 cable connections for HLM

CABLE 1 CABLE 2
(CNC to Optical Isolator) (Optical Isolator to PC)
25 pin Male 9 pin Female 9 pin Male 9 pin Female
(CNC) (Op Is) (Op Is) (PC)
Optical Isolator
2 ————— 2 1 1
3 ————— 3 2 ————— 2
7 ————— 5 3 ————— 3
4 4
4, 5
5 ————— 5
Shorted
6 6
7 7
6, 8, 20
8 8
Shorted
9 9
Data transfer can take place through various ports. In modern machines, it happens
through LAN/WLAN. As the 3-axis machine used is of earlier generation, it has only RS-
232 serial communication port with a 25 pin connector. In RS-232, data is sent as a time-
series of bits. Both synchronous and asynchronous transmissions are supported by this
standard. In addition to the data circuits, the standard defines a number of control
variables. Each data or control circuit operates only in one direction. Since “transmit” and
“receive” modes are implemented in separate circuits, the interface can operate in a full
duplex manner, supporting concurrent data flow in both directions.
Table 3.5 summarizes various parameters selected for RS-232 communication in

HLM setup. There are many software available for data exchange between PC and CNC
through this protocol. SDNC, a free release from SurfCAM is used for HLM. Data
transfer takes place between the 25 pin male serial port at CNC controller and 9 pin
female port at PC. Table 3.6 depicts the cable wiring for the connection from a PC to
CNC. The DNC can be operated in the following three different modes and purposes:
a. Transfer of NC file from CNC to PC (DNC-I)

b. Transfer of NC file from PC to CNC (DNC-I)
c. Online transfer of NC data from PC to CNC (DNC-II or drip feed).
3.8 Summary
HLM judiciously combines the best features subtractive and additive manufacturing
approaches. This is achieved through seamless integration of GMA weld-deposition with
a CNC machine. Depending on the geometric complexity, the deposition may be in planar
or non-planar layers; similarly deposition and finish-machining may involve 2.5-5 axes
kinematics. A brief review of these methods, along with the methodology of HLM was
presented in this chapter.
The architecture of a generic HLM facility was described in detail. It consists of a 3-

axis CNC machine, a 5-axis CNC machine, two Fronius weld-deposition units and a
pallet system connecting the two CNC machines. The generic HLM facility is designed to
demonstrate its wide variety of applications. However, a typical user will require only a
subset of it depending on his requirement. HLM is actually a low cost retrofitment to any
existing CNC machine without altering its basic functionalities. The intricate details of
this integration were discussed in detail including HLMSoft, the software support for
HLM.
Chapter 4
Process Modelling
4.1 Introduction
The process parameters of HLM have to be optimally chosen so as to minimize material

wastage and heat input in addition to the distribution of heat over a wider area. This
requires a better understanding of the influence of these process parameters and their
inter-dependencies. This was achieved through the modelling of weld-deposition. It starts
with a model for single bead deposition and verifying it experimentally. The same is then
extended for multi-bead deposition.
Three types of flows occur during weld-deposition. These are current flow, heat flow, and
mass transfer [89]. Welding parameters controlling these flows can be divided into the
following three classifications:
i. Primary parameters
ii. Secondary parameters
iii. Distinct level parameters.
The primary parameters can be easily measured and continuously adjusted over a wide
range and are most commonly used for changing the characteristics of the weld. These are
voltage, current and torch speed. These primary parameters control the formation of the
bead geometry, viz., bead width, bead height and penetration (Figure 4.1). Bead width
and height are important characteristics of weld particularly when using automatic
equipment to produce a specific geometry of weld. Penetration is the depth to which
fusion zone extents below the base surface. This influences the strength of the weld.
Chapter 4 Process Modelling 4-2
Figure 4.1 Bead geometry
The secondary parameters can also be changed over a wide range but do not directly
affect bead formation. Instead, they cause a change in primary parameter(s) which in turn
causes change in bead formation. These parameters are more difficult to measure and
accurately control. They are primarily electrode stick out, nozzle angle and distance
between nozzle and base plate.
Distinct level parameters are chosen in discrete intervals and remain unchanged
during a particular welding session. Examples of these are filler wire type and size,
welding current type and polarity and shielding gas composition and flow rate. They have
considerable influence on weld formation. Their selection is dictated by the type of metal
to be deposited, layer thickness, deposition rate and appearance or based on experience.
For example, Aluminium welding demands use of 100% Ar; thinner wire is preferred for
lesser rate of heat input and better resolution of deposition.
The secondary and distinct level parameters are chosen based on the best practices in the
industry. Only the influence of the primary parameters is studied.
4.2 Modelling of Single Bead Deposition
GMAW has been popular for joining and there are very few applications of it for cladding
and hard facing. Therefore, the process is well established for joining, but the data
available for cladding is scant. HLM uses GMAW for metal deposition which is typically
cladding. Hence, some preliminary experiments on the welding parameters in cladding

were carried out.
Wire
Current
Speed
(Amps)
(m/mins)
60 4.7
70 5.6
80 6.5
90 7.4
100 8.4
110 9.4
120 10.4
Figure 4.2 Current vs wire speed graph for 0.8mm MS wire
In pulsed synergic GMAW, the shape of the bead is influenced by only two speeds,
viz., wire speed and torch speed. Current and wire speed have a monotonous relationship
in the synergic control, as shown in the sample graph plotted for 0.8mm MS wire in
Figure 4.2. Hence, in subsequent discussions only wire speed will be referred with the
understanding that it has a direct relationship with current.
The bead profile, shown in Figure 4.1, is assumed to be a symmetric parabola of the form
y = a + cx 2 . This algebraic form with (a, c) as the parameters can be written in geometric
form in terms of (h, w), the height and width, as follows:
4h
a = h and c = − (4.1)
w2
Therefore the geometric form of the parabola is

⎡ ⎛ 2 ⎞2 ⎤
y = h ⎢1 − ⎜ x ⎟ ⎥ (4.2)
⎣⎢ ⎝ w ⎠ ⎦⎥
It is preferable to write the same parabola in terms of the process parameters, viz.,
( v w , vt ), the wire speed and the torch speed. This is achieved by equating the expressions
of the bead area, A in terms of the geometric and process parameters. The area of the
parabolic bead in terms of its geometric parameters is
2
A= hw (4.3)
3
The same area in terms of the process parameters is
πv w d w 2
A= (4.4)
4vt
From the Equations 4.3 and 4.4, the width w, can be expressed as
3πv w d w
2
w= (4.5)
8hvt
Therefore, the bead profile in terms of the process parameters and the measured value of
height h, is given by
⎡ ⎛ 16hv ⎞
2
⎤
y = h ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ t
x ⎟⎟ ⎥ (4.6)
⎢ ⎝ 3πv w d w
2
⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
This analysis shows that by just measuring h experimentally, one can obtain the profile of
the bead. This eliminates the need of sectioning and measuring the profile.
4.2.1 Experimental validation
To understand the relationship between the input and output parameters of single bead
formation, experiments were carried for various values of wire and torch speeds. The
filler wire chosen was copper coated mild steel wire (ER70S6) of 0.8mm diameter.
Fronius TPS 4000 weld-deposition unit was used. The current was varied in the range of
60A to 120A which corresponds to the wire speed range of 4.7 - 10.4 m/min (refer Figure
4.2). The torch speed was varied from 600m/min to 1100m/min. These denote the stable
operating ranges.
(a) Deposition pattern (b) Weld bead

Figure 4.3 Deposition path for analysis of weld-bead profile
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
-3.5 -2.5 -1.5 -0.5 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5
-0.5
-1
(a) Scanned profile (b) Profile plotted from the parabolic equation
(c) The parabolic profile superimposed on the bead cross section

Figure 4.4 Experimental validation of the single bead model
A pattern shown in Figure 4.3a was deposited on a MS substrate of 100mm x 60mm

for various combinations of wire and torch speeds. This pattern is such that the initial
beads preheat the substrate so that middle bead is representative of the actual working
conditions. In other words, only the middle bead is used for the measurements. One such
deposition corresponding to a wire speed of 10.4m/min and torch speed of 900m/min is
shown in Figure 4.3b. The plate was subsequently cut across the beads and polished. The
bead cross section was sprayed with a white epoxy paint to achieve the desired reflection
characteristics and scanned at 2000 dpi resolution. This picture is shown in Figure 4.4a.
The points of the bead boundary were measured using Adobe Photoshop. The parabolic
profile fitted from the measured points is shown in Figure 4.4b. The parabolic assumption
of the bead shape is demonstrated by superimposing both (Figure 4.4c). 42 such
experiments were carried for a combination of 6 torch speeds and 8 wire speeds. These
are presented in Table 4.1.
The area was predicted from the process parameters and compared with the measured
value calculated using Equation 4.4 and 4.3 respectively. The predicted vs. measured area
plot is shown in Figure 4.5. As all the measured values cluster around the 45° line, the
model may be considered valid.
Table 4.1 Comparison of predicted and measured cross-sectional areas of weld-bead

Process Algebraic Geometric
Area
Parameters Parameters Parameters
S. Predicted Measured Error
No vw vt a c h w πvw d w 2 2
%
m/min m/min mm mm A = A = hw
4vt 3
1 4.7 0.6 1.451 -0.339 1.451 4.136 3.937 4.001 -1.617
2 5.6 0.6 1.571 -0.376 1.571 4.089 4.691 4.282 8.716
3 6.5 0.6 1.813 -0.385 1.813 4.343 5.445 5.250 3.587
4 7.4 0.6 1.686 -0.259 1.686 5.103 6.199 5.737 7.460
5 8.4 0.6 2.059 -0.278 2.059 5.441 7.037 7.470 -6.151
6 9.4 0.6 2.090 -0.280 2.090 5.464 7.875 7.612 3.341
7 10.4 0.6 2.553 -0.356 2.553 5.355 8.713 9.115 -4.618
8 4.7 0.7 1.436 -0.429 1.436 3.660 3.375 3.504 -3.823
9 5.6 0.7 1.530 -0.335 1.530 4.274 4.021 4.358 -8.385
10 6.5 0.7 1.604 -0.306 1.604 4.580 4.667 4.898 -4.933
11 7.4 0.7 1.734 -0.362 1.734 4.376 5.314 5.057 4.833
12 8.4 0.7 1.905 -0.339 1.905 4.740 6.032 6.020 0.202
13 9.4 0.7 1.847 -0.274 1.847 5.189 6.750 6.389 5.342
14 10.4 0.7 2.189 -0.334 2.189 5.123 7.468 7.477 -0.125
15 4.7 0.8 1.171 -0.300 1.171 3.951 2.953 3.083 -4.410
16 5.6 0.8 1.304 -0.337 1.304 3.932 3.519 3.418 2.846
17 6.5 0.8 1.423 -0.320 1.423 4.219 4.084 4.003 1.987

18 7.4 0.8 1.460 -0.220 1.460 5.156 4.650 5.019 -7.942
19 8.4 0.8 1.523 -0.202 1.523 5.491 5.278 5.575 -5.634
20 9.4 0.8 1.661 -0.239 1.661 5.272 5.906 5.838 1.156
21 10.4 0.8 1.997 -0.286 1.997 5.289 6.534 7.042 -7.766
22 4.7 0.9 1.001 -0.239 1.001 4.097 2.625 2.733 -4.130
23 5.6 0.9 1.001 -0.211 1.001 4.354 3.128 2.904 7.135
24 6.5 0.9 1.108 -0.179 1.108 4.970 3.630 3.671 -1.123
25 7.4 0.9 1.152 -0.160 1.152 5.360 4.133 4.116 0.411
26 8.4 0.9 1.282 -0.209 1.282 4.959 4.691 4.238 9.660
27 9.4 0.9 1.316 -0.173 1.316 5.512 5.250 4.836 7.891
28 10.4 0.9 1.498 -0.222 1.498 5.195 5.808 5.188 10.682
29 4.7 1.0 0.724 -0.144 0.724 4.484 2.362 2.164 8.381
30 5.6 1.0 1.023 -0.191 1.023 4.625 2.815 3.153 -12.010
31 6.5 1.0 1.154 -0.239 1.154 4.394 3.267 3.380 -3.463
32 7.4 1.0 1.307 -0.261 1.307 4.471 3.720 3.895 -4.708
33 8.4 1.0 1.198 -0.184 1.198 5.101 4.222 4.074 3.502
34 9.4 1.0 1.277 -0.202 1.277 5.034 4.725 4.285 9.307
35 10.4 1.0 1.470 -0.222 1.470 5.149 5.228 5.046 3.478
36 4.7 1.1 0.784 -0.186 0.784 4.105 2.148 2.145 0.106
37 5.6 1.1 0.982 -0.266 0.982 3.846 2.559 2.518 1.593
38 6.5 1.1 1.138 -0.303 1.138 3.876 2.970 2.941 0.981
39 7.4 1.1 1.185 -0.215 1.185 4.697 3.381 3.710 -9.730
40 8.4 1.1 1.210 -0.222 1.210 4.672 3.838 3.769 1.819
41 9.4 1.1 1.289 -0.188 1.289 5.236 4.295 4.499 -4.739
42 10.4 1.1 1.394 -0.262 1.394 4.609 4.752 4.284 9.859
Figure 4.5 Predicted vs. measured cross-sectional areas of bead

Figure 4.6 Surface plot of bead height
Figure 4.7 Surface plot of bead width
Based on the values in Table 4.1, a second degree regression model was generated for
bead height as a function of wire and torch speeds as,
h = C1vw2 + C2vt2 + C3vwvt + C4 vw + C5vt + C6 (4.7)

where,
C1 = 0.29945E-02 C4 = 0.18947E+00
C2 = 0.25610E+01 C5 = -0.49778E+01
C3 = -0.13833E+00 C6 = 0.30299E+01
The regression model was generated using LABFit software. The surface plot of the
same is given in Figure 4.6. From the value of h, w can be obtained using Equation 4.5.
Figure 4.7 shows the surface plot of the width. This helps the user in identifying the bead
shape corresponding to the selected wire and torch speeds.
Since, w and hence the bead shape can be predicted from the measurement of h, there
is no need to elaborately measure the cross section by sectioning, painting, scanning,
measuring the points. Hence, in the subsequent experiments, only h was measured using a
plunger dial gauge to predict the corresponding bead profile. This method was used to
generate the database for a few other wires such as 1.2mm solid Aluminium wire
(ER5356), 0.8mm Mild Steel wire using CMT equipment are given in Appendix A and
Appendix B.
4.3 Modelling of Multi-Bead Deposition
In HLM, a layer is built by depositing series of overlapping beads followed by face

milling to remove the scallops. Layer thickness, t is the thickness of the deposited layer
after face milling. Yield, η is the ratio of the volume of the layer remaining after face
milling to the volume of the metal deposited. Yield reflects the material utilization of the
process, very similar to casting. Yield, η and layer thickness, t are the main output
parameters in HLM. The model of the multi-bead deposition process developed here will
be useful to predict the layer thickness and yield from the process parameters and height
of the single bead. This model also helps in the identification of the optimal process
parameters corresponding to maximum yield as well as minimization of heat input.
4.3.1 Initial model
Initially, a simple overlapping parabolic pattern, as shown in Figure 4.8, was assumed for
multi-bead deposition. As defined earlier, h and w are the height and width of the bead
obtained from single bead deposition experiments. In multi-deposition, one needs to
additionally consider the step over increment (p). In this model, it is assumed that:
• every track has the same cross-sectional profile;

