English for Acad
reader's interest in the topic
What is an Editorial Article?
An editorial is a short essay that shares an
individual's opinion on a current event or
social issue. The goal of a good editorial is
to persuade the reader to consider your
perspective and change their opinion.
Editorials often focus on controversial issues
with widely different viewpoints.
Types of Editorial
1. Interpretive
An interpretive editorial explains and
provides background information on an
event or issue. This type of editorial aims to
raise awareness and discuss how the topic is
relevant to the reader.
2. Critical
The critical format focuses on the various
causes of a problem and suggests a
solution.
For example, you might critique a policy
that relates to your issue in order to
advocate for a specific change.
3. Persuasive
This type of editorial appeals directly to the
reader and encourages them to take action.
The persuasive format focuses on the
reader's ability to change a situation by
following your advice.
4. Praising
A praising editorial shows appreciation for a
person or organization based on their
involvement in an issue.
Parts of an Editorial
Good persuasive articles have the following
elements:
Introduction: The introduction builds a
and gives an overview of the issue.
Argument: The argument presents your
opinion along with reasons why the
audience should agree with you.
Evidence: The evidence supports your
argument with facts, research or anecdotes.
Counterargument: All editorial writers
should establish credibility by presenting a
fair review of the perspectives involved.
While a praising editorial might be mostly
positive with a brief reference to an issue, a
critical editorial needs to address the
opposing perspective directly.
Refutation: After sharing the counter-
argument with a reader, the writer must
explain why that argument is not accurate or
relevant. Refuting the counterargument
allows you to promote your point of view
while still seeming fair.
Conclusion: In the fi nal paragraph of your
editorial, summarize your point of view and
remind the reader why they should care
about this issue.
Steps in Writing an Editorial
1. Decide on a topic
Since editorials are based on opinion, your
topic should be arguable and have multiple
points of view. Your essay will reflect your
personal bias or the bias of the group you
are representing, so you should expect
some of your readers to disagree with your
stance. You might select a controversial
topic that involves politics in order to
provoke conversation about your writing.
Regardless of the topic you choose, make
sure that you can write about it passionately
and focus on why others should agree with
your perspective.
2. Research your topic
Even though an editorial is opinion-based, it
is still important to provide your readers
with well-researched evidence to back up
your ideas. You can convince your readers
of your credibility by demonstrating
knowledge of what other prominent voices
have to say on the topic. Researching your
topic can also help you decide which
particular stance you will take and create an
article that contributes new ideas to the
conversation.
3. Create an outline
After selecting and researching an issue,
write an outline to keep your ideas
organized and ensure that the main points
of your editorial flow well. The introduction
will always be at the beginning of the essay
and the conclusion at the end, but you can
organize your body paragraphs based on
what format fits your essay the best. List
each main idea as its own paragraph,
making sure to provide evidence for each
idea.
4. Start to write
Once you finish the planning portion of
writing your editorial, start to write by
adding details to your outline. Some people
prefer to start with the introduction, while
others focus on the body of the paper first
and write the introduction at the end. Try to
write down as many ideas as you can at first,
then go back and edit your paper. Getting
started on a paper can be the most
challenging part of the process for many
writers. If you find yourself having trouble
beginning to write, look back on your
research for inspiration.
5. Proofread
Before submitting your editorial, proofread
your own work to make sure you have
created a professional, quality piece of
writing. Many writers read their work aloud
to check for tone and flow. Another popular
proofreading technique is to read your
paper backward, starting with the last
sentence and moving to the introduction.
Tips in Writing an Editorial
Use these tips to make your editorial as
convincing and relevant as possible:
• Be decisive. Your editorial needs to take a
fi rm position on your chosen topic. Any time
you mention an opposing view, immediately
explain why it is incorrect and why readers
should agree with you instead. Convince
readers to consider your ideas by displaying
confi dence in your stance.
Offer new ideas. During the research
process, see if there are any aspects to your
issue that others have not yet discussed.