• the parabolic bead profile is unchanged during the overlapping process;
• the loss due to spatter is negligible.
Under these assumptions, the effective layer thickness, t will be at the point where the
two parabolas intersect each other, as depicted in Figure 4.8. Thus from Equation 4.2,
p
effective layer thickness, t is obtained by substituting x = as
2
⎡ ⎛ p ⎞2 ⎤
t = h ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ w ⎠ ⎦⎥
Figure 4.8 Bead formation in initial model
In order to verify the above assumptions, a few multi-bead depositions were carried
out. A bead pattern with three overlapping beads was deposited on a MS substrate of
100mm x 60mm for various values of stepover increments, keeping wire and torch speeds
constant at 7.4m/min and 0.9m/min respectively. The plate for the step over increment of
4.0mm is shown in Figure 4.9. The photograph of the cross-sectional profile of the multi-
bead pattern was then obtained similar to the single bead experiments. Figure 4.10 shows
the theoretical multi-bead profile superimposed over this photograph. As can be inferred
from this figure, this model matches well except at the overlapping zones. The model’s
accuracy at the overlapping zone is very critical since this zone decides the layer
thickness. The deviation observed here is because this model does not account for the
duplication of the material in the overlapping zone. Thus the model is improved by
incorporating a fillet between the parabolas. This improvised model is presented in the
next section.
Figure 4.9 Deposited pattern to model verification
Figure 4.10 Bead cross-section for initial model
4.3.2 Improved model
In the initial model discussed above, it was assumed that the parabolic bead profile is
unchanged in the overlapping process. However analysis of the cross-section of the
deposited multi-beads showed that the profile changes substantially at the point of
intersection of the two parabolas. This is because there is an overlap of materials of both
beads which is physically impossible. Thus, an improved model which assumes that the
overlapping volume fillets the valley between the parabolas is proposed (Figure 4.11).
Figure 4.12a depicts the overlapping volume between consecutive beads and the valley
between them. When the pitch is large, the overlapping volume is less than the volume of
the valley and hence the fillet is concave in nature, as seen in Figure 4.12b. As the pitch
decreases, the overlapping volume increases with commensurate decrease in the volume
of the valley. At some point when these volumes become equal, the fillet will degenerate
into a flat line (Figure 4.12c). Further decrease in the pitch results in a convex fillet which
flows beyond the peaks of both the parabolas as shown in Figure 4.12d.
Figure 4.11 Bead formation in improved model
(a) Volumes of overlap & valley for a given bead (b) Overlap volume less than volume of valley
(c) Overlap volume equal to volume of valley (d) Overlap volume more than volume of valley
Figure 4.12 Different possible bead overlaps
Figure 4.13 depicts two consecutive parabolic beads along with a fillet. Let p1 and
p2 be the two consecutive parabolic beads and c the fillet between them. The geometric
Equations of p1 , p2 and c can be written as follows:
⎡ ⎛ 2 ⎞2 ⎤
p1 : y = h ⎢1 − ⎜ x ⎟ ⎥ (4.8)
⎣⎢ ⎝ w ⎠ ⎦⎥
⎡ ⎛2 ⎞ ⎤
2
p2 : y = h ⎢1 − ⎜ ( x − p ) ⎟ ⎥ (4.9)
⎢⎣ ⎝ w ⎠ ⎥⎦
2
⎛ p⎞
⎜ x − ⎟ + ( y − m) = R
2 2
c : (4.10)
⎝ 2⎠
where R is the radius of the fillet and m is height of its center. As before, h and w are the
height and width of the bead obtained from single bead deposition experiments. It is
required to find the values of R and m for given h, w and p.
As the overlapping volume fillets the two parabolas, Circle c touches the parabolas
p1 and p2 tangentially at points A and B respectively. Thus, the slopes of p1 and c at A
are equal. Let k be the x-coordinate of the point A. The slope of p1 at A is be given by,
⎛ dy ⎞ 8h 8hk
⎜ ⎟ =− 2 x =− 2 (4.11)
⎝ dx ⎠ A w A w
The slope of the circle, c is given by
⎛ p⎞ dy
⎜ x − ⎟ + ( y − m) = 0 (4.12)
⎝ 2⎠ dx
Figure 4.13 Geometry of the bead overlap
Combining Equations 4.11 and 4.12 at point A, we have,
⎛ p⎞ ⎛ 8hk ⎞
⎜ x − ⎟ + ( y − m) ⎜ − 2 ⎟ = 0 (4.13)
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ w ⎠
As the point A lies on p1 , its coordinates are given by
⎛ 4hk 2 ⎞
A = ⎜ k, h − 2 ⎟ (4.14)
⎝ w ⎠
Therefore Equation 4.13 becomes,
⎛ p⎞ ⎛ 4hk 2 ⎞ ⎛ 8hk ⎞
⎜ k − +
⎟ ⎜ h − 2
− m⎟⎜ − 2 ⎟ = 0 (4.15)
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ w ⎠⎝ w ⎠
As the point A also lies on the circle c , substituting the coordinates of A in the Equation
4.10 and rearranging the terms,
2
4hk 2 ⎛ p⎞
m = h − 2 ∓ R2 − ⎜ k − ⎟ (4.16)
w ⎝ 2⎠
Substituting this values of m in Equations 4.15,
p ⎞ ⎛⎜ p ⎞ ⎞⎟ ⎛ 8hk ⎞
2
⎛ ⎛
⎜ k − ⎟ + ± R 2
− ⎜ k − ⎟ ⎜− ⎟=0
⎝ 2⎠ ⎜ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎟ ⎝ w2 ⎠
⎝ ⎠
2
p ⎞ ⎛⎜ p ⎞ ⎞⎟ ⎛ 8hk ⎞
2 2 2
⎛ ⎛
⇒ ⎜k − ⎟ = ± R −⎜k − ⎟
2
⎜− ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎜ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎟ ⎝ w2 ⎠
⎝ ⎠
( )
⇒ 256h 2 k 4 − 256 ph2 k 3 + 64h 2 p 2 − 256h 2 R 4 + 4w4 k 2 − 4 pw4 k + 4w4 p 2 = 0 (4.17)
As the filleted volume is the displaced overlapping molten metal, we have,
Area (ABG) = Area (FEG)

⇒ Area (ADG) = Area (EIG)
⇒ Area (ADG) = Area (FIG) (4.18)
Area (ADG) = Area below circular segment AD - Area below parabolic segment AG
p /2 ⎛ 2 ⎞ p /2
⎜ m − R 2 − ⎛⎜ x − p ⎞⎟ ⎟ dx − ⎛⎜ h − 4h2 x 2 ⎞⎟ dx
= ∫ ⎜ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎟ ∫k ⎝ w ⎠
k
⎝ ⎠
p /2
⎛ p⎞ ⎛⎛ p⎞⎞
⎜ x− ⎟ 2 2 ⎜ ⎜ x− ⎟⎟
4h 2⎠ ⎛ p⎞ R 2 ⎠⎟
= mx − hx + 2 x3 − ⎝ R2 − ⎜ x − ⎟ − sin −1 ⎜ ⎝
3w 2 ⎝ 2⎠ 2 ⎜ R ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠k
=
( 2k − p ) 4 R 2 − ( 2k − p ) +
2 R2 ⎛ 2k − p ⎞ hp
sin −1 ⎜ +
3
−
4hk 3
⎟ 2
8 2 ⎝ 2 R ⎠ 6w 3w2
mp hp
+ − − mk + hk
2 2
Area (FIG) = Area below parabolic segment GF

w /2
⎛ 4h ⎞
= ∫ ⎜⎝ h − w
p /2
2
x 2 ⎟ dx
⎠
p /2
4h 3
= hx − x
3w2 k
hw hp hp3
= − + 2
3 2 6w
Substituting these expressions of the areas in Equation 4.18,
( 2k − p ) 4 R − ( 2k − p )
2
+
R2 −1 ⎛ 2k − p ⎞ 4hk 3 mp hw
⎟− + − − mk + hk = 0
2
sin ⎜ 2 (4.19)
8 2 ⎝ 2 R ⎠ 3w 2 3
From these three Equations, viz., Equations 4.16, 4.17 and 4.19, the three unknowns, viz.,
m, k and R, can be solved. As an analytic solution is too complex, numerical approach
presented below has been adopted.
Numerical Solution
In certain scientific applications, it is very difficult to find analytical solution to a set of
Equations. Numerical analysis is usually adopted to find solutions to such hard problems.
Numerical analysis does not seek exact answers; instead it attempts to obtain inexact
solutions within the desired resolution. Starting from an initial guess, numerical methods
form successive approximations that converge to the closest solution within a given limit.
Owing to these advantages, numerical approach was adopted to solve Equations 4.16,
4.17 and 4.19 to obtain the values of m, k and R. Finding out their values helps us in
calculating the layer thickness, t and yield η of the multi-bead deposition which are our
primary interest.
Infeasible cases
(a) k ≤ ( − w / 2 ) (b) k > ( p / 2)

Feasible cases
(c) 0 ≤ k ≤ ( p / 2) (d) ( − w / 2 ) < k < 0
Figure 4.14 Different possible roots of k
Let Δ1 and Δ 2 be the LHS expressions of Equations 4.17 and 4.19 respectively. Thus,
Δ1 = 256h 2 k 4 − 256 ph 2 k 3 + ( 64h2 p 2 − 256h 2 R 4 + 4w4 ) k 2 − 4 pw4 k + 4w4 p 2 (4.20)
Δ2 =
( 2k − p ) 4 R 2 − ( 2k − p ) +
2 R2 ⎛ 2k − p ⎞ 4hk
sin −1 ⎜ −
3
+
mp hw
− − mk + hk (4.21)
⎟ 2
8 2 ⎝ 2 R ⎠ 3w 2 3
where m as given by Equation 4.16 is,
2
4hk 2 ⎛ p⎞
m = h − 2 ∓ R2 − ⎜ k − ⎟
w ⎝ 2⎠
As Equation 4.17 is a forth-degree polynomial, four distinct roots of k as shown in

Figure 4.14 are possible. Cases shown in Figures 4.14a and 4.14b are physically
infeasible as the excess material is trapped inside the beads, rather than overflowing. The
cases shown in Figure 4.14c and 4.14d are physically feasible, the former corresponding
to larger pitches and hence concave fillet and the latter corresponding to smaller pitches
and hence convex fillet (also see Figure 4.12). For a given combination of h, w, and p,
one can determine whether the fillet is concave or convex by comparing the volumes of
overlap and valley. Interestingly each of the four cases can be distinguished from their
feasible range of k as shown in Figure 4.14. For instance, k ∈ [ 0, p 2] refers to the
concave fillet and k ∈ [ − w 2, 0] refers to the convex fillet.
Figure 4.15 shows the flowchart of the algorithm used for finding the numerical
solution. h, w and p are the inputs. p being greater than w means that the beads do not
overlap. Hence the algorithm will assign the layer thickness, t as zero. The algorithm then
compares the overlapping area HGJ and the area of the valley EFG to determine whether
the fillet is concave or convex. If it is convex, then t will be assigned value of h. In
reality, t will be marginally greater than h since the third and subsequent beads too will
influence the layer thickness. If both these cases do not occur, then the bead is concave.
For the concave fillet, first k, R and m are calculated. There are two for loops, the
outer one for R in the range of [ 0, Rmax ] and the inner one for k in the range of [ 0, p 2] .
Rmax is limited to 100mm, a reasonably high value. The increment used for R and k is ε1 ,
taken as 0.001mm. The inner loop is broken when Δ1 < ε 2 , where ε 2 is the error margin
which is taken as 0.00001. Similarly, the outer loop is broken when Δ 2 < ε 2 . Having
obtained k and R, m is calculated using Equation 4.16. The layer thickness, t is (m-R).
After calculating t, the yield, η is calculated as:
Area (OPQL) tp 3tp

η= = =
Area (MHF) 2 hw 2hw (4.22)
3
Figure 4.15 Flowchart of algorithm for numerical analysis

(a) Yield for various values of stepover increment
(b) Yield for various values of torch speed
(c) Yield for various values of wire speed

Figure 4.16 Surface plot of yield
Layer thickness, t and yield η are the final output given by the algorithm. Figure 4.16
shows the surface plots of yield generated from this algorithm for various values of wire
speed, torch speed and stepover increment generated using MatLab.
4.3.3 Validation
The multi-bead profile obtained through the improved model was superimposed over the
actual photograph in Figure 4.17. The actual cross section was taken from the earlier
experiments carried out for verifying the initial model. It can be seen that the actual and
proposed profiles match very well. This demonstrates that the excess material overflows
to form the fillet.
Figure 4.17 Bead cross-section for improved model
A series of experiments were also carried out to further validate the proposed model.
A rectangular layer of 50mm x 48mm was deposited for various combinations of wire
speed, torch-speed and stepover increment (Figure 4.18). After deposition, face milling
was done at different Z levels in steps of 0.05mm. The point the scalloped surface became
completely flat gives the thickness of the deposited layer. Figure 4.19 shows the various
stages of the deposited pattern before completely getting flattened. For a wire of
diameter, d w , yield, η is given by:
area of layer . t
η= ×100 %
π
( length of path / vt ) . vw . ⎛⎜ d w2 ⎞⎟ (4.23)
⎝4 ⎠
Table 4.2 gives the measured and predicted layer thickness, t and yield η for various
values of wire speed, vw , torch speed, vt and stepover increment, p. The predicted vs.
measured area plot is shown in Figure 4.20. As all the measured values cluster around the
45° line in this figure, the model may be considered valid.
Table 4.2 Comparison of measured and predicted values of layer thickness and yield
Process
Layer thickness, t Yield, η
S.No Parameters
vw vw p Measured Predicted Error Measured Predicted Error
1 5.9 0.70 1.5 1.50 1.40 6.67 51.53 52.39 -1.66
2 5.9 0.70 2.0 1.37 1.40 -2.19 62.15 69.85 -12.38
3 5.9 0.85 1.5 1.25 1.13 9.60 52.15 51.27 1.68
4 5.9 0.85 2.0 1.18 1.13 4.24 65.01 68.36 -5.16
5 5.9 1.00 1.5 1.11 1.00 9.91 54.48 53.27 2.22
6 5.9 1.00 2.0 1.04 1.00 3.85 67.40 71.02 -5.37
7 7.4 0.70 1.5 1.72 1.57 8.72 47.11 46.97 0.31
8 7.4 0.70 2.0 1.67 1.57 5.99 60.41 62.63 -3.68
9 7.4 0.85 1.5 1.51 1.27 15.89 50.23 45.9 8.61
10 7.4 0.85 2.0 1.37 1.27 7.30 60.17 61.2 -1.71
11 7.4 1.00 1.5 1.31 1.10 16.03 51.26 46.87 8.57
12 7.4 1.00 2.0 1.16 1.10 5.17 59.94 62.5 -4.27
13 8.9 0.70 1.5 2.06 1.77 14.08 46.92 44.09 6.03
14 8.9 0.70 2.0 1.86 1.77 4.84 55.94 58.79 -5.10
15 8.9 0.85 1.5 1.69 1.43 15.38 46.74 43.21 7.55
16 8.9 0.85 2.0 1.52 1.43 5.92 55.51 57.61 -3.78
17 8.9 1.00 1.5 1.45 1.23 15.17 47.18 43.65 7.48
18 8.9 1.00 2.0 1.35 1.23 8.89 58.00 58.21 -0.36
Figure 4.18 Deposited patters to measure layer thickness experimentally

(a) Surface at the start (b) Partially flattened surface (c) Final flattened surface
Figure 4.19 Various stages of a deposited pattern before flattening
Figure 4.20 Predicted vs measured yield for multi-bead deposition
4.3.4 Optimization of the process parameters
The modelling of the multi-bead deposition helps in calculating yield as a function of the
three process parameters. Wire speed, torch speed and stepover increment are selected
based on the following criteria respectively:
i. Minimum rate of heat input

ii. Heat distribution over a wider area and higher precision
iii. Maximum yield.
Wire speed is an indication of the rate of heat input. In order to minimize distortion,
internal stresses and machining allowance, it is desirable to have the lowest possible wire
speed. Note that this is in contrast with the joining processes. Once the wire speed is
fixed, the area of the bead cross section is influenced only by the torch speed. If the torch
speed is more, the bead is finer and vice-versa. An added advantage of higher torch speed
is the distribution of heat over a wider area. Therefore the lowest wire speed and the
highest torch speed within their stable operating ranges are chosen. When these two
speeds are frozen, the bead geometry is fixed. The only parameter left to be selected is the
stepover increment.
The fillet is concave when the stepover increment is large. As the stepover increment
is decreased, the fillet degenerates into a straight line at some point i.e., R = ∞ after
which it becomes convex. When the fillet is flat, minimum face milling is involved thus
resulting in maximum yield. This corresponds to the condition (also see Figure 4.13),
Area (HGJ) = Area (EFG)

⇒ Area (HLG) = Area (EIG)
⇒ Area (HLG) = Area (FIG)
p /2 w /2
⇒ ∫ ( h − y ) dx = ∫
0 p /2
ydx
p /2 w /2
⇒ ∫0
hdx = ∫
0
ydx
hp hw
⇒ =
2 3
2
⇒ p= w (4.24)
3
Thus, the optimal stepover increment equals two-thirds of the width. For a given wire
and torch speed, bead width can be calculated from the database available from single
bead experiments.
Illustration
Consider the case of weld-deposition with MS wire (ER70S6) of diameter 0.8mm. The
operating range of wire and torch speed respectively are 4.7 – 10.4 m/min and 0.6 – 1.1
m/min, as obtained from single-bead experiments described in Section 4.2. As per the
earlier discussions, the lowest possible wire speed and the highest possible torch speed of
vw = 4.7 m/min and vt = 1.1 m/min are selected. By substituting these values in Equation
4.7, the bead height, h, was obtained as 0.893 mm. The width of this bead based on
Equation 4.5 is calculated as, 3.601 mm. Thus, from Equation 4.24, the optimal stepover
increment is obtained as 2.401 mm. Hence, the three process parameters to be set to
achieve optimal conditions for a 0.8mm MS wire are:
vw = 4.7 m/min vt = 1.1 m/min p = 2.4 mm
t is taken h under maximum yield conditions. vw and vt are set on the welding
equipment. vt , p and t are set in the HLMSoft.
4.4 Summary
While penetration and productivity are the major considerations in joining applications,
less heat input, higher resolution, wider heat distribution and higher yield assume greater
importance in HLM. Accordingly, wire speed, torch speed and stepover increment are
identified as the primary process parameters.
The bead geometry was modeled assuming it as a parabola. This was validated
through a series of single-bead experiments. The advantage of this model is that the bead
geometry can be inferred by merely measuring its height in place of cumbersome
sectioning, painting, scanning, measuring the points, fitting a curve etc. to arrive at the
bead geometry. The results of these experiments are archived in the form of the surface
plots for bead height and width with respect to v w and vt .
Prediction of layer thickness and optimization of yield are the major output
parameters. A multi-bead deposition model was proposed to predict the value of layer
thickness and yield as a function of the three process parameters. It was assumed that the
overlap volume between two beads fillets the valley between them. This model was
subsequently validated through a set of experiments.
Minimum rate of heat input, wider heat distribution, higher resolution and optimum
yield are the most desired criteria in weld-deposition. Minimum possible wire speed,
maximum possible torch speed and a stepover increment of two-third of the bead width
are thus recommended. These values form the basis of all further investigations in HLM.
Chapter 5
Characterization and Capabilities of HLM
5.1 Introduction
Unlike the subtractive process where the object is carved out of a billet, in HLM, the
material is added where required. While the characteristics of a billet are closer to that of
a forging, the properties of the HLM object are closer to a casting. In fact, some
researchers refer to this additive method as micro-casting [36]. Shape welding, a popular
process to achieve bulky shapes through welding, too is one such additive manufacturing
method [90]. As castings have bulky cross-sections and occur in closed volume, they are
prone for filling and solidification defects such as hot spots, cold shut etc. As HLM is free
from these defects, its properties are likely to be better than that of a casting. In other
words, it will be inbetween casting and forging. The properties of the HLM matrix can be
further improved through an appropriate thermal and/or mechanical treatment such as Hot
Iso-static Pressing (HIP) or simply a heat treatment. The properties of the HLM matrix
are analyzed in the first part of this chapter. These are compared with the properties of the
solid billet.
HLM has a wide range of metallurgical and geometric capabilities. Any metal that is
amenable for weld-deposition can be used in HLM. It is possible to even build composite
objects. In contrast to the powder-bed technologies, HLM has severe limitations in terms
of its geometric capabilities owing to the lack of a support mechanism. In spite of this, it
is possible to build fairly complex shapes through a combination of deposition mode
(planar/non-planar), slicing method (uniform/adaptive) and kinematics (3-axis/5-axis).
Investigations carried out on these material and geometric divergences are presented in
the second part of this chapter.
Chapter 5 Characterization and Capabilities of HLM 5-2
(a) Location-1 (b) Location-2

Figure 5.1 Microstructure of HLM matrix
5.2 Characterization of HLM Objects
The following properties of the matrix built using HLM are analyzed:
i. Porosity
ii. Hardness
iii. Tensile strength.
These analyses were done for a copper coated Mild Steel filler wire, ER70S-6, of
diameter 0.8mm. Table 5.4 lists its chemical composition.
5.2.1 Porosity
One of the major problems with powder-bed technologies is the porosity. Therefore, they
are hardly suitable for components as the pores act as stress concentration points. In the
case of dies and moulds, which require mirror finish (Ra = 0.0002mm), the porosity
drastically reduces its polishability. The tools built using powder-bed technologies such
as SLS are impregnated with copper to close the pores on the surface to improve the
polishability. As HLM involves melting and solidification, its matrix will be free from
porosity. This was ascertained by studying the microstructure at different places using a
Zeiss Stemi 2000-C Stereo Microscope. The microstructure of the matrix, shown in Figure
5.1 was found to be uniform and dense, i.e., it was free from porosity and voids.
Therefore, HLM can be used even for making forging dies.
5.2.2 Hardness
The life of a die or mould is largely dependent on its surface hardness. Hardness
measurement is also used as a non-destructive method of assessing the tensile strength of
components due to its direct correlation. As the object is built in layers in HLM, the lower
the layer, the more are the thermal cycles it undergoes. Figure 5.2 shows the variation of
the hardness along the build direction. The variation in hardness can be attributed to the
number of thermal cycles a given layer undergoes.
In order to further investigate the effect of thermal cycles on hardness, three more
specimens with varying number of layers were made (Figure 5.3). Figure 5.4 plots the
hardness of a layer against the number of thermal cycles it is subjected to in the form of
subsequent weld-deposition. It was observed that hardness of the material is the highest in
the top most layer. It falls rapidly within a first few thermal cycles, about 5 layers in this
case, before stabilizing. In other words, thermal cycles during weld-deposition will have
negligible effect on the material properties after around 10mm/5 layers. These were
verified using a simplified model of the deposition process. Thermal analysis of
deposition over a simple block was carried out using Fluent software. The top surface
was assumed to be at the melting point of the metal and the bottom surface was
maintained at ambient temperature. Convective heat transfer to the atmosphere and
conductive heat transfer into the block were assumed. The resulting thermal distribution
is shown in Figure 5.5. This revealed that the temperature falls below the phase change
temperature of steel within 10mm from the surface on which weld-deposition is being
carried out, which confirms the fact that hardness variations below this thickness are
negligible. The following are the significant inferences based on the above experiments:
• The maximum hardness is dictated by the carbon equivalent.

Figure 5.2 Hardness variation along Z direction
Figure 5.3 Specimen for testing the hardness variation
Figure 5.4 Hardness vs. thermal cycles for various heights

Figure 5.5 Thermal distribution along vertical plane in a rectangular block
Figure 5.6 Dimensions of ASTM A370 test specimen
• The hardness variation exists only in the final layers. It falls rapidly within a thickness
of few layers, about 5 layers in this case. In other words, the interior matrix has
negligible hardness variation.
• The hardness of the core is independent of the number of thermal cycles, irrespective
of whether all the layers are deposited continuously or with breaks inbetween.
5.2.3 Tensile strength
The tensile strength of the HLM matrix was analyzed using ASTM A370 standard. This
standard is exclusively meant for fully-welded objects and hence is applicable to HLM.
The geometry of the tensile specimen specified in this standard is shown in Figure 5.6.
These specimens were prepared in all the three direction viz., build direction, torch
direction and step over direction. Four specimens are prepared for each of X and Y
directions and two are prepared for the Z direction. The XY specimens were cut out from
a block of 150mm x 120mm x 30mm as shown in Figure 5.7a. The Z specimens were cut
from another block of 20mm x 15mm x 120mm (Figure 5.7b). These blocks built are
given in Figure 5.7c. From both these blocks, the ten specimens were obtained using
sawing and milling. These specimens were tested in EZ50 universal testing machine
manufactured by Lloyd Instruments. Figure 5.7d & e show these specimens before and
after testing respectively. The stress-strain diagrams were obtained; the diagram
corresponding to Specimen-1 is given in Figure 5.8 as a sample.
The yield and ultimate strengths are the two important mechanical properties to be
inferred from these tensile tests. These values for all the 10 specimens are summarized in
Table 5.1. Furthermore, the variation of the yield strength along the three different
directions is depicted in Figure 5.9. It was found that the average yield and ultimate
strength varied only by 3% and 0.6% respectively between the torch and step over
directions, implying negligible variation of strength in XY plane. However, the same for
vertical direction varied by 20% and 13%. This is due to the layered manufacturing.
Table 5.1 Tensile strength of the HLM object in different directions

Tensile Properties (MPa)
Direction Specimen
Yield Strength Ultimate Strength
1 431 553
2 487 (highest) 642 (highest)
Torch direction
3 352 506
4 396 528
5 411 551
6 379 538
Welding direction
7 465 604
8 468 548
9 335 (lowest) 486 (lowest)
Vertical direction
10 338 489
Average 406 544
Table 5.2 Variation of tensile strengths among directions and w.r.t. to a billet
Tensile strengths of the Tensile strengths of the % reduction of HLM
Direction HLM matrix (MPa) billet (MPa) matrix w.r.t billet
Yield Ultimate Yield Ultimate Yield Ultimate
XY plane 424 559 01 02
420 550
Z direction 336 487 20 11
% variation between
20 13 Not applicable
XY and Z directions
(b) Plan of specimens

(a) Plan of specimens for X and Y directions
for Z direction
(c) Deposited blocks
(d) Specimen before testing (e) Specimen after testing

Figure 5.7 Specimen for tensile testing
A MS billet of the matching composition (420MC steel confirming to DIN EN 10149-

2) has a yield strength of 420 MPa and ultimate strength of 550 MPa. The Table 5.2 gives
the comparison of the tensile strengths of the HLM matrix with that of the billet. The
strengths of the HLM matrix are comparable to that of the billet in XY plane. However,
the Z direction is weaker by about 20% in yield strength and 11% in ultimate strength.
This was because of insufficient penetration. Penetration increases with the current and
hence current also influences the strength of the matrix in the vertical direction.
Load (N)
Metals, Tensile Setup Tensile Strength
Gauge Length: 32.0 mm
Area: About 6.50 mm x 5.00 mm

Upper Yield
15000 surya-1
Proof Strength Non-Proportional Elongation
Linear Portion End
Fracture
10000
5000
Linear Portion Start
Preload
000
Proof Strength Total Elongation
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0

Machine Extension (mm)
Figure 5.8 Sample (specimen-1) stress-strain diagrams obtained from the tensile tests
Figure 5.9 Ultimate strength in the three different directions
Further experiments were conducted to study the influence of current on the tensile
properties along Z direction using vertical tensile specimen for different values of current.
Figure 5.10 plots the ultimate strength of the specimen for different values of current.
Thus, it is clear that the tensile strength of the HLM matrix can be further improved by
increasing the current. Therefore, it is possible to achieve same tensile properties in all the
three direction with suitably increasing the current. The strength can be still enhanced
through processes like heat treatment and/or HIP; HIP improves the strength substantially
due to the densification.
Ultimate
Current
strength
(A)
(MPa)
70 455
80 468
90 494
100 524
Figure 5.10 Ultimate strength in the vertical direction for different values of current
5.3 Feasibility of HLM for a Variety of Metals
Any metal amenable for welding can be used in HLM. Therefore, it is possible to build
objects out of a variety of steels, Al alloys, Cu alloys, Ni alloys and Ti alloys. As MS wire
is the cheapest, most of the feasibility studies were carried out using MS. However, the
same approach is valid for any other metal. As Titanium is highly reactive, it requires a
special kind of masking or an envelope purged with Argon.
The following are the various components and parameters that should be changed for
weld-deposition of a different metal or different filler wire size:
• On weld-deposition unit
ο Wire rollers
ο Liner of welding hose
ο Contact tip
ο Gas and its flow rate
ο Welding mode.
• In process parameters
ο Stable operating range of wire and torch speeds
ο Optimal stepover increment
ο Nozzle gap.
The wire is pushed by a pair of rollers or pinch wheels. In case of any unexpected
resistance to its flow through the liner, it is preferable for it to slip from the rollers rather
than get fed and clogged. Therefore, the rollers are pressed against each other with just
the sufficient force. This force is transferred to the wire through the grooves on the roller.
There are different types of grooves on the rollers to suit the strength of the filler wire.
For instance, Aluminium is softer than steel and hence they demand different types of
grooves. Furthermore, the filler wire may be monolithic (solid) or composite (metal-cored
or flux-cored). Accordingly, the pressure that can be tolerated by the wire will vary. For
instance, flux-cored wire cannot withstand the pressure that may be acceptable to a solid
wire. Fronius recommends three pairs of rollers as shown in Table 5.3. Solid steel wires,
being stronger, have contact only at three points from a pair of flat and trapezoidal rollers.
Aluminum wires, being softer, require semi-circular grooves that give full contact and
hence less deformation. Flux-cored wires, having a pasty core, too use semi-circular
grooves but in addition have knurling in the grooves to improve feeding; the knurling
prevents the squeezing out of the flux. In these softer wires, deformation-free feeding is
given more preference to clogging tendency.
The liner also needs to be changed when the wire size or material is changed.
Furthermore, softer materials such as Aluminium wires require graphite-lined liners for
reducing the friction. The contact tip also shall match the diameter of the wire.
82%Ar + 18%CO2 for steel and 100%Ar for Aluminium are preferred masking gas
compositions. The gas flow rate is set at 10 times the filler wire diameter as a thumb rule.
For each combination of the filler wire, its diameter and masking gas used, the shape
of the pulse (ramps, slope, peak and average values etc.) and the nature of synergy have
to be programmed. These are supplied by the welding equipment manufacturer. The
appropriate program should be selected. If such a program does not exist in the library, it
may have to be custom-developed.
For each new wire material, experiments have to be carried to identify the stable
operating range of wire and torch speeds and the optimal stepover increment.
Experimental data to arrive at the optimal process parameters for AlMg5Cr are given in
Appendix A. Table 5.4 gives the list of materials for which have been used in HLM so
far.
Table 5.3 Types of rollers for various wire materials

Wire Type
Mild Steel Aluminum Flux-cored
Roller Top Flat Semi-circular Knurled & Semi-circular
Type Bottom Trapezoid Semi-circular Knurled & Semi-circular
Icon
Photograph
5.4 Geometric Complexity Possible in HLM
When the next layer substantially exceeds the extents of the previous one, a support
mechanism is required. However, it can overhang by a small amount with respect to the
previous layer. This feature is used in minimizing support structures in FDM. The same is
exploited in HLM to build overhanging features such as conformal cooling ducts without
any support mechanism.
Table 5.4 Filler wire materials used in HLM

Wire material
Description Low carbon Low carbon
Exotic steel Exotic steel Tool steel Aluminium
steel steel
Corodur OK OK
MW-1 P20 MC-T AlMg5Cr,
from Tubrodur Tubrodur
Commercial name from from Cor- from
Diffusion 15.41 from 15.52 from
ESAB Met ESAB
engineers ESAB ESAB
AISI Specifications ER70S-6 E70T4 EN 14700 EN 14700 AISI P-20 ER5356
Wire Dia (mm) 0.8 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.2 1.2
Type of wire Solid Flux-cored Flux-cored Flux-cored Metal-cored Solid
82%Ar + Self Self Self 82%Ar + 100%Ar
Masking gas
18%CO2 shielding shielding shielding 18%CO2
Tensile Yield 430 130
Strength Ultimate 595 210
28-36 55-60 30-40
Hardness
HRC HRC HRC
C 0.22 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.32
Mn 0.3 1.4 1.4 1.2 0.85 0.05-0.2
Si 0.3 0.8 0.8 0.3 0.5 0.25
P 0.012 0.01
S 0.007 0.01
Cr 2.6 2.6 5.0 1.7 0.05-0.20
Mo 1.2 0.45
Composition
Al 1.3 1.4 1.4 0.6
Ti 0.06-0.2
Cu 0.1
Mg 4.5-5.5
Zn 0.10
Be 0.0008
Fe 0.4
The direction of weld-deposition plays an important factor for building slant walls.
Consider building a slant wall of 20mm high as shown in the Figure 5.11 in the following
two possible manners:
i. Deposition starting from the unsupported side and ending at the supported side
(Figure 5.11a)
ii. Deposition starting from the supported side and ending at the unsupported side
(Figure 5.11b).
(a) Overhang bead in the ending (b) Overhang bead in the beginning
Figure 5.11 Different directions possible for building slant walls
As can be inferred from Figure 5.12, the spatter in the former is more than the latter.
This is because when the overhanging bead is deposited in the beginning, the entire
surface of the previous layer is available to it; whereas only a small space is available
when the overhanging bead is deposited at the end. Therefore, the subsequent
experiments of building overhanging features start by depositing the overhanging bead
first.
Any layer consists of contouring and area-filling paths. So the weld-deposition has
two possibilities, depending on the order of their deposition:
i. Contouring followed by area-filling

ii. Area-filling followed by contouring
Figure 5.12 Deposited patterns to analyze the effect of weld-direction
Figure 5.13 Slant walls built using HLM
Figure 5.14 Inverted frustum of cone built through 3-axis deposition

The first option is preferred since the contours act as the containers for the area-
filling. It is interesting to note that this option is same as the favorable option for building
the slant walls.
Experiments were carried to establish the maximum overhang that can be achieved
without support. 20mm high walls with inclination angles of 5°, 10°, 15°, 20°, 25°, 30°
and 35° were built in layers of 1mm (Figure 5.13). These correspond to the overhangs of
0.087, 0.176, 0.268, 0.364, 0.466, 0.577 and 0.700mm respectively. The quality of build
was found satisfactory upto a maximum inclination of 30°. Thus, a maximum overhang of
0.6mm (i.e., tan-130°) is possible.
Taking advantage of this characteristic, the following objects, in the increasing order
of their complexity, were built:
• Uniform overhang in a single direction

• Two uniform overhangs converging together
• Two uniform overhangs converging together and rising in the vertical direction
• Ducts with curved cross-section.
Uniform overhang in a single direction

Just as a slant wall of 30° inclination was built, an inverted frustum of cone of height
60mm with an included angle of 30° shown in Figure 5.14 could be built in uniform
layers of 1mm.
Two uniform overhangs converging together

The sweep of a triangular section along a curved path consists of two curved slant walls
merging at the top as shown in Figure 5.15. The height of the triangle is 18mm and its
included angle at the apex is 60°; the wall thickness is 5mm. this too could be built in
uniform layers of 1mm. this is actually a forerunner for building conformal cooling ducts
of triangular cross-section.
Figure 5.15 A triangular sweep in XY plane built through 3-axis deposition
Figure 5.16 A helical triangular duct built using through 3-axis deposition
Two uniform overhangs converging together and rising in the vertical direction
A conformal cooling duct, with a cross-section of an equilateral triangle of side 12mm
inside a cylinder (OD=140mm; ID=80mm; height=40mm) is shown in Figure 5.16. This
cooling duct is helical with a pitch of 30mm. This too was built in uniform layers of
1mm. This feature is very attractive for injection moulds which hitherto were possible
with only powder-bed technologies. Note that even circular conformal cooling ducts can
be build using HLM in adaptive layers. However, it may not be economical.
Figure 5.17 A hallow torus built through 3-axis deposition and adaptive slicing
Figure 5.18 Adaptive slicing used for building the semi-torus
Ducts with curved cross-section

A hollow semi-torus (OD=140mm; ID=60mm; thickness=6mm) is shown in Figure 5.17.
Unlike earlier cases, the slope of the surface is continuously varying. Thus, the object had
to be built in adaptive layers. As inferred from Figure 5.18, the layer thickness decreases
upwards such that the overhang does not exceed 0.6mm. Accordingly, the Z coordinates
of the layers are [1.00, 2.00, 3.00, 4.00, 5.00, 6.00, 7.00, 7.91, 8.68, 9.36, 9.95, 10.49,
10.97, 11.39, 11.78, 12.13, 12.44, 12.72, 12.96, 13.18, 13.37, 13.54, 13.67, 13.79, 13.88,
13.94, 13.98, 14.00]. Note that wire speed or the current is not varied for each layer and
hence the deposited thickness for all these layers will be uniform. The adaptive layers are
realized through face milling. Therefore, although such a complex shape is realizable
using HLM, it is not economical due to the poor yield. However, it may be noted that as
the slices become thinner. Thus, these layers can be realized only through sophisticated
weld-deposition units with very low heat input; normal weld-deposition units will erode
the substrate layer during weld-deposition.
5.5 Building Composite Objects
Gradient objects have controlled variation of the material composition throughout the
matrix so as to obtain the desired distribution of the properties such as color, density,
porosity, hardness, toughness etc. No natural object is uniform; they are all gradient
throughout. Examples are bamboo, bone, stone etc. However, most man-made objects are
uniform both due to the inability to design them and subsequently manufacture them. The
bottleneck today for the use of gradient objects is the design tools. The CAD models
define only the boundary and the interior is assumed to be filled with uniform matrix.
The objects built through layered manufacturing are inhomogeneous or non-uniform,

i.e., they are inherently anisotropic. When this inherent nature is carefully exploited, the
anisotropy transforms into the desired distribution of the properties. ZCorp’s 3D Printing
is able to produce color prototypes out of starch in this manner. Similarly, Therics has
adopted 3D Printing to produce time-delivery drugs commonly used by the neurotic
patients. LENS is another popular process for making metallic gradient objects through
layered deposition.
Figure 5.19 Composite dies with soft core and hard surface
(a) Front view (b) Side view