While anyone can have an opinion, adding
something new to a discussion will show
that you have put careful thought into your
piece.
Provide solutions. If you draw attention to
an issue in an editorial, provide possible
solutions to the problem. You want to avoid
simply complaining so that the audience
can fi nd value in your work and consider
taking action themselves.
Focus on your interests. Whenever
possible, choose a topic that you are
passionate about. Your writing will refl ect
that you actually care about the issue,
making your paper more interesting to read
and more relevant to readers.
What is an Argumentative Essay?
Argumentative Essay  it.
An argumentative essay is a piece of writing
that takes a stance on an issue. In a good
argumentative essay, a writer attempts to
persuade readers to understand and
support their point of view about a topic by
stating their reasoning and providing
evidence to back it up.  evaluated based on its own merits.
What is a Motion in an argumentative essay?
Motion
A motion refers to your main proposal or
argument. You need to defend your motion
using facts. In doing this, it is necessary that
you look for credible sources like scholarly
journals and books in order to substantiate
your position.
What is Fallacy?
A fallacy is an error in reasoning and this
usually happens when we have faulty
assumptions in the way we relate ideas.
What are some commonly committed
fallacies?
Types of Fallacy
1. Sweeping Generalization- This
happens when you come up with a
conclusion based on a limited
number of examples.
Ex: Patience is good at math  Ex: You can either get married or be alone
2. Post hoc, ergo propter hoc-
Remember that two things that
happened one after the after are not
necessarily related.
Ex: Our soccer team was losing until I
bought new shoes.
3. Poisoning the well/ Ad Hominem-
An argument does not become
invalid by virtue of the person stating
Ex: Once a cheater, always a cheater 
4. Appeal to Authority- An argument
Does not necessarily become correct
if a popular highly esteemed person
is the one saying it. It has to be
Ex: If someone said, “Einstein said ‘God
does not play dice with the universe,’
therefore God must exist.”
5. Ad Populum- In logical reasoning,
the majority do not always win. The
majority of the population believing
in an argument does not make it
correct.
Ex:  Just because he won the elections,
doesn’t mean he can lead the country very
well
6. False Analogy- This happens when
two unlike concepts or things are
compared as if they were just similar
to one another.
Ex:  My head hurts, my parents told me that
this is caused by my frequent gadget use.
7. False dichotomy- This happens
when two choices are presented as if
they were the only choices available. 
for the rest of your life.
What are the other strategies that will make
your manner of arguing more effective?
1. Necessity
• Evaluate if the position you want to
argue is really necessary.
2. Practicality
• Consider whether the motion or
solution being proposed would cost
too much or take too much trouble
to do that would be better off by not
implementing it altogether.
3. Beneficiality
• Consider if the general public can
benefit from this solution.
What is a Report?
Report
• A report is the formal writing of a project
or a research investigation.
• A report has clearly defined sections
presented in a standard format, which are
used to tell the reader what you did, why
and how you did it and what you found.
What are the different kinds of Report?
Kinds of Report
1. Ethnography Report
- A documentation of the lives of the
members of a particular community in
authentic settings.
2. Feasibility Report
- An evaluation of whether putting up a
business in a particular place will be
profitable.
3. Laboratory Report
- An explanation for a natural phenomena.
4. Content Analysis
- An examination of a media or literary
production.
Structure of a Report
1. Title
➢ This should be short and precise. It
should tell the reader of the nature of your
research.
➢ Omit any unnecessary detail e.g. “A study
of...” is not necessary.
2. Abstract
➢ The Abstract is a self-contained summary
of the whole of your report. It will therefore
be written last and is usually limited to one
paragraph. It should contain:
• an outline of what you investigated (as
stated in your title);
• why you chose to look at that particular
area with brief reference to prior research
done in the field;
• your hypothesis (prediction of what the
results will show);
• a brief summary of your method;
• your main findings and how these relate to
your hypothesis; and
• a conclusion which may include a
suggestion for further research.