Figure 5.20 Two weld-deposition torches mounted near the spindle
P20 tool steel
Mild steel
Figure 5.21 Pattern for testing the tensile properties of composite deposition
These cases demonstrate the emergence of the manufacturing technologies for making
gradient objects. A composite object is one in which the gradience varies abruptly. For
example, a die can be built with a softer core and a harder case as shown in Figure 5.19.
This composite die has the desirable mechanical properties of high fatigue life and wear
resistance. Furthermore, it is very economical since the core which is as much as 90% of
the total volume can be built with mild steel which costs about Rs. 70 per kg whereas the
case can be built with tool steel which costs Rs. 500-3000 per kg. HLM is capable of
building these composite dies. For this purpose, HLM is integrated with two weld-
deposition units as shown in Figure 5.20, one loaded with a hard filler wire and the other
with a softer one. This is achieved by depositing the boundaries of a given layer with the
hard material and its interior with soft material. HLM can in the same manner build
composite objects too.
An experiment was done to assess the bonding between the hard case and soft core.
The two patterns shown in Figure 5.21 were deposited, one using each material. From this
deposited matrix, three tensile specimens, shown in dotted lines, were prepared. The
results of the tensile testing are given in Table 5.5. The strength of the joint varied by
only 3% to that of the weaker material; less than the experimental error. This indicates
sufficient enough strength to avoid delimitation during operation.
Table 5.5 Tensile properties of composite pattern

S.No Description Ultimate tensile strength (MPa)
1. Soft material (ER70S6- mild steel) 511
2. Hard material (P20 – tool steel) 883
3. Composite 527
5.6 Summary
The characterization of objects made through HLM, including analysis of their tensile
properties and hardness variation, has been presented in this chapter. This facilitates the
identification of suitable domain of applications for HLM process. Subsequently, the
material and geometric capabilities of HLM has been studied. Through a series of
experiments, it was found that an overhang upto 0.6mm can be realized without using any
support material, exploiting the inherent overhanging ability of the weld-bead. This
characteristic makes manufacture of objects with conformal cooling ducts possible.
Ability of HLM to manufacture composite matrix was also demonstrated.
Chapter 6
Applications of HLM for Injection Moulds
6.1 Introduction
Injection moulding is used for the mass production of plastic components, both
thermoplastic and thermosetting types. In this process, the plastic granules heated to
molten state are injected into a closed mould. After it solidifies, the mould is opened and
the part is ejected. High production rates, good repeatability and minimal scrap losses are
some of the significant advantages of this process. However, it requires a mould made out
of reasonably hard and corrosion resistant material. Manufacture of the injection moulds
takes the lion’s share of the cost and time of product development.
The injection moulds are typically machined out of solid blocks of die steel.
Commonly used tool steel materials for various applications are summarized in Table 6.1.
The discussions with Indian tool manufacturers revealed that P20, DIN 1.2311 and DIN
1.2738 are the most popular grades for plastic injection moulds and H13 is popularly used
for die casting and forging applications.
An injection mould invariably consists of two halves, often referred as cavity and
punch. When the component has undercuts, the mould will also make use of core(s). As
the surfaces of both the cavity and punch are completely visible to each other, these can
be machined on a 3-axis CNC machine. However, for the sake of machining efficiency,
variable-axis machining is at times employed. In addition, Electric Discharge Machining
(EDM) may be required under the following circumstances:
• Deep features inaccessible due to the length limitations of the cutter

• Sharp features that cannot be realized by the rotating cutters
• To achieve certain matty finishes and patterns
Chapter 6 Applications of HLM for Injection Moulds 6-2
Table 6.1 Commonly used tool materials for different applications [91]
Application Tool material
Die casting H13, 420
Forging
cold working A2, H13
hot working (non-excessive temps) S1
hot working H13, H21
hot working, heavy duty DIN1.2744
Hammer, drop forge L6
Plastic, corrosive 420
Pressure, for aluminium and zinc die cast H13, H21
Punching W108, W110, A2, D2
Plastic injection P20, DIN1.2311, DIN1.2738
very high polish 420mod.
Very large P20
Pressure casting DIN1.2567, H11
The applications of HLM for the manufacture of the injection moulds are presented in
this chapter. These are demonstrated through two case studies, one is that of a simple
monolithic mould and the other is that of a more complex mould involving a composite
matrix with a hard case (P20) and a soft core (mild steel) and conformal cooling ducts.
6.2 Significance of HLM for Injection Moulds
The following are some of the significant advantages of HLM for manufacture of
injection moulds:
• Material saving
• Elimination of rough machining
• Reduction of programming time
• Elimination of EDM
• Ability to make conformal cooling ducts
Material saving
As much as 50% of the raw material goes waste in the form of chips in subtractive
manufacturing. As material is selectively added wherever required in HLM, material
wastage is minimal. HLM enables manufacture of composite moulds in whic h the core
of each die-half can be built with mild steel and its case with tool steel (say, P20). Such a
die will have a higher fatigue life than a totally hard monolithic die. In addition there will
be significant saving in material cost since mild steel core which occupies almost 90% of
the volume costs only about a third of tool steel (prices per kg of mild steel wire, P20 tool
steel block and P20 wire are approximately Rs. 70, Rs. 200 and Rs. 600 respectively).
Elimination of rough machining

As the near-net shape is directly obtained through weld-deposition in HLM, rough
machining is eliminated. Rough machining in traditional mould making takes away a bulk
of the total machining time (cost of machine occupancy) and tooling cost. Thus,
elimination of this operation gives considerable cost and time savings. It is also attractive
for materials which undergo work-hardening.
Reduction of programming time

Idling of CNC machines is often attributed to the delays in the NC program generation,
particularly in tool rooms. As the NC program generation is totally automatic in HLM till
the near-net shape, it substantially brings down the total programming time.
Elimination of EDM
Die sinking EDM is often used in dies having deep pockets and surfaces inaccessibility
for the milling cutters. However, EDM is a slow and costly process. As the die is built in
a layer-by-layer manner in HLM, EDM can be totally eliminated through finish
machining the die in stages. Figure 6.1a shows one such deep feature of a die,
inaccessible to the cutter. In the first stage, the partial near-net shape of the die is finish-
machined (Figure 6.1b & c). The finished surface is then masked by clay, as shown in
Figure 6.1d to protect its finished surface from occasional spatter. The subsequent layers
are then deposited, followed by their finish machining, as shown in Figure 6.1e. The mask
is then washed off to obtain the finished die (Figure 6.1f).
(a) Desirable feature inaccessible in (c) Finish machining of the partially

(b) Partial near-net shape
subtractive manufacturing made near-net shape
(e) Creation of the subsequent layers (f) Finished die obtained after washing
(d) Finished features masked with clay
followed by their finishing off the mask
Figure 6.1 Realization of deep features through HLM
(b) Die with conformal cooling ducts (built using 3D

(a) White spot during injection due to non-uniform cooling
printing) [92]
Figure 6.2 Conformal cooling ducts [92]
Ability to make conformal cooling ducts

Conformal cooling ducts as against the straight cooling ducts reduce the cycle time and
distortion. Figure 6.2a shows a white spot on a switch gear caused due to glass
precipitation. Incorporation of the conformal cooling ducts through an insert eliminated
this problem. Thus, uniform cooling achieved through conformal cooling ducts can
improve the material properties of the injected part. Building conformal cooling ducts is
easy in powder-based RP processes such as SLS and 3DP (Figure 6.2b). As the powder
acts as support in SLS and 3DP, any ducts of any cross-section are possible. As
demonstrated in Chapter 5, HLM is capable of building conformal cooling ducts (see
Figure 5.16). However, the cross-section of the duct is limited to a triangle as HLM does
not have any support mechanism. Although the interior of the ducts is rough, they serve
the intended purpose. HLM can also build circular conformal cooling ducts using
adaptive slicing, but at the cost material wastage (Figure 5.17).
Core
Part
Cavity
Figure 6.3 CAD model of egg tray and its die pair
6.3 Manufacture of Monolithic Injection Moulds through HLM
Although the integrated HLM facility is designed keeping in view a variety of

applications, only a subset of it may be required for any given application. Manufacture
of monolithic injections moulds requires only the 3-axis HLM with the weld-deposition
torch mounted on the side of the spindle head. The procedure for making a monolithic die
is illustrated with the help of a case study. After the successful integration of weld-
deposition equipment with the CNC machine and subsequent experimental investigations
to select the optimal process parameters, an industrial trial was carried out to demonstrate
HLM’s techno-commercial viability vis-à-vis the traditional subtractive manufacturing.
Egg Tray is a plastic component in the refrigerator manufactured by Godrej, Mumbai.
The STL models of its injection moulds as well as the cost and time of their manufacture
were obtained (Figure 6.3). These moulds were built using HLM aiming to arrive at a
time and cost comparison of both these routes.
6.3.1 Manufacture of the moulds
The following steps are involved in the making a monolithic mould:
Step 1: Verify the STL file and repair if required.
Step 2: Coarsen the STL file.
Step 3: Determine the offsets between the weld-deposition torch and spindle, as described
in Chapter 3. Note that this calibration needs to be done every time the torch mounting is
disturbed. This happens when the wire spool is changed or any other disturbances such as
clogging.
Step 4: Choose the appropriate wire material and diameter. Wire material is chosen to
suit the material specified for the mould. As thinner a wire as possible is chosen from the
available sizes. For instance, solid mild steel wires are available right from 0.6mm
diameter, whereas tool steels start with 1.2mm due to the drawing limitations in the case
of solid wires and the presence of core in the case of flux/metal cored wires. Obtain the
optimal wire and torch speeds and step over increment for the chosen wire from the
database (refer Chapter 3). The present die pair was manufactured using mild steel wire
of 0.8mm diameter (ER70S-6). The layer thickness was selected as 1.5mm. The wire
speed, torch speed and stepover increment were arrived at as 5.1m/min, 0.9m/min and
1.5mm respectively.
Step 5: Input in HLMSoft the slice thickness, stepover increment, torch speed, machining
allowance, diameter of the face mill, spindle speed, feed rate of the face mill, torch offsets
and nozzle gap (Figure 3.26). Generate the post-processed tool path files. Depending on
the memory capacity of the CNC controller, either a single NC file for all layers or
individual NC files for each layer can be generated.
Step 6: Prepare the weld-deposition unit and set the wire material, wire speed, wire
diameter, masking gas mixture, deposition mode and gas flow rate.
Step 7: Set the substrate of the required size and arrange the shroud. Switch over to the
HLM mode and start the circulation of coolant through the fixture.
Step 8: Depending on the size of the NC program, run either in DNC-I or DNC-II (refer
Section 3.7) to start the building. Figure 6.4 shows the weld-deposition process in
progress. Various layers during the manufacture of die cavity are shown in Figure 6.5.
The near-net shape of the die, shown in Figure 6.6a is then available at the end of
building all these layers.
Figure 6.4 Weld-deposition process

Layer-1 Layer-4 Layer-8

Figure 6.5 Different intermediate layers of punch
(a) near-net shape of the mould
(b) Mould after finishing and field trial

Figure 6.6 Injection mould produced using HLM
Figure 6.7 Egg Tray made through injection moulding of the die pair
Step 9: After identifying appropriate cutters for the final machining, the finish machining
path for the dies is generated using any of the commercial CAM software. Finish machine
the mould using this NC program. The die pair after finish machining is shown in Figure
6.6b.
Step 10: The dies are subsequently sent for EDM if required and then for blue matching.
Finally trial injections are done before sending it for regular production. Figure 6.7 shows
some Egg Tray parts manufactured through injection moulding of the dies made by HLM
process.
6.3.2 Cost and time comparison of HLM and CNC routes
Two mild steel blocks of dimensions 300mm x 215mm x 50mm each were used for the
subtractive manufacture of the cavity and punch. They have a total weight of about 50kg.
Calculated at Rs 58 per kg, the total raw material cost in CNC machining comes to Rs.
2,900. In HLM, each mould was built upon a block of 300mm x 215mm x 20mm. The
two substrate plates together weighed about 20kg, costing Rs. 1160.
The first activity in CNC machining is NC programming and the equivalent activity in
HLM is data processing using HLMSoft. For a valid STL file, HLMSoft can process data
in about 10-15 min whereas the NC programming activity using CAM software may take
about 5 hours. The near-net shape of cavity and punch were realized in 16 and 18 layers
respectively, each of 1.5mm thickness. The total deposition and face milling times for the
moulds were 556mins and 81mins respectively. At 5.1m/min wire speed, 17.5kg of
welding wire was consumed. As the wire costs Rs. 72 per kg, the cost of the welding wire
consumed is Rs. 1,259. The near-net shape in CNC route is obtained by rough machining
the block and took around 960mins. The finish machining is same in both cases and took
about 360mins each.
Table 6.2 Comparison of manufacturing time for egg tray

CNC HLM
Processing Step Time (min) Processing Step Time (min)
NC program generation Data processing of the STL
200 15
rough machining file
NC program generation for NC program generation for
100 100
finish machining finish machining
Rough machining 960 Near-net shape manufacture 637
Finish machining 360 Finish machining 360
Total 1,620 Total 1,112
Table 6.3 Comparison of manufacturing cost for egg tray

CNC HLM
Processing Step Cost (Rs.) Processing Step Cost (Rs.)
Raw material cost (solid block of 2,900 Raw material cost (MS substrate @ Rs. 2,420
MS steel @ Rs 58 per kg) 58 per kg and CCMS welding wire @
Rs. 72 per kg)
NC programming cost using a CAM 2,000 Data processing cost using HLMSoft @ 767
package @ Rs. 400 per hour Rs. 400 per hour
Manufacture of near-net shape 4,800 Manufacture of near-net through HLM 4,247
through rough machining on a 3 axis @ Rs. 400 per hour
milling CNC @ Rs. 300 per hr
Finish machining on a 3 axis milling 1,800 Finish machining on a 3 axis milling 1,800
CNC @ Rs. 300 per hour CNC @ Rs. 300 per hour
.

CNC CNC
HLM HLM
Neat‐net Finishing Near‐net Finish Total Raw Data Near‐net Finish Total
shape paths paths Manufacture Machining Material Processing Shape Machining
(a) Time (b) Cost

Figure 6.8 Comparison of subtractive and HLM routes for egg-tray
A comparison of manufacturing data for these moulds through CNC route and HLM
route are presented in Tables 6.2 and 6.3, the former in time and the latter in cost (Figure
6.8). The following are some of the results of this case study:
• HLM route for this case took 31% less time than the CNC route
• A cost reduction of 20% was archived through HLM route over CNC route
• The cost of the raw material too was observed to be low in the case of HLM
• Substantial cost and time saving were observed in data processing and manufacture of
near-net shape.
• The polishability of the HLM dies was comparable with the machined ones.
Figure 6.9 Views of filtrum – the component for the case study
Punch Cavity
Figure 6.10 The moulds of filtrum
6.4 Manufacture of a Complex Injection Mould through HLM
The traditional subtractive route used for mould making starts from a block and hence
they cannot be composite with a hard case and soft core. HLM’s unique feature is its
ability to make composite dies with conformal cooling ducts. Building a monolithic
mould will require only one weld-deposition unit, whereas two weld-deposition units will
be required for composite moulds. The procedure of realizing a composite mould with
conformal cooling ducts is illustrated in the following sub-sections with the help of a case
study of an injection mould for a component called filtrum shown in Figure 6.9. The
designs of the moulds, shown in Figure 6.10, were provided by C. R. Tooling, Mumbai.
The current moulds are monolithic and use straight cooling holes. This mould was made
by C. R. Tooling out of a block of P20 tool steel and is currently in use in a company in
Pune. The goal in this case study is to produce the punch of this mould out of a composite
matrix, i.e., with a 10mm thick case of P20 tool steel and the inner core with mild steel. It
will also have conformal cooling ducts.
6.4.1 Design of conformal cooling ducts
In traditional subtractive manufacturing, as the cooling ducts are realized through drilling,
only straight ducts are possible. HLM, just as any other additive manufacturing process,
lends itself to the integration of conformal cooling ducts into injection moulds. MoldFlow
software was used to design the conformal ducts for this mould.
Cooling duct design requires only the component geometry. In the first step, the flow
of the material to fill the component geometry is analyzed (Figure 6.11a). Based on this
pattern and experience, the designer comes up with the geometry of the cooling duct. This
cooling duct geometry in conjunction with the material and flow properties is then
analyzed to arrive at the solidification pattern and time for solidification; the former
influences the quality and the latter the cycle time. Three iterations were analyzed. The
first one was a straight cooling ducts, the second was a radial and the third one a
combination of radial and axial cooling ducts. The first alternative, which is traditional
has circular cross-section, whereas the other two have isosceles triangular cross-section in
order to suit the HLM’s manufacturability. As seen from the data given below each
alternative, only marginal benefit of conformal cooling duct over the straight one was
observed. This may be because this is a small component with a single injection point.
However, in order to demonstrate the capability of HLM to build conformal cooling
ducts, the last alternative was chosen.
6.4.2 Pre-processing the CAD model
The STL file, which is the input format for CAD data into HLMSoft contains only
geometric information; it does not have any material information. It is not possible reflect
composite nature of the mould by a single STL file. Hence, the CAD model of the punch
was split into two parts, one corresponding to the hard case and the other for the soft core.
Figure 6.12 shows the CAD models of the outer shell and inner core. Note that the mould
is offset by the machining allowance (1mm in this case) before splitting. Including the
machining allowance in the CAD package instead of HLMSoft is preferable as the
offsetting is note efficient after triangulation.
(a) Flow pattern (b) Iteration-1: straight ducts
(c) Iteration-2: Radial ducts (d) Iteration-3: Combination of radial and axial ducts
Figure 6.11 Design of conformal cooling ducts
The overhang that can be realized for the conformal cooling ducts is dependent on the
layer thickness of the slice. Thus, smaller layer thickness is desirable for making the
overhanging features. However, this also increases the material wastage, reducing the
overall yield of the process. This problem was overcome by using adaptive layers for
deposition; the overhanging ducts were realized using smaller layer thickness and the rest
of the material using larger layer thickness. The adaptive slicing was achieved by splitting
the model of core into different STL files, one around the conformal cooling ducts and the
other for rest of the mould. The former is deposited with a layer thickness of 0.5mm and
the latter with a layer thickness of 2mm. Thus, there will now be three STL files:
i. STL file of the case of the punch as shown in Figure 6.13a (to be made out of P20 tool
steel in layer thicknesses of 2mm)
ii. STL file of the core of the punch as shown in Figure 6.13b (to be made out of mild
steel in layer thicknesses of 2mm)
iii. STL file of the three triangular segments as shown in Figure 6.13c (to be made out of
mild steel in layer thicknesses of 0.5mm)
These three STL files are build in a sequential manner to realize the final shape shown
in Figure 6.13d.
(a) Case (with machining allowance) (b) Core

Figure 6.12 The case and core of the punch
(b) STL-2: MS core with region

(a) STL-1: P20 Case
around cooling ducts subtracted
(c) STL-3: The material around cooling ducts (d) All three STLs overlapped
Figure 6.13 The three segments of the punch
6.4.3 Manufacture of the mould
After obtaining the STL files of the three segments, they are separately processed using
HLMSoft to gain modularity and better efficiency as discussed in the earlier section. The
actual die was manufactured out of a P20 tool steel block. The filler wire matching its
properties is available in three forms:
i. Flux-cored wire (tubular wire filled with flux and alloying elements)
ii. Solid-cored wire (tubular wire filled with only alloying elements)
iii. Solid wire (monolithic).
Initially flux-cored wire was used for deposition. But it left a scale on the surface
which obstructed nice merger of the beads. Solid wires on the hand are very expensive.
This is because, these hard wires work-harden quickly necessitating several stages of
draw to achieve the desired diameter with intermediate annealing. Hence, P20 MC-T, a
solid-cored wire of dia 1.2mm, manufactured by Core-Met, USA chosen for building the
outer case. The inner core was realized using ER70S-6 mild steel wire of 0.8mm dia.
These two filler wires were loaded onto the two weld-deposition machines. In this case
study, Fronius TPS 4000 was loaded with the P20 tool steel and Fronius TPS 2700 CMT
was loaded with mild steel (0.8 mm dia monolithic). As there is no extra relay available in
the existing 3-axis CNC machine used, the switching between P20 and MS materials was
done manually with the help of a Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) switch. However, if
an extra relay is available in the CNC, then this interchanging can also be automated. For
a height hi of the substrate, the sequence of building each layer is as follows:
1. Switch to Fronius TPS 2700 CMT to deposit mild steel.

2. Deposit 0.5mm layer of STL-3 ( z = hi ).
3. Face mill at 0.5mm ( z = hi + 0.5 ).
4. Deposit next 0.5mm layer of STL-3 ( z = hi + 0.5 )
5. Face mill at next 0.5mm ( z = hi + 1.0 )

7. Face mill at next 0.5mm ( z = hi + 1.5 )
9. Deposit 2mm layer of STL-2 ( z = hi )
10. Switch to Fronius TPS 4000 to deposit P20 tool steel

11. Deposit 2mm layer of STL-1 ( z = hi )
12. Face mill at 2mm ( z = hi + 2.0 )
Various stages in the manufacture of the punch are shown in Figure 6.14. The near-
net shape of the punch finally obtained in the above method is shown in Figure 6.14g.
Subsequently, the cooling ducts were punctured from outside. The water flow proves that
the conformal cooling duct was created successfully (Figure 6.14h). The near-net shape is
subsequently finish machined to obtain the final mould shown in Figure 6.14i.
(a) Layer-1 with P20 in the (c) After the radial duct is closed
(b) The conformal ducts starts
outer circumference and MS inside (duct shown with the help of a wire)
(d) The axial ducts (f) The layer after compete closing
(e) The axial ducts are closed
starts taking shape of ducts, comprising of only P20
(h) Coolant flow inside the

(g) The near-net shape (i) Finished mould
mould after opening of the ducts
Figure 6.14 Various phases in the manufacture of the punch
After the manufacture of the punch, a cost and time comparison of subtractive CNC route
and additive HLM route was made to demonstrate the advantages of HLM. Although the
composite mould was built with conformal cooling ducts, the same is not manufacturable
through subtractive method. Hence, the theoretical time and cost data was also worked
out to ensure parlance in the comparison.
The data processing for the near-net shape for the composite HLM mould with
conformal cooling (HLM-CC) would take around 2hrs. The same for the same for a
monolithic HLM mould (HLM-M) would take around 15mins and that for CNC would
take around 1hr. HLM-M is faster as there are there are no cooling ducts to be inserted
into the CAD model. The time taken for generating the finish machining time is common
for all the three and is around 1hr. HLM-CC was deposited on top of a MS block of
dimensions 280mm x 205mm x 25mm and took 752mins. The monolithic HLM mould
(HLM-M) would require a P20 substrate of dimensions 220mm x 142mm x 50mm and
would take 119mins. CNC machining would take 600mins to machine the mould out of a
P20 block of dimensions 220mm x 142mm x 50mm. The finish machining is same in all
the three cases and took about 300mins each.
A comparison of manufacturing data for these moulds through CNC route and HLM
route are presented in Tables 6.4 and 6.5, the former in time and the latter in cost (Figure
6.15). The following are some of the results of this case study:
• Monolithic die made using HLM would cost only about 60% of the traditional route
• Composite die with conformal cooling duct will cost about 20% more than the
traditionally made monolithic die. The additional cost is the cost for realizing
conformal cooling ducts.
• Costlier the die material and more complex/ sparser features, more will be the
benefits.
Table 6.4 Comparison of manufacturing times for filtrum

Time (hrs)
Activity
CNC HLM-CC HLM-M
Near-net shape paths generation 60 120 15
Finishing paths generation 60 60 60
Near-net shape manufacture 600 752 119
Finish Machining 300 300 300
Total = 1020 1232 494
Table 6.5 Comparison of manufacturing costs for filtrum

CNC HLM-CC HLM-M
Item Price per unit
Qty Cost Qty Cost Qty Cost
MS-Block Rs 58 per Kg - - 11.50 667 - -
P20-Block Rs 250 per Kg 20.50 5125 - - 12.18 3045
Raw material
MS-Wire Rs 72 per Kg - - 4.90 353 - -
P20-Wire Rs 520 per Kg - - 7.32 3807 1.46 365
Data Near-net Rs 400 per hr 1.00 400 2.00 800 0.25 100
processing Finishing Rs 400 per hr 1.00 400 1.00 400 1.00 400
Rs 400 per hr
for HLM and
Near-net
Manufacture Rs 300 per hr
for CNC 10.00 3000 12.54 5016 1.98 595
Finishing Rs 300 per hr 5.00 1500 5.00 1500 5.00 1500
Total = 10,425 11,875 6,005

CNC CNC
HLM‐CC HLM‐CC
HLM‐M HLM‐M
(a) Time (b) Cost

Figure 6.15 Comparison of subtractive and HLM routes for filtrum
*HLM-CC – Composite mould with conformal cooling ducts; HLM-M – Monolithic mould
6.5 Summary
Material saving, elimination of rough machining, reduction of programming time,

elimination of EDM and ability to make conformal cooling ducts are some of the
significant advantages of HLM in tooling applications. Two industrial trials were carried
out to demonstrate the techno-economic viability of HLM in manufacture of injection
moulds. The ability of HLM to make composite moulds with conformal cooling ducts
was also demonstrated. The cost and time taken in HLM route and the CNC route were
compared. The following inferences were made:
• HLM route takes considerably less time and money than the CNC route.
• For a monolithic mould, the cost of material in HLM was found to be lower than that
of CNC route due to less wastage of material.
• As HLM is based on the concepts of RP wherein the process planning is automatic,
NC programming and hence the associated time and cost are eliminated.
• HLM can produce dies with material properties comparable to those of tool steels.
• Composite dies with a hard casing and soft core that bring down the raw material cost
are also feasible.
• It is possible to manufacture moulds with conformal cooling ducts at a nominal
increase in the cost.
benefits.
Chapter 7
Applications of HLM for Repair
7.1 Introduction
Applications of the RM processes for repair have been demonstrated by processes such as
LENS, POM etc. LENS has been successfully used for the repair of aerospace
components including, titanium components (Figure 7.1). HLM also can be used for
repair applications. This has been demonstrated for forging dies in this chapter.
(a) Repair of a shaft (a) Repair of a turbine rotor

Figure 7.1 LENS being used for repair of aerospace components
Table 7.1 Comparison of injection moulds and forging dies

Injection Mould Forging Die
The mould requires relatively less fatigue life. High fatigue life is essential
Flash is undesirable and hence very tight mould As flash is used as an indication of process
closure and accurately metered quantity of material completion, it is essential.
injection are essential.
Injection moulds demand high accuracy and Moderate accuracy is sufficient as only the near-
alignment of the moulds as it produces the net- net shape is produced. Blue-matching is not
shape of the component. Thus, blue-matching of required.
the moulds is mandatory.
Tool life is very long (as high as 500,000 shots). Short tool life (1500-5000 shots). The dies wear
The die runs for a few years. out within a few days.
In the present age of low production volumes, the Frequent refurbishing and rejuvenation are
moulds are rarely sent for refurbishing. So often essential. Therefore a forging company generally
the manufacture of these moulds is outsourced. has an in-house die repair shop.
As the mould opens and closes only once and cores Features with undercuts are generally not possible
can be used, intricate features with undercuts are as the die has to open and close several times per
possible. component.
Chapter 7 Applications of HLM for Repair 7-2
7.2 Repair of Forging Dies
Forging is a near-net process to manufacture highly fatigued components like crank shaft
and connecting rod. While only thermal energy is supplied to the component in casting,
both thermal and mechanical energies are used in forging. In die casting and injection
moulding, the cavity has to close and open once every cycle, whereas it does several
times in forging in order to transfer the mechanical energy. Therefore, the forging dies
need to have greater mechanical strength and fatigue life. Due to the same reason, these
dies also wear faster than their counterparts and are generally not suitable for objects with
undercuts. Table 7.1 gives a comparison of the characteristics of the injection moulds and
forging dies.
DIN 1.2714 (38-42 HRC) and H13 (44-48 HRC) are the two most common forging
die materials used in India. H13 is superior but is more expensive (approx. Rs. 300 per
kg) and hence limited to smaller dies (<300mm). DIN1.2714 is commonly used for larger
dies due to its relatively low cost (approx. Rs. 200 per kg). Table 7.2 gives the properties
of both these materials.
Traditionally the fresh dies are machined from blocks. As the accuracy required is not
very high, the dies can be mounted onto the press soon after machining, unlike injection
moulds that need to be blue-matched. In some cases, nitriding may be carried out to
enhance the life further. Due to the severe conditions of heat and fatigue, the die is used
hardly for a few shifts before it calls for repair which may be minor or major. The two
types of minor repairs are:
i. Local polishing and cleaning

ii. Local gouging, filling and finish machining.
If some slag adheres to the die and is too hard for in-situ removal, then it may have to
be removed from the press for polishing and cleaning. The latter repair will be required
when the damage is more, symbolized by the presence of deeper cracks (identified
through die penetrant test) and/or chipping. These cracks are removed by gouging.
Gouging is usually done using an arc created between a carbon electrode and the die. The
arc melts the material around the crack and the compressed air in conjunction with the arc
blows away the molten metal. Subsequently, the gouged zones are filled with weld-
deposition and machined to final dimensions. This industry is highly cost-sensitive
especially with the availability of cheaper man power. The filling is therefore more often
done manually using thick stick electrodes after preheating the die and positioning it
suitable for down-hand welding. Only under very rare circumstances, GMAW with wire
feeding or automatic weld-deposition are used. As the welder is never sure of the region
of repair, he often deposits much more than required. The inefficiency of this manual
method is obvious from the fact that a particular company consumes 8 tons of filler
material per month out of which only 0.5 ton remains in the dies.
The die may undergo as many as 2-3 minor repairs. By this time, it would have been
used for 6000-10000 shots. Beyond this the surfaces are so deformed that the entire die
surface need to be re-machined to a depth of 5-10mm. In order to account for these major
repairs, the dies are initially made from thick blocks. This kind of major repair may
happen as many as 10 times in its life cycle. Therefore, before the die is finally scrapped,
it can produce as many as 50000-100000 forgings during which period it undergoes
several minor and major repairs. In other words, a die spends about 2 days in production
and about 10 days in repair alternately.
The feasibility of employing HLM for repair of forging dies is presented in the
subsequent sections. This is built around the case study carried out for Bharat Forge,
Pune, Asia’s largest forging company. The repair of a worn out knuckle die of about
700mm long was taken up (Figure 7.2).
Table 7.2 Composition of commonly used die tools

Life between Carbon
Specification Composition Hardness
Repairs Equivalent †
H13 0.35C, 1.0Si, 0.3Mn, 5.2Cr, 1.6Mo, 1.0V 44-48 HRC 5000 shots 1.96
DIN 1.2714 0.5C, 0.25Si, 0.7Mn, 1.7Ni, 1.1Cr, 0.5Mo, 0.1V 38-42 HRC 1500 shots 1.07
† % Mn % Si %Cr % Mo %V %Cu % Ni
Carbon Equivalent = %C + + + + + + +
6 6 5 5 5 15 15
7.2.1 Identification of the zones to be repaired

The identification of the zones to be repaired is combination of human judgment and
measurement. Die penetrant test and visual inspection are used to identify badly scored
regions. These regions are gauged and cleaned and the worn regions are scanned. This
can be done on a CNC machine using a touch probe. Non-contact measurements using a
laser scanner, white light scanner etc. also can be employed. This worn out regions is
compared with the CAD model of the original die to identify the amount of material to be
filled at various places.
Bharat Forge carried out scanning and gave the CAD model of the original die as well
as that of the worn out region, highlighted in the inset of Figure 7.2. In order to avoid
movement of the actual die for the preliminary investigations, the relevant portion of the
die was manufactured in-house as shown in Figure 7.3a. The wear of the die was
emulated by scooping out a depression of corresponding to the wear data provided by
Bharat Forge (Figure 7.3b). Thus the replica of the die to be repaired was obtained.
Figure 7.2 Knuckle Die with inset showing the segment to be repaired
7.2.2 Filling the zones to be repaired
The significant differences of repairing the die vis-à-vis fresh manufacture are:
• Weld-deposition is often non-planar.

• Face milling is replaced by surface milling using a ball end mill.
• The number of layers deposited will be generally not more than three.
• Pre-heating the die may be required.
(b) Depression machined on the segment to emulate the

(a) Finished shape of the segment
wear/gouging
Figure 7.3 Relevant portion of the Knuckle die
Figure 7.4 Failed non-planar deposition using MIG welding
As the surface to be repaired is non-planar, the torch has to move in all 3 directions
simultaneously. This is a major deviation for HLM which has so far been used for
building objects in horizontal layers. Initially GMA weld-deposition was tried. However,
as the distance of the torch from the surface varies drastically around it, the masking gas
curtain got disrupted resulting in unstable arc and hence poor quality of weld-deposition.
The resulting weld-deposition is shown in Figure 7.4. Therefore, the GMAW weld-
deposition is not suitable for die repair. As the gas masking was not adequate the mask
has to be created through flux. Therefore, Self-shielding Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW-
S), also known as open arc welding was adopted.
Table 7.3 Welding parameters used for repair of forging die

Parameter Value
Welding Current 180 Amps
Torch Speed 450 mm/min
Step over increment 2.5 mm
Stick out 40 mm
(a) Deposition using circumferential rasters
(b) Deposition using axial rasters

Figure 7.5 Effect of torch direction on deposition pattern
(a) With slag (b) Finished die

Figure 7.6 Non-planar deposition using FCAW-S
The filler wire in Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) is tubular in nature with the flux
materials in the core. As this filler strikes on the substrate and creates the arc, the flux
along with the fumes protect the weldment from the atmosphere. There are situations
where the masking by the flux is augmented by gas shielding. For the purpose of die
repair, FCAW-S which does not require external gas shielding is found suitable. The stick
out recommended for the FCAW-S is generally very high (as much as 40mm) to facilitate
pre-heating of the flux. This turns out to be advantageous in non-planar deposition by
way of collision prevention.
Corodur 70 T4, a flux cored wire of 1.6mm diameter, manufactured by Diffusion

Engineers, Nagpur was used for deposition. Its properties are given in Table 5.5. The
relevant welding program and rollers were procured for the existing Fronius welding unit
to handle this FCAW-S wire. Some preliminary experiments were carried to arrive at the
suitable welding parameters, as listed in Table 7.3.
As non-planar deposition is employed, the direction of torch also plays an important

role. Thus further experiments were carried out to understand the influence of the torch
direction. Figure 7.5 shows the two deposition patterns viz., axial and circumferential. In
circumferential raster deposition, as the deposition happens along the direction of gravity,
the molten pool tends to flow downwards. This causes bulk of material collecting at the
bottom as shown in Figure 7.5a. When the deposition happens in axial rasters, the molten
pool has greater time to solidify hence lessening the flow. Furthermore, this was done in
two halves both going from bottom to top. The resulting deposition is more uniform, as
shown in Figure 7.5b.
After identifying the appropriate parameters and appropriate direction for FCAW-S,
weld-deposition for the repair of the knuckle die was carried out. The result is shown in
Figure 7.6a with a coat of slag. There was no need for manual removal of slag as the
surface milling takes care of its removal. Finally the die is it was finish-machined. The
repaired die is shown in Figure 7.6b. The required repair could be achieved in one layer.
However, if more build-up is required, one can deposit as many as 3 layers. Any further
buildup may call for pre-heating to avoid cracking.
7.3 Summary
The applications of HLM for repair was discussed in this chapter and demonstrated for
the repair of forging dies. The benefits of HLM for die repair was demonstrated through
the case study of a worn out knuckle die of Bharat Forge. Non-planar deposition and the
use of self-shielding flux cored arc welding are the two significant differences in HLM
process for repair vis-à-vis fresh manufacture.
Chapter 8
Applications of HLM for Components
8.1 Introduction
As dies and moulds are undercut free, they can be realized through 3-axis weld-deposition
directly. Components, on the other hand, owing to their complexity are difficult to realize
directly through 3-axis weld-deposition. However, some simpler components may be
realized through one of the following methods:
• Planar deposition using 3-axis CNC machine for small undercuts