3. Introduction
➢ The Introduction sets the scene for your
report. It can be presented in two ways:
• by introducing the reader in more detail to
the subject area you are looking at; or
• by presenting your objectives and
hypotheses.
➢ Explain the background to the problem
with reference to previous work conducted
in the area (i.e. a literature review). Only
include studies that have direct relevance to
your research.
➢ Briefly discuss the findings of other
researchers and how these connect with
your study.
➢ Finally, state your aims or hypothesis.
4. Method
➢ The Method section should describe
every step of how you carried out your
research in sufficient detail so that the
reader understands what you did.
Information on your experimental design,
sampling methods, participants, and the
overall procedure employed should be
clearly specified.
This information is usually presented under
the following sub- headings:
• Objective
• Design
• Participants
• Procedure(s)
5. Results
➢ Your Results section should clearly
convey your findings. These are what you
will base your commentary on in the
Discussion section, so the reader needs to
be certain of what you found.
• Present data in a summarized form
• Raw data
➢ Do not over-complicate the presentation
and description of your results. Be clear and
concise.
• Describe what the results were, don’t offer
interpretations of them.
• Present them in a logical order.
• Those that link most directly to your
hypothesis should be given first.
Presenting Data in Tables and Graphs
• Do not present the same data in two or
more ways i.e. use either a table or a graph,
or just text.
• Remember that a graph should be
understandable independently of any text,
but you may accompany each with a
description if necessary.
• Use clear and concise titles for each figure.
Say which variables the graph or table
compares.
• Describe what the graph or table shows,
then check that this really is what it shows! If
it isn’t, you need to amend your figure, or
your description.
Statistical Analysis
➢ If you conducted a statistical analysis of
your results:
• say which test you used;
• show how your results were analyzed,
laying out your calculations clearly (ensure
you include the level of probability or
significance p or P, and the number of
observations made n);
• clearly state the results of the analysis
saying whether the result was statistically
significant or not both as numbers and in
words.
6. Discussion
➢ The Discussion section is the most
important part of your report. It relates the
findings of your study to the research that
you talked about in your introduction,
thereby placing your work in the wider
context. The discussion helps the reader
understand the relevance of your research
to previous and further work in the field.
This is your chance to discuss, analyze and
interpret your results in relation to all the
information you have collected.
➢ The Discussion will probably be the
longest section of your report and should
contain the following:
• A summary of the main results of your
study
• An interpretation of these results in
relation to your aims, predictions or
hypothesis, e.g. Is your hypothesis
supported or rejected?, and in relation to
the findings of other research in the area.
• Consideration of the broader implications
of your findings. What do they suggest for
future research in the area? If your results
contradict previous findings what does this
suggest about your work or the work of
others? What should be studied next?
• A discussion of any limitations or
problems with your research method or
experimental design and practical
suggestions of how these might be avoided
if the study was conducted again.
• Some carefully considered ideas for
further research in the area that would help
clarify or take forward your own findings.
7. Conclusions
➢ The Conclusion section briefly
summarizes the main issues arising from
your report.
8. References
➢ Give details of work by all other authors
which you have referred to in your report.
➢ Check a style handbook or journal
articles for variations in referencing styles.
9. Appendices
➢The Appendices contain material that is
relevant to your report but would disrupt
its flow if it was contained within the main
body. For example: raw data and
calculations; interview questions; a
glossary of terms, or other information
that the reader may find useful to refer to.
All appendices should be clearly labelled
and referred to where appropriate in the
main text (e.g. See Appendix A for an
example questionnaire).
What is a Research Instrument?
Research Instrument
➢ Research Instrument is a tool used to
gather data on a specific topic of interest.
➢When preparing an instrument, you must
ensure that it is valid and reliable. An
instrument is valid when it directly answers
or addresses your research questions. It is
reliable when it provides you consistent
and stable data over a period of time.
What are the different types of a Research
Instrument?
Types of Research Instrument
1. SURVEY
➢ contains planned questions which are
used to measure attitudes, perceptions, and
opinions.