• Planar deposition using 3-axis CNC machine after blinding the undercuts
• Conformal (non-planar) deposition
• Variable axis deposition
Small undercuts can be realized through utilizing the inherent overhanging capacity of
the weld-bead. Some sample objects possible though this method have been presented in
Chapter 5. Similarly, conformal/non-planar weld-deposition has been discussed in
Chapter 7. Ability of HLM to make components using 3-axis weld-deposition has been
demonstrated in this chapter with the help of a case study. The cost and time comparison
between HLM and CNC routes has also been carried out to bring out the advantages of
HLM. Subsequently, the feasibility of manufacturing components through variable axis
deposition is discussed.
8.2 Planar Deposition using 3-axis HLM after Blinding the Undercuts
By suppressing minor overhanging features, it is possible to build the components

through planar deposition in 3-axis HLM. For the purpose of deposition, the CAD model
Chapter 8 Applications of HLM for Components 8-2
is modified by blinding the undercuts through the addition of material. The near-net of
this modified CAD model is built via deposition. The original CAD model is used for
finish machining. Depending on the geometric complexity, finishing may even require
variable axis machining. Aeromet Corporation, USA used this approach for
manufacturing Titanium components for aerospace applications (Figure 8.1).
(a) CAD model of a bracket (b) Its near-net shape (c) Finished component
Figure 8.1 Components built after blinding the undercuts by AeroMet [13]
An aluminium three-bladed propeller of a quad-copter, shown in Figure 8.2a, was

taken up as a case-study to demonstrate this approach for component manufacture using
HLM. The pre-processing of the CAD model for blinding the undercuts followed by the
actual manufacture is discussed. Finally, time and cost comparisons vis-a-vis subtractive
manufacturing were also made to bring out the advantages of the HLM route.
8.2.1 Pre-processing the CAD model for blinding of the undercuts
The STL format, the input format for HMLSoft, stores the boundary surface in the form of
tessellated triangles. Each triangle is defined independently by its three vertices and its
outward normal vector. Thus, the undercuts in a STL file will be triangles with negative
z-component of the normals, i.e., facing downwards. After reading the STL file in the
HLMSoft, these triangles, as illustrated in the flow chart given in Figure 8.3, are identified
and deleted leaving only upward surfaces. Figure 8.2b shows the CAD model of the
component after deleting the downward surfaces.
(a) CAD model of the actual component
(b) CAD model with downward surfaces deleted
(c) Free edges of a surface (d) Support wall along the edges
(e) CAD model after blinding the undercuts (f) CAD model with clamps added
Figure 8.2 Modified CAD model of the quad-copter blades
In the next step, the boundary loop of the top surface is identified for making a
support wall along it. In a closed STL object, each triangle is surrounded by three other
triangles. However, the top surface is open and hence its triangles at the free edges will
have less than three adjacent triangles. Thus, the boundary of the surface is obtained by
identifying these triangles. Figure 8.2c shows the edge triangles marked in red colour.
Each free edge is then isolated and identified as (x1,y1,z1) and (x2,y2,z2). The
vertical curtain of the triangle for this edge is given by the rectangle with vertices
{(x1,y1,z1), (x2,y2,z2), (x1,y1,0), (x2,y2,0)}. Thus, the vertical surface
covering the edge can be added to the STL by adding triangles with vertices
{(x1,y1,z1), (x1,y1,0), (x2,y2,0)} and {(x1,y1,z1), (x2,y2,z2),
(x2,y2,0)}. Figure 8.2d shows these vertical triangles in blue colour. Figure 8.4 shows
the algorithm for adding the support wall. The modified CAD model of the blade
obtained after blinding the undercuts is shown in Figure 8.2e.
START
Read the STL file
For each triangle
Is z-coordinate of
Yes No
the normal positive
Delete the triangle
Output the STL file
END
Figure 8.3 Flow chart for removing the undercut surfaces

START
Read the modified STL file
For each triangle
Is the number of adjoining

Yes No
triangles equal to 3
Identify the free edge as (x1, y1, z1)

and (x2, y2, z2)
Add triangle with vertices (x1, y1, z1),

(x1, y1, 0) and (x2, y2, 0)
Add triangle with vertices (x1, y1, z1),

(x2, y2, z2) and (x2, y2, 0)
Output the STL file
END
Figure 8.4 Flow chart for adding the support wall
As there are no convenient surfaces on the component for clamping, this model is
extended by adding material and eye-ends at each blade tip. The positions of the three
clamping holes are so chosen as to match with the 25mm pitch grid-holes of the fixture.
It may be noted that this feature of adding extra material for the purpose of clamping is
not unique to HLM, but is adopted in regular CNC machining too.
8.2.2 Manufacture of the component
After obtaining the modified STL file of the component with blinding of the undercuts
and adding clamps, the weld-deposition paths are generated using HLMSoft. The
component was built in layers of 1mm each using AlMg5 filler wire. The torch and wire
speeds were selected as 1800mm/min and 3500mm/min respectively. This translates into
a material deposition rate of 10.67gms/min. It may be noted that the weld-deposition
process is capable of achieving much higher deposition rates. However, for obtaining
smaller layers and hence better resolution, the material deposition rate was kept small.
Table 8.1 Time and material deposited for each layer

Layer Time Material Deposited Layer Time Material Deposited
mins gms mins gms
1 3.36 14.61 9 2.81 8.65
2 3.35 14.48 10 2.75 8.03
3 3.35 14.51 11 2.70 7.47
4 3.30 13.91 12 2.65 6.97
5 3.27 13.64 13 2.58 6.21
6 3.20 12.81 14 2.57 6.09
7 3.08 11.62 15 2.53 5.71
8 2.89 9.58 16 2.49 5.29
Blank Layer-4 Layer-8
Layer-12 Near-net shape Side-1 finish machined
Component reversed Side-2 finish machined Final component

Figure 8.5 Various stages in the manufacture of the quad-copter blade
The component was built upon a 3mm thick aluminium plate of dimensions 170mm x
145mm and was realized in 16 layers. Table 8.1 shows the material deposited and time
taken for realising each layer. With a yield of 65%, a total of 160gms of filler material
was deposited for achieving the near-net shape. After obtaining the near-net shape the
side-1 of the component was finish machined, keeping the clamps intact. The component
was then reversed and subsequently finished machined. Various stages in the manufacture
of the component are illustrated in Figure 8.5.
After the successful manufacture of the quad-copter blade a cost and time analysis was
carried to demonstrate HLM’s techno-commercial viability vis-à-vis the traditional
subtractive manufacturing. An aluminium block of dimensions 170mm x 145mm x 16mm
will be required to machine the component through CNC route. Calculated at Rs 210 per
kg, this will cost about Rs. 224. Base plate cost on the other hand for HLM is only Rs. 42.
Calculated at Rs 600 per kg, this cost of 160gms of the filler material will be Rs. 96.
Time taken for generation of the paths for near-net shape manufacture is only 10mins
for HLM, while the same for CNC takes more than 60mins. The time for generating the
finish machining paths is same for both the routes and around 60mins. Calculated at Rs.
400 per hour, the data processing cost for HLM and CNC routes comes to Rs. 467 and Rs.
800 respectively. The near-net shape is realised in 47mins through HLM route, while the
same for CNC routes takes around 151mins. The finish machining time for both is same
at 60mins. A comparison of manufacturing data for these moulds through CNC route and
HLM route are presented in Tables 8.2 and 8.3, the former in time and the latter in cost
(Figure 8.6). The following are some of the results of this case study:
• HLM route for this case took 47% less time than the CNC route
• A cost reduction of 41% was archived through HLM route over CNC route
• The cost of the raw material too was observed to be 38% low in the case of HLM in
spite the higher cost of the filler material over a regular block.
Table 8.2 Comparison of manufacturing time for quad-copter blade

CNC HLM
Processing Step Time (min) Processing Step Time (min)
NC program generation Data processing of the STL
60 10
rough machining file
NC program generation for NC program generation for
60 60
finish machining finish machining
Rough machining 151 Near-net shape manufacture 47
Finish machining 60 Finish machining 60
Total 331 Total 177
Table 8.3 Comparison of manufacturing cost quad-copter blade

CNC HLM
Processing Step Cost (Rs.) Processing Step Cost (Rs.)
Raw material cost (solid block of 224 Raw material cost (Aluminium 138
Aluminium @ Rs 210 per kg) substrate @ Rs. 210 per kg and filler
wire @ Rs. 600 per kg)
NC programming cost using a CAM 800 Data processing cost using HLMSoft 467
package @ Rs. 400 per hour @ Rs. 400 per hour
Manufacture of near-net shape 755 Manufacture of near-net through HLM 313
through rough machining on a 3 axis @ Rs. 400 per hour
milling CNC @ Rs. 300 per hr
Finish machining on a 3 axis milling 300 Finish machining on a 3 axis milling 300
CNC @ Rs. 300 per hour CNC @ Rs. 300 per hour
.

CNC CNC
HLM HLM
(a) Time (b) Cost

Figure 8.6 Comparison of subtractive and HLM routes for quad-copter blade
8.3 Variable Axis Deposition
In an undercut free geometry, 2.5 axis kinematics is enough for deposition as the current
layer always lies within the extents of the previous one. While building a geometry with
undercuts, if the current layer overhangs the previous one beyond a limit, the material
flows down before it solidifies. To avoid this problem, one can suitably tilt the substrate.
The machine tool chosen for such a deposition needs to have the spindle head always
vertical on which the welding torch is mounted and the required two tilts shall be
achieved through the tilting of the substrate. Hermle C30U 5-axis CNC machining centre
has this kinematic configuration (Figure 3.11a). In this machine, all the three linear
motions, viz., X, Y and Z, are given to the spindle head on which the weld-deposition
torch is mounted; the trunnion table on which the substrate is mounted has only tilts of the
A and C axes. This kind of variable axis deposition falls into two categories:
i. Indexed variable axis deposition: Splitting the geometry with undercuts into
segments each of which has a build orientation in which it is free from undercuts. An
example of this type is shown in Figure 3.5. These segments will be built one after the
other in a bottom-up manner. Before building each segment, the substrate will be
tilted to its build orientation. All layers of any segment are realised in 2.5 axis
kinematics.
ii. Continuous variable axis: In objects which have continuous features, such as shown
in Figure 3.7 or impeller blades, simultaneous 5-axis motion will be necessary.
The segmentation for the indexed variable axis deposition can be done by the user and
HLMSoft can be used to generate the tool paths corresponding to each segment after
aligning its build direction with Z axis. Note that each segment building will have to be
done with different work offsets. Each segment uses standard slicing method. The slicing
is more complex in the case of continuous variable axis deposition. Each tool point in this
need to be defined in terms of the position (x, y, z) and orientation (i, j, k). This is unlike
the standard slicing in which the tool points has only position. This enhanced slicing is
described in the following sub-sections.
8.3.1 Variable axis slicing
Consider the impeller shown in Figure 8.7a. It can be built over the substrate shown in
Figure 8.7b. Figure 8.7c shows the substrate after the first layer is built. If the substrate
were horizontal this would have resulted in the top surface of the layer being horizontal.
However, as the table is tilted so as to maintain the torch axis parallel to the edge of the
slice, the constant thickness added along the edge and hence the resulting top surface will
be non-planar. In order to have a higher yield, it is better to create the next slice parallel to
this non-planar surface. In other words, only the first slice will be planar and the
subsequent ones are likely to be non-planar slices. Unfortunately, the development of
such a non-planar slicing, that too for the variable axis deposition is too complex.
Therefore, it was decided to have the top surface always horizontal by flattening with the
face mill; this is at the expense of lower yield. The algorithm for this planar variable axis
slicing was simply an extension of the standard slicing.
(a) Object (b) Substrate (c) First slice

Figure 8.7 Variable axis slicing
Figure 8.8 Directions of normal, direction and torch unit vectors for a triangle
A slice consists of a set of loops. All these loops of a slice are associated with a single z
value. Any ith point in a loop in the standard slice is pi = [ xi yi z ] . However, in the
variable axis slice, each of these points is associated with a direction tî = [ii ji ki ] also.
This direction which denotes the torch orientation is obtained from the normal nî of the
corresponding triangle and the current direction of the loop dî = [ pi +1 − pi ] as:
tî = nî × dî (8.1)
The unit vectors for direction, normal and torch orientation for a given triangle are
shown in Figure 8.8. The tool paths will be defined by a series of Cutter Location or
Centre Line (CL) data as CLi = [ xi yi z ii ji ki ] . This CL data is converted into the
joint coordinates H = [ x y z a c ] of the machine as described in the next section.
8.3.2 Post-processing
A post-processor converts the CL data into the format acceptable to the CNC machine. It
consists of three types of information, viz., (i) process, (ii) kinematics and (iii) format or
syntax. These specific details of Hermle C30U 5-axis CNC machining centre with a
Heidenhain TNC i530 controller were embedded in the post-processor.
The following coordinate frames are used to define the kinematic configuration of the
CNC machine (Figure 8.9):
Ow ( X w , Yw , Z w ) - This is world coordinate frame. It is a fixed reference at the centre of

the A-axis. The cutter and blank/substrate are identified w.r.t to this
frame.
Ot ( X t , Yt , Z t ) - This is tool coordinate frame. It has the three linear degrees of
freedom.
Oa ( X a , Ya , Z a ) - This frame defines the A-axis rotation. X a is parallel to X w and
Ow lies on a circle of radius f in the X wYw plane. α is the angle of
rotation about X w axis.
Oc ( X c , Yc , Z c ) - This frame defines the C-axis rotation. Z c coincides with Z a and
Oc coincides with lies Oa . γ is the angle of rotation about Z a axis.
Ob ( X b , Yb , Z b ) - This is the frame attached to the blank. It has only the three linear
offsets ⎡⎣bx by bz ⎤⎦ w.r.t Oc .
The transformation matrix between Ow and Oa given by,
⎡1 0 0 0⎤
⎢0 cos α sin α 0 ⎥⎥
Tw = ⎢
a
⎢0 − sin α cos α 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣0 f sin α f (1 − cos α ) 1⎦
The transformation matrix between Oa and Oc is,
⎡ cos γ sin γ 0 0⎤
⎢ − sin γ cos γ 0 0 ⎥⎥
Tac = ⎢
⎢ 0 0 1 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 1⎦
The transformation matrix between Oc and Ob is,
⎡1 0 0 0⎤
⎢0 1 0 0 ⎥⎥
Tc = ⎢
b
⎢0 0 1 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢bx by bz 1 ⎦⎥
The concatenation of the above three matrices gives the transformation matrix between
Ow and Ob as,
Twc = Twa Tac Tcb
⎡1 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ cos γ sin γ 0 0⎤ ⎡ 1 0 0 0⎤
⎢0 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢ − sin γ ⎢ 0 ⎥⎥
cos α sin α cos γ 0 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢ 0 1 0
=⎢ ⎢
⎢0 − sin α cos α 0⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1 0⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1 0⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣0 f sin α f (1 − cos α ) 1⎦ ⎣ 0 0 0 1 ⎦ ⎣⎢bx by bz 1 ⎦⎥
⎡ cos γ cos α sin γ sin α sin γ 0⎤

⎢ − sin γ cos α cos γ sin α cos γ 0 ⎥⎥
=⎢
⎢ 0 − sin α cos α 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ bx by + f sin α bz + f (1 − cos α ) 1 ⎥⎦
The unit vector of the tool axis w.r.t tool Ow frame is [ 0 0 1 0] and the same vector
w.r.t Ob frame is, [i j k 0] . In other words,

[0 0 1 0 ] = [i j k 0] ⎢
⎢ ⎥
T
⎡ i cos γ − j sin γ ⎤
⎢i cos α sin γ + j cos α cos γ − k sin α ⎥
=⎢ ⎥
⎢ i sin α sin γ + j sin α cos γ + k cos α ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 ⎦
The above gives rise to the following three equations,

i cos γ − j sin γ = 0⎫
⎪
i cos α sin γ + j cos α cos γ − k sin α = 0 ⎬ (8.2)
i sin α sin γ + j sin α cos γ + k cos α = 1 ⎪⎭
Solving the above equations, yields α and γ as,
α = cos −1 k ⎫
⎪
−1 ⎛ i ⎞⎬ (8.3)
γ = tan ⎜ ⎟ ⎪
⎝ j ⎠⎭
Note that during the implementation, γ shall be calculated as γ = arctan 2 ( i, j ) and not as
⎛i⎞
γ = arctan ⎜ ⎟ . This is because the former gives the angle in the full range of [ −π , π ] ,
j⎝ ⎠
⎡ π π⎤
whereas the latter gives in the range of ⎢ − , ⎥ only.
⎣ 2 2⎦
The tool tip w.r.t Ow frame is [ x y z 1] and the same w.r.t Ob is [ xb yb zb 1] .
Therefore,
[x y z 1] = [ xb yb zb 1] Twb

= [ xb yb zb 1] ⎢
⎢ ⎥
T
⎡ xb cos γ − yb sin γ + bx ⎤
⎢ x cos α sin γ + y cos α cos γ − z sin α + b + f sin α ⎥
=⎢ b b b y ⎥
⎢ xb sin α sin γ + yb sin α cos γ + zb cos α + bz + f (1 − cos α ) ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 ⎦
This yields,
x = xb cos γ − yb sin γ + bx ⎫
⎪⎪
y = xb cos α sin γ + yb cos α cos γ − zb sin α + by + f sin α ⎬ (8.4)
⎪
z = xb sin α sin γ + yb sin α cos γ + zb cos α + bz + f (1 − cos α ) ⎪⎭
Therefore, the mapping between the CL data CL = [ xb yb zb i j k ] and the joint
coordinates H = [ x y z a c ] is,
⎫
⎪
x = xb cos γ − yb sin γ + bx ⎪
y = xb cos α sin γ + yb cos α cos γ − zb sin α + by + f sin α ⎪
⎪⎪
z = xb sin α sin γ + yb sin α cos γ + zb cos α + bz + f (1 − cos α ) ⎬ (8.5)
⎪
α = cos −1 k ⎪
⎛i⎞ ⎪
γ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎪
⎝ j⎠ ⎭⎪
These equations are embedded in the post-processor to convert the CL data into a 5-axis
machine formal.
Figure 8.9 Transformation of axes for 5-axis kinematics

8.4 Summary
The applications of HLM for components were studied in this chapter. In components
with minor undercut features, it is possible to build the components through planar
deposition in 3-axis HLM by suppressing minor overhanging features. For the purpose of
deposition, the CAD model is modified by blinding the undercuts through the addition of
material. This approach was demonstrated with the help of a case study.
A simplified deposition methodology was proposed for geometries which require

variable axis deposition. This is achieved by enhancing the existing planar slicing to
include the tilt information at every point. The methodology and 5-axis post-processing
required to achieve this have also been described.
Chapter 9
Conclusions & Future Scope
9.1 Conclusions
Automation has two stages, viz., process automation and process planning automation.
CNC machining has only process automation and its process planning still requires
extensive human intervention. Computer-Aided Process Planning or Part Programming
(CAPP) is an active area of research to automate process planning but it had little success
so far for subtractive manufacturing. CAPP became successful for additive manufacturing
in a layer-by-layer manner which led to the development of a number of RP processes.
RP can produce objects directly from their CAD models without the use of any tooling
specific to the geometry of the objects being produced. RP adopts a divide-and-conquer
approach in which the complex 3D object is split into several 2D slices that are simple
enough to automatically manufacture.
The success in the CAPP system, and hence the total automation, is attained in RP by
compromising on quality. Rapid prototypes are inferior in geometric quality (accuracy
and surface finish) and material quality (variety and homogeneity) to machined parts.
CNC machining, the subtractive process, can produce good quality parts but is slow;
although the material removal by itself is fast, human efforts required for cutter path
generation is the bottleneck. The Hybrid Layered Manufacturing discussed in this report
combines layered manufacturing and conventional machining methods in order to exploit
the benefits of both while avoiding their limitations. The two level processing adopted in
making each layer using simple well known processes, viz., welding and machining, will
result in producing parts and tools economically, accurately and rapidly. The following
are the important features of HLM:
• Elimination of rough-machining, resulting in material saving.

Chapter 9 Conclusions & Future Scope 9-2
• Better utilization of the CNC machines by minimizing manual NC programming and

hence brining down the delays in NC programs generation.
• Lesser time taken as the object is built in less number of thick layers. The layers of
HLM are thicker by orders of magnitude than that of the competing RP processes
such as SLS, 3DP or LENS (1-3mm in HLM as against 0.02-0.05mm in SLS).
• High material deposition rates possible. Deposition rate of laser or electron beam is 2-
10 g/min whereas the same for arc-based RM is 50-130 g/min.
• Manufacture of tools using HLM is cheaper than CNC machining. HLM is cheaper
and safer than the laser-based RP processes such as SLS, 3DP or LENS.
• Amenable to be installed as a retrofitment to any existing CNC machine.
• Possible to manufacture components with slight undercuts without the need for an
additional support material.
• Repair of damaged tools can also be carried out.
• Possible to make functionally gradient components.
Building a metallic object using HLM typically involves five stages. Calibration of
the offsets and processing of the STL file with the help of HLMSoft comprise the first and
second stages. In the third stage, the near-net shape of the object is manufactured in a
layer-by-layer manner. From the STL file, the NC data for weld-deposition and face
milling is generated using HLMSoft. This software is developed in-house, using Microsoft
Visual C++ platform. Depending on the geometric complexity of the component, its
near-net shape can be obtained through one of the following methods:
1. Planar deposition using 3-axis CNC machine

2. Planar deposition using 3-axis CNC machine for small undercuts
3. Planar deposition using 3-axis CNC machine after blinding the undercuts
4. Planar deposition using 3-axis CNC machine with support structure
5. Conformal (non-planar) deposition using 3-axis CNC machine
6. 5-axis deposition
7. Deposition using multiple welding torches
Owing to the high amounts of heat input during weld-deposition, internal stresses may
develop in the deposited object. Thus, the fourth stage of HLM methodology comprises
of residual stress relieving. Stress reliving methods can be broadly classified as peening
based, vibration based and heat treatment based. Vibration is actually stress redistribution
rather than relieving. Peening too does not relieve the stresses, but only adds a
compressive layer on the surface that arrests the crack propagation. Thus, stress relieving
takes place only in heat treatment due to the recrystallization of the grain structure.
Although the other methods help to an extent, post-weld heat treatment is unavoidable for
complete stress reliving. Hence, it was concluded that inter-layer stress relieving is
redundant in HLM (it may be noted that heat treatment is a common practice in most die
shops and is not an additional activity in HLM). Instead, it will be more beneficial to
focus on reducing the heat-input at the source. Cold Metal Transfer (CMT) welding
technology was chosen to replace the older generation pulse synergic welding. This
drastically brings down the heat input during weld-deposition. A dynamic clamping
system providing soft-clamping during weld-deposition and rigid clamping during face
milling was also designed. (i) Residual stresses and (ii) distortion are the two
interchangeable manifestations of the non-uniform heat input to the built object. This
system reduces the residual stresses developed by allowing them to manifest in the form
of distortion.
In the fifth and final stage, the near-net shape is finish machined to final dimensions.
It may be noted that the near-net shape to be finish machined can be obtained through
laser and electron beam based processes also. Therefore, near-net shape route is not
exclusive to HLM; it is rather the characteristic of the hybrid approach. In HLM these two
steps are synergically integrated using the same drives. Also, HLM uses GMAW which is
faster, safer, more economical, more portable and easier to maintain than laser or electron
beam welding.
Total automation in HLM is realized by synergic integration of weld-deposition

equipment with the CNC machine. The integration was carried out in such a manner that
the weld-deposition can act as an additional feature to an existing CNC machine without
disturbing its other capabilities. The following are some of the significant advantages of
this integration:
• Total automation across RP phase of building near-net shape and CNC phase of finish
machining is possible.
• It can be retrofitted to any existing CNC machine as an optional feature.
• The retrofitment does not require any proprietary information from the machine
builder. Therefore this integration is independent of the make of the machine.
• As the weld-deposition torch is mounted on the same spindle head no additional set of
axes and controller are needed.
• It can be easily switched between HLM mode and regular CNC machining mode.
This integration was carried by redirecting the coolant relay for starting/stopping of
the weld-deposition. Thus the numerical control for coolant (M08/M09) will activate the
weld-deposition instead of coolant. This interchanging was done through a DPDT switch
to ensure that the machine can be switched back to regular mode easily. The intricate
details of this novel integration method have been described in detail. Methods employed
to minimize the negative effects of weld-deposition on the CNC machine have also been
presented.
Although HLM is envisaged as a retrofitment to an existing 3-axis or 5-axis CNC

machining center, the need was felt for a generic facility capable of demonstrating its
various capabilities. Thus a full fledged HLM facility, consisting of the following sub-
systems was configured:
1. Argo 1050P 3-axis CNC machining center

2. Hermle C30U 5-axis CNC machining center
3. Two Fronius weld-deposition units
4. Pallet system connecting the two CNC machines.
The facility is designed in such a manner that weld-deposition and machining can
happen on both the CNC machines and the job can also shuttle between the two
machines. In addition, if a pre-heating is required before weld-deposition, as in the case

of forging die repair, that can be done on the pallet station, in front of the corresponding
CNC machine.
Although, GMAW is traditionally used as a joining process, in HLM it is used as a

deposition process. The requirements of joining and deposition applications differ
significantly. GMA welding process was studied critically in this context to understand
the effect of various parameters on the desired characteristics. While penetration and
productivity are the major considerations in joining applications, less heat input, higher
resolution and higher yield assume greater importance in HLM. The use of pulsed
synergic GMAW considerably reduced the number of welding parameters to be
optimized. Accordingly, wire speed, torch speed and stepover increment are identified as
the primary process parameters.
The modelling of the bead profile was required to establish the relationship among
different parameters that influence the weld-deposition. The bead geometry was modeled
assuming it as a parabola. This was validated through a series of single-bead experiments
comparing the predicted and measured geometries of the beads for various values of wire
and torch speeds. The advantage of this model is that the bead geometry can be inferred
by merely measuring its height in place of cumbersome sectioning, painting, scanning,
measuring the points, fitting a curve etc. to arrive at the bead geometry. This model does
not eliminate experimentation for predicting the deposition pattern of a new material; but
it substantially simplifies the process.
A regression model was also generated to give height, h as a function of wire and
torch speeds. The filler wire chosen was copper coated mild steel wire (ER70S6) of
0.8mm diameter. The current was varied in the range of 60A to 120A which corresponds
to the wire speed range of 4.7 - 10.4 m/min. The torch speed was varied from 600m/min
to 1100m/min.
Prediction of layer thickness and optimization of yield are the major output
parameters involved in layered manufacturing. A multi-bead deposition model was
proposed to predict the value of layer thickness and yield as a function of the three
process parameters. It was assumed that the overlap volume between two beads fillets the
valley between them. This model was subsequently validated through a set of
experiments.
The modelling of the multi-bead deposition helps in calculating yield as a function of

the three process parameters. Minimum rate of heat input, wider heat distribution, higher
resolution and optimum yield are the most desired criteria in weld-deposition. Wire
speed, torch speed and stepover increment are the three process parameters which are
selected based on those criterion. Wire speed is an indication of the rate of heat input. In
order to minimize distortion, internal stresses and machining allowance, it is desirable to
have the lowest possible wire speed. Note that this is in contrast with the joining
processes. Once the wire speed is fixed, the area of the bead cross section is influenced
only by the torch speed. If the torch speed is more, the bead is finer and vice-versa. An
added advantage of higher torch speed is the distribution of heat over a wider area.
Therefore the lowest wire speed and the highest torch speed within the operating range
are chosen. Based on the process modelling carried out, it was found that for optimal
yield, the stepover increment should be two-thirds of the bead width.
The diverse capabilities of HLM along with the characterization of objects made
through it have been studied in detail. This facilitates the identification of suitable domain
of applications for HLM process. The matrix, analyzed with the help of a Zeiss Stemi
2000-C Stereo Microscope, was found to be free of porosity and voids.
The hardness variation along the deposition direction was studied in details with the
help of three specimen, each subjected to different number of weld-deposition. It was
found that hardness variation exists only in the final layers. From the maximum point in
the final layers, it falls rapidly within a thickness of few layers, about 5 layers, before
stabilizing. In other words, the interior matrix has negligible hardness variation.
The tensile properties of the matrix in the three directions viz., torch direction, step
over direction and vertical direction, were analyzed using ASTM A370 standard. It was
found that the average yield and ultimate strength varied only by 3% and 1% respectively
between the torch and step over direction, implying negligible variation of strength in XY
plane. However, the same for vertical direction varied by 20% and 13%. Subsequent
experiments showed that it is possible to achieve same tensile properties in all the three
direction with suitably increasing the current.
Subsequently feasibility studies for handling a variety of materials were carried out.
For instance, in addition to ferrous materials (ER70S6 and EN 14700), aluminium objects
were also built and characterized using a Al-5Mg filler wire of 1.2mm diameter. Solid-
cored P20 tool steel wire was also used.
In layered manufacturing, when the next layer is larger than the previous one,
generally a support mechanism is required. However, the next layer can overhang by a
small amount which depends on the material and layer thickness. This feature is used in
minimizing support structures in FDM. The same is exploited in HLM to build slant walls
and other features such as conformal cooling ducts without any support mechanism. For
mild steel, through a series of experiments, it was found that an overhang of 0.6mm is
possible for layer thickness of 1mm. Figure 6 shows some complex objects made in HLM
making use of this feature.
Having explored the various capabilities of HLM, its applications for tool making,
particularly injection moulding have been described. Material saving, elimination of
rough machining, reduction of programming time, elimination of EDM and ability to
make conformal cooling ducts are some of the significant advantages of HLM in tooling
applications. An industrial trial, shown in Figure 7 was also carried out to confirm the
techno-economic viability of HLM in manufacture of injection moulds. This case study
was carried out using a MS filler wire. Subsequently, a more complex case study was
taken up. The goal in this case study is to produce the punch of this mold out of a
composite matrix, i.e., with a 10mm thick case of P20 tool steel and the inner core with
mild steel. It will also have conformal cooling ducts. Economical manufacture of
composite die with conformal cooling ducts is a unique feature of HLM. The direction of
the conformal cooling ducts was planned with the help of MoldFlow software.
The overhang that can be realized for the conformal cooling ducts is dependent on the
layer thickness of the slice. Thus, smaller layer thickness is desirable for making the
overhanging features. However, this also increases the material wastage, reducing the
overall yield of the process. This problem was overcome by using discrete adaptive layers
for deposition; the overhanging ducts were realized using smaller layer thickness and the
rest of the material using larger layer thickness. The adaptive slicing was achieved by
splitting the model of core into different STL files, one around the conformal cooling
ducts and the other for rest of the mould. The former is deposited with a layer thickness of
0.5mm and the latter with a layer thickness of 2mm. Thus, the mould is divided into the
following three segments or STL files:
i. STL file of the case of the punch (P20 tool steel, to be deposited in larger layers)
ii. STL file of the core of the punch (MS, to be deposited in larger layers)
iii. STL file of the three triangular segments (MS, to be deposited in small largers)
The time and cost data from these case studies was compared with that of building the
same through CNC method, obtained from a tool room. From this data, the cost and time
taken in HLM route and the CNC route were compared. The following are some of the
results of this case study:
• HLM route takes considerably less time and money than the CNC route.
• For a monolithic mould, the cost of material in HLM was found to be lower than that
of CNC route due to less wastage of material.
• NC programming and hence the associated time and cost for near-net manufacture are
eliminated.
• Composite dies with a hard casing and soft core that bring down the raw material cost
are also feasible.
• It is possible to manufacture moulds with conformal cooling ducts at a nominal
increase in the cost.
benefits.
The applications of HLM for repair has been studied in the context of forging dies.
High fatigue strength, short tool life and moderate accuracy requirements are some of the
major differences between forging and injection moulding tools. While damaged injection
moulds are hardly sent back for repair, repair of forging dies is a very common practice.
Most forging setups have in-house die manufacture and repair facilities too. The benefits
of HLM for die repair was demonstrated through the case study of a worn out knuckle die
of Bharat Forge. The following are the two major deviations in HLM process for repair of
damaged dies over manufacture of fresh dies:
1. Non-planar deposition: In manufacture of fresh dies, the tool can be obtained using
uniform slicing. However, for repair applications, as the surface to be repaired is often
non-planar, the weld-deposition torch has to move in all 3 directions simultaneously.
2. Self-shielding flux cored arc welding: MIG process is not suitable for carrying out
weld-deposition in deep features due to the disruption of masking gas curtain. Thus
self-shielding flux cored arc welding, also known as open arc welding is used.
The applications of HLM for component manufacture were presented subsequently.

In components with minor undercut features, it is possible to build the components
through planar deposition in 3-axis HLM by suppressing minor overhanging features. For
the purpose of deposition, the CAD model is modified by blinding the undercuts through
the addition of material. The near-net of this modified CAD model is built. The original
CAD model is used for finish machining. Depending on the geometric complexity,
finishing may even require variable axis machining. This approach was demonstrated
with the help of a case study of turbine blades of a quad-copter (Figure 11). Analysis of
this case study revealed a 47% and 41% saving in time and cost in HLM route over CNC
route.
In an undercut free geometry, 2.5 axis kinematics is enough for deposition as the
current layer always lies within the extents of the previous one. While building a
geometry with undercuts, if the current layer overhangs the previous one beyond a limit,
the material flows down before it solidifies. To avoid this problem, one can suitably tilt
the substrate using a variable axis kinematics. The existing planar slicing was enhanced to
include the tilt information at every point. The methodology and 5-axis post-processing
required to achieve this have also been described.
Significant Contributions
The significant contributions of this research are given below:
• Evolution of various methods of manufacture/repair of tooling/component; depending

on the geometric complexity, these methods involve planar/non-planar deposition
requiring 3-axis/5-axis kinematics.
• Design and development of a genetic HLM facility capable of catering to a variety of
applications.
• Integration of weld-deposition system and CNC machine taking the electrical and
mechanical issues into consideration.
• Modelling of single-bead deposition.
• Modelling of multiple-bead deposition
• Experimental validation of the proposed models.
• Optimization of process parameters.
• Characterization of HLM matrix.
• Confirmation of techno-economic viability of HLM for injection moulds through a
case study.
• Develop the methodology including discreet adaptive slicing for building composite
injection moulds with conformal cooling ducts.
• Investigations on the repair of moulds and dies.
• Building of overhanging features without the use of support and experiments to find
the maximum possible overhang.
9.2 Future Scope
Presently, the HLMSoft can handle only uniform planar deposition. Modules of adaptive
and non-planar can also be added. Weld-deposition techniques for handling 5-axis
deposition can also be developed. New slicing methods to suit this 5-axis deposition also
needs to be developed.
The sliced layer can be divided into smaller sections and the tool paths for material
deposition in it can be randomized so that the thermal stresses get uniformly distributed in
the fabricated part. Research can be done on dividing the sections on the basis of equal
heat input based on taking factors like length of the path, area of the section, location of
the section etc into consideration.
Different materials like mild steel, aluminium, titanium alloys will have different
material properties and hence the heat treatment cycles for various tool materials need to
be explored. Investigations on the effect of deposition pattern on the residual stresses can
also be carried out.
The molten droplet during weld-deposition can be modeled as a moving heat source
case to predict the warping in the near-net shape. This will help reduce machining
allowance.
Presently, only on/off of welding is carried out through the NC program. Therefore, it
is not possible to alter the weld-deposition parameters like wire speed automatically.
However, Fronius machine also permits the automatic control of welding parameters. In
future, control of the welding current in discrete steps through this interface should be
established so that adaptive layer deposition is possible.
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Appendix A
Optimal Parameters for Al-Mg (ER5356)

The experimental results of process modelling carried out for 1.2mm diameter Al-Mg
filler wire (ER5356) using Fronius TPS 4000 weld-deposition unit are summarized here.
Table 5.4 lists the chemical composition of this filler wire. The experimental approach is
same as that adopted for 0.8mm MS wire, discussed in Chapter 4. The current vs. wire
speed plot for this material is depicted in Figure A.1. The operating ranges of wire and
torch speeds were chosen as 4.7 – 7.0 m/min and 0.8 – 1.5 m/min respectively. Figure A.2
shows a sample pattern deposited for measuring the bead height. The following
regression model for height, h was arrived based on the measured experimental reading
given in Table A.1:
h = C1vw2 + C2 vt2 + C3vw vt + C4 vw + C5 vt + C6 (A.1)

where,
C1 =-0.17431E-02 C4 =-0.19053E+00
C2 = 0.92500E+00 C5 =-0.37721E+01
C3 = 0.14401E+00 C6 = 0.49033E+01
The surface plots for bead height and width based on this regression are shown in
Figure A.3. Figure A.4 shows the surface plots for yield generated using multi-bead
deposition model described in Chapter 4.
Recommended values for user

As per the earlier discussions, the lowest possible wire speed and the highest possible
torch speed of vw = 4.7 m/min and vt = 1.5 m/min are selected. By substituting these
values in Equation A-1 the bead height, h, was obtained as 1.408 mm. The width of this
bead based on Equation 4.7 is calculated as, 3.775 mm. Thus, from Equation 4.24, the

Appendix-A: Opttimal Parame
eters for Al-M
Mg (ER5356)) A-2
optiimal stepover incremennt is obtaineed as 2.517 mm. Hencee, the three process parrameters
to be
b set to achhieve optimaal conditionns for a 1.2m
mm Al wire will be:
vw = 4.7 m/minn vt = 1.55 m/min p = 2.5 mm

m
Wire
W
Current
Sp
peed
(A
(Amps)
(m/m
/mins)
80 4.7
4
90 5.3
5
100 5.9
5
109 6.4
6

120 7.0
7
Figure A.1
A Current vss Wire Speed graph for 1.2mm
1 Al wirre

Fig
gure A.2 Weld bead

Appendix-A: Optimal Parameters for Al-Mg (ER5356) A-3
Table A.1 Measured bead geometry properties for various torch and wire speeds
Wire Speed Torch Speed Height Width Area
Sno
m/min m/min mm mm mm2
1 4.7 0.8 2.09 4.30 5.991
2 4.7 0.9 1.96 3.94 5.148
3 4.7 1.0 1.82 3.71 4.501
4 4.7 1.1 1.71 3.40 3.876
5 4.7 1.2 1.72 3.26 3.738
6 4.7 1.3 1.41 3.48 3.271
7 4.7 1.4 1.50 3.02 3.020
8 4.7 1.5 1.45 3.06 2.958
9 5.3 0.8 2.01 4.61 6.177
10 5.3 0.9 1.79 4.66 5.561
11 5.3 1.0 1.67 4.44 4.943
12 5.3 1.1 1.62 4.27 4.612
13 5.3 1.2 1.49 4.17 4.142
14 5.3 1.3 1.46 3.96 3.854
15 5.3 1.4 1.39 3.72 3.447
16 5.3 1.5 1.41 3.63 3.412
17 5.9 0.8 2.02 4.90 6.599
18 5.9 0.9 1.90 4.72 5.979
19 5.9 1.0 1.58 5.11 5.383
20 5.9 1.1 1.62 4.66 5.033
21 5.9 1.2 1.50 4.85 4.850
22 5.9 1.3 1.48 4.35 4.292
23 5.9 1.4 1.44 4.12 3.955
24 5.9 1.5 1.42 3.87 3.664
25 6.4 0.8 2.04 5.39 7.330
26 6.4 0.9 1.89 5.14 6.476
27 6.4 1.0 1.76 5.26 6.172
28 6.4 1.1 1.65 5.32 5.852
29 6.4 1.2 1.66 4.81 5.323
30 6.4 1.3 1.52 4.65 4.712
31 6.4 1.4 1.41 4.42 4.155
32 6.4 1.5 1.43 4.30 4.099
33 7.0 0.8 1.74 6.54 7.586
34 7.0 0.9 1.69 6.27 7.064
35 7.0 1.0 1.60 6.19 6.603
36 7.0 1.1 1.58 5.84 6.151
37 7.0 1.2 1.55 5.29 5.466
38 7.0 1.3 1.44 5.11 4.906
39 7.0 1.4 1.38 4.77 4.388
40 7.0 1.5 1.41 4.52 4.249

Appendix-A: Optimal Parameters for Al-Mg (ER5356) A-4

(a) Bead height (b) Bead width
Figure A.3 Surface plots for bead shape

(a) Yield for various values of stepover increment (b) Yield for various values of torch speed

Figure A.4 Surface plots of yield

Appendix B
Optimal Parameters for MS (ER70S-6)

The experimental results of process modelling carried out for 0.8mm diameter Mild Steel
filler wire (ER70S-6) using Fronius TPS 2700 CMT weld-deposition unit are summarized
here. The composition of this filler wire is given in Table 5.4. The experimental approach
is same as that discussed in Chapter 4. The current vs. wire speed plot for the same is
depicted in Figure B.1. The operating ranges of wire and torch speeds were chosen as 5.8
– 11.4 m/min and 0.6 – 1.0 m/min respectively. The following regression model for
height, h was arrived based on the measured experimental reading given in Table B.1:
h = C1vw2 + C2 vt2 + C3vw vt + C4 vw + C5 vt + C6 (B.1)

where,
C1 =-0.47194E-02 C4 =-0.28251E+00
C2 =-0.85714E+00 C5 = 0.12220E+01
C3 =-0.12029E+00 C6 =-0.11192E+00
The surface plots for bead height and width based on this regression are shown in
Figure B.2. Figure B.3 shows the surface plots for yield generated using multi-bead
deposition model described in Chapter 4.
Recommended values for user

As per the earlier discussions, the lowest possible wire speed and the highest possible
torch speed of vw = 5.8 m/min and vt = 1.0 m/min are selected. By substituting these
values in Equation B.1, the bead height, h, was obtained as 1.035mm. The width of this
bead based on Equation 4.5 is calculated as, 4.225mm. Thus, from Equation 4.24, the
optimal stepover increment is obtained as 2.816mm. Hence, the three process parameters
to be set to achieve optimal conditions are:

vw = 5.8 m/min vt = 1.0 m/min p = 2.8 mm
Wire
Current
Speed
(Amps)
(m/mins)
80 4.7
90 5.3
100 5.9
109 6.4

120 7.0
Figure B.1 Current vs Wire Speed graph for 0.8mm Mild Steel (CMT)

Table B.1 Measured bead geometry properties for various torch and wire speeds
Wire Speed Torch Speed Height Width Area
Sno
m/min m/min mm mm mm2
1 5.8 0.6 1.40 5.20 4.86
2 5.8 0.7 1.28 4.88 4.16
3 5.8 0.8 1.24 4.41 3.64
4 5.8 0.9 1.18 4.12 3.24
5 5.8 1.0 1.02 4.29 2.91
6 7.2 0.6 1.56 5.80 6.03
7 7.2 0.7 1.50 5.17 5.17
8 7.2 0.8 1.38 4.91 4.52
9 7.2 0.9 1.32 4.57 4.02
10 7.2 1.0 1.18 4.60 3.62
11 8.5 0.6 1.78 6.00 7.12
12 8.5 0.7 1.70 5.38 6.10
13 8.5 0.8 1.54 5.20 5.34
14 8.5 0.9 1.50 4.74 4.74
15 8.5 1.0 1.20 5.34 4.27
16 9.5 0.6 1.88 6.35 7.95
17 9.5 0.7 1.80 5.68 6.82
18 9.5 0.8 1.62 5.52 5.97
19 9.5 0.9 1.66 4.79 5.30
20 9.5 1.0 1.38 5.19 4.77
21 10.5 0.6 1.94 6.80 8.79

22 10.5 0.7 1.92 5.89 7.54

23 10.5 0.8 1.66 5.96 6.59
24 10.5 0.9 1.60 5.50 5.86
25 10.5 1.0 1.40 5.65 5.28
26 11.4 0.6 2.12 6.75 9.55
27 11.4 0.7 2.04 6.02 8.18
28 11.4 0.8 1.79 6.00 7.16
29 11.4 0.9 1.60 5.97 6.36
30 11.4 1.0 1.56 5.51 5.73

(a) Bead height (b) Bead width

Figure B.2 Surface plots for bead shape

(a) Yield for various values of stepover increment (b) Yield for various values of torch speed

Figure B.3 Surface plots of yield

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4. Greul, M., Pintat, T. and Greulich, M. (1995): “Rapid prototyping of functional
metallic parts”, Computers in Industry, Vol. 28(1), pp 23-28.
5. Karunakaran, K.P., Shanmuganathan, P.V., Jadhav, S.J., Bhadauria, P. and Pandey,
A. (2000): “Rapid prototyping of metallic parts and moulds”, Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, Vol. 105(3), pp 371-381.
6. Kruth, J., Leu, M. and Nakagawa, T. (1998): “Progress in Additive Manufacturing
and Rapid Prototyping”, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 47(2), pp
525-540.
7. Lincoln Electric (2009): “GMAW Welding Guide”, Lincoln Electric, available at:
http://content.lincolnelectric.com/pdfs/products/literature/c4200.pdf.
8. Miller Welds (2009): “Guidelines for Gas Metal Arc Welding”, Miller Welds,
available at: http://www.millerwelds.com/pdf/mig_handbook.pdf.
9. Parmar, R. (1997): Welding Processes and Technology, Khanna Publishers.
10. Song, Y. and Park, S. (2006): “Experimental investigations into rapid prototyping
of composites by novel hybrid deposition process”, Journal of Materials Processing
11. Sreenathbabu, A. (2006): “Hybrid Layered Manufacturing of Metallic Dies and
Molds”, PhD dissertation, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
12. Thompson, S. (1999): Handbook of mould, tool and die repair welding, Abington
Publishing.
Publications based on This Thesis
International Journals:
1. Karunakaran, K.P., Pushpa, V., Akula, S. and Suryakumar, S. (2008): “Techno-Economic Analysis of
Hybrid Layered Manufacturing”, Int J of Intelligent Systems Technologies and Application, Vol 4, No.
1/2, pp. 161-176.
2. Karunakaran, K.P., Suryakumar, S., Pushpa, V. and Akula, S. : “Retrofitment of a CNC machine for
hybrid layered manufacturing”, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology,
accepted, in press.
3. Karunakaran, K.P., Suryakumar, S., Pushpa, V. and Akula, S. : “Low Cost Upgradation of a CNC for
Rapid Prototyping of Metallic Objects”, Robotics and Computer Integrated Manufacturing, under
review.
4. Suryakumar, S., Karunakaran, K.P., Bernard, A. and Taillandier, G. : “Hybrid Rapid Manufacturing of
Metallic Objects”, ASME Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, under review.
5. Suryakumar, S., Karunakaran, K.P. : “Modeling and Optimization of GMAW Bead Formation in
Layered Manufacturing”, ASME Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, under
preparation.
International Conferences:
1. Karunakaran, K.P., Pushpa, V., Akula, S. and Suryakumar, S., Dwivedi, R. and Kovacevic, R. (2006):
“Techno-Economic Analysis of Hybrid Layered Manufacturing”, Indo-Japan Seminar on Micro/ Nano
Manufacturing, February 19-23, 2006, Tokyo.
2. Karunakaran, K.P., Suryakumar, S. and Bernard, A. (2006): “Rapid Manufacturing of Metallic
Objects”, uRapid 2006, November 27-28, Frankfurt.
3. Sahu, J.P., Suryakumar, S., Karunakaran, K.P (2006): “Demystifying Product Lifecycle Management”,
International Conference on Trends in Product Life Cycle-Modelling, Simulation and Synthesis
(PLMSS06), December 18-20, Bangalore.
4. Karunakaran, K.P., Suryakumar, S. and Bernard, A. (2007): “Rapid Manufacturing of Metallic
Objects”, International Conference on Modeling and Simulation, August 27-29, Coimbatore Institute
of Technology, Coimbatore.
5. Karunakaran, K.P. and Suryakumar, S. (2008): “Retrofitment of a CNC Machine for ArcHLM”,
Moulds Event, RPD 2008 - Designing the Industry of the Future, October 29-30, Oliveira de Azeméis
(Portugal).
6. Karunakaran, K.P. and Suryakumar, S. (2008): “Techno-Economic Analysis of Hybrid Layered
Manufacturing”, Symposium on Joining of Materials (SOJOM), December 11-13, Tiruchirappalli.
7. Karunakaran, K.P., Suryakumar, S. and Bernard, A. (2009): “Hybrid Rapid Manufacturing of Metallic
Objects”, Key note presentation in 14èmes Assises Européennes du prototypage Rapide, Paris, June 24-
25, 2009.
Acknowledgements
It is my great pleasure in expressing sincere and deep gratitude towards my Guide Dr.
K. P. Karunakaran for his valuable guidance. He was always eager to assist me in
solving difficult knots in the research. There are numerous occasions on which he
accompanied me in carrying out experiments even late into the night.
I also wish thank Dr. B.Ravi, Dr. C. Amarnath, Dr. V.P. Bapat, Dr. R. Raman and
Dr. K. Narasimhan and for their valuable inputs regarding the scope and focus of the
research.
This project was made possible by the funding of Ministry of Information

Technology (MIT), India. I am thankful to MIT and the PRSG members, particularly,
Mr. Meharde for the enthusiasm and trust they have shown in this project. The various
case studies taken up in the thesis were made possible only with the active help of
industries like CAMTools in Sakinaka, Mumbai, Bharat Forge in Pune, Larsen &
Toubro in Powai, Mumbai, Godrej Tool Room in Vikhroli, Mumbai, C.R.Tooling in
Goregoan, Mumbai. The design for HLM facility was developed with active participation
from Mr. Glen of P.M.Technologies, Mumbai. I am also grateful to Welding Research
Institute (WRI), BHEL, Coaimbatore and Mr. Ravi Patel of AutoMech Systems,
Mumbai for their assistance in stress relieving and DNC operations. I also thank Dr.
Martin Held for allowing the use of voronio diagrams for contour parallel area-filling in
HLMSoft.
I thank my colleagues Mr. Rony and Mr. Pankaj for helping me in the mechanical
operation of CNC and Dr. Shringi for his camaraderie during my PhD. I would also like
to thank all my lab mates and interns who have always extended their support to me.
I always carry fond memories of my days at VSC in IIT Madras. It gave a purpose to
my life and moulded my ideological thinking. It is too close to me to distance it by saying
thanks. So will only say that all those with whom I came in touch with there will be
always fondly remembered. The same goes to my “evening friends” in IIT Bombay who
helped me in keeping alive that flame.
I would also like to acknowledge the love and support of my Mother not just during
my PhD, but throughout my life. And then my Brother for his comical reliefs. I also
value the patience and support of my fiancé to see me complete my PhD. Lastly, I would
like to mention my gratitude to my Father for his enthusiasm in seeing me get a
doctorate; it will not be wrong if I say he is more happy than me about completion of my
research.
Suryakumar S
November, 2009

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Investigations into Hybrid Layered

Manufacturing of Metallic Objects

submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements

under the supervision of

Department of Mechanical Engineering

The thesis entitled “Investigations into Hybrid Layered

Place: IIT Bombay

Certificate of Course Work

This is to certify that Mr. Suryakumar S was admitted to the

Sl. No. Course No. Course Name Credits

1 ME 637 Manufacturing Automation 6

2 ME 617 Rapid Product Development 6

3 MES 801 Credit Seminar 4

Dy. Registrar (Academic Programs)

Place: IIT Bombay

Effective integration of the weld-deposition units with the CNC machine is

Material saving, elimination of rough machining, reduction of programming time,

It is possible to realize components with minor undercuts through planar 3-

Keywords: Rapid Manufacturing, Layered Manufacturing, Slicing, Arc Welding,

List of Figures viii

List of Tables xiii

3. Hybrid Layered Manufacturing 3

5. Characterization and Capabilities of HLM 5

6. Applications of HLM for Injection Moulds 6

7. Applications of HLM for Repair 7

8. Applications of HLM for Components 8

9. Conclusions & Future Scope 9

Appendix-B: Optimal Parameters for MS (ER70S-6) B-1

Publications based on this Thesis

1.1 Applications of RP 1-1

2.1 Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) 2-3

3.1 HLM combining the benefits of RP and CNC machining 3-2

4.1 Bead geometry 4-2

5.1 Microstructure of HLM matrix 5-2

6.1 Realization of deep features through HLM 6-4

7.1 LENS being used for repair of aerospace components 7-1

8.1 Components built after blinding the undercuts by AeroMet 8-1

1.1 Techniques for improving quality and speed 1-2

2.1 Comparison of powder and wire feed 2-2

3.1 Comparison of CNC, RP and HLM approaches 3-3

4.1 Comparison of predicted and measured cross-sectional areas of weld- 4-6

5.1 Tensile strength of the HLM object in different directions 5-6

6.1 Commonly used tool materials for different applications 6-2

7.1 Comparison of injection moulds and forging dies 7-1

8.1 Time and material deposited for each layer 8-6

CAPP Computer-Automated Part Programming

CL Cutter Location or Centre Line

FCAW Flux Cored Arc Welding

FCAW-S Self-shielding Flux Cored Arc Welding

GMAW Gas Metal Arc Welding

HLM Hybrid Layered Manufacturing

LENS Laser Engineered Net-Shaping

MIG Metal Inert Gas

PWHT Post Weld Heat Treatment

1.1 Rapid Manufacturing

Rapid Prototyping (RP), also known as Layered Manufacturing (LM), is a totally

(e) Functionally gradient metallic objects

Table 1.1 Techniques for improving quality and speed

material is to be used on a RP machine, elaborate experimentation is required to fine-tune

Figure 1.2 Classification of RM processes based on various criteria

1.2 Classification of Rapid Manufacturing Methods

To cater to the vast variations of the manufacturing environment, a number of multi-

1.2.1 CNC machining

CAPP for subtractive manufacturing proved difficult due to the possibilities of