Three Types of Questions:
• Recall, Recognition, and Open-ended
2. INTERVIEW
➢ allows the researcher to qualitatively
gather data.
Different stages:
1. Pre-interview
2. Warm-up stage
3. Main interview
4. Closing
Guidelines when conducting an interview:
a. Before the interview, arrange your
questions logically to make the flow of the
interview smoother.
b. Begin by introducing yourself and the
purpose of the interview.
3. QUESTIONNAIRE
➢ lists written questions to get specific
information.
Parts of questionnaire:
a. Personal Information
b. Basic questions
c. Main questions
d. Open-ended questions
Guidelines in preparing a questionnaire:
a. Introduce the questionnaire through a
cover letter.
b. Keep the questionnaire as short as
possible by focusing only on the
essential questions.
c. Ensure the confidentiality of information.
Guidelines:
a. Develop an observation guide or
checklist which identifies the
phenomenon you want to understand.
b. Decide on the type of observation that
you will use.
c. Know your limitations as an observer.
5. EXPERIMENT
➢ a procedure undertaken scientifically and
systematically to make a discovery and to
test hypothesis.
Steps:
1. Make observations.
2. Develop hypothesis.
3. Design the experiment.
4. Conduct the experiment.
5. Analyze the results.
6. Decide on whether to accept or
reject the hypothesis based on the results.
Guidelines:
a. Always coordinate with laboratory
technician or supervisor when doing an
experiment
b. Make yourself present and accessible
during an experiment.
What are the advantages and disadvantages
of each instrument?
• QUESTIONNAIRE: least expensive, least
time consuming, has the lowest response
rate, requires participants to read and write
• INTERVIEW: high response rate, can
clarify items to be asked, time-consuming,
expensive
• OBSERVATION: provides direct access to
a phenomenon, complements other
instruments, may be
biased, time consuming
• EXPERIMENT: establishes cause and
effect, can be replicated, may result in an
artificial situation, prone to experiment’s
effects.
How do we prepare a Research Instrument?
General Guidelines in Preparing an
Instrument
1. Do a preliminary research by visiting your
library or checking online sources.
2. Talk to a person who is knowledgeable in
preparing instruments.
What is a Survey?
Survey
• Survey means collecting information
about a group of people by asking them
questions and analyzing the results.
• Surveys are a flexible method of data
collection that can be used in many
different types of research.
What are the steps in planning and
conducting survey?
Steps in Planning and Conducting Survey
To conduct an effective survey, follow
these six steps:
1. Determine who will participate in the
survey
➢ Before you start conducting survey
research, you should already have a clear
research question that defines what you
want to find out. Based on this question, you
need to determine exactly who you will
target to participate in the survey.
Populations
• The target population is the specific group
of people that you want to find out about.
This group can be very broad or relatively
narrow.
Samples
• The sample should aim to be
representative of the population as a whole.
The larger and more representative for your
sample, the more valid your conclusions.
There are many sampling methods that
allow you to generalize to broad
populations.
2. Decide the type of survey (mail, online,
or in-person)
Two Types of Survey
• Questionnaires
• Interview
3. Design the survey questions and
layout
➢The questions should be arranged in a
logical order. Start with easy, non-sensitive,
closed-ended questions that will encourage
the respondent to continue.
➢If the survey covers several different topics
or themes, group together related
questions. You can divide a questionnaire
into sections to help respondents
understand what is being asked in each
part.
➢If a question refers back to or depends on
the answer to a previous question, they
should be placed directly next to one
another.
➢In terms of language, the survey
questions should be as clear and precise as
possible. Tailor the questions to your target
population, keeping in mind their level of
knowledge of the topic.
➢Use language that respondents will easily
understand, and avoid words with vague
or ambiguous meanings. Make sure your
questions are phrased neutrally, with no
bias towards one answer or another.
4. Distribute the survey
➢Before you start, create a clear plan for
where, when, how, and with whom you will
conduct the survey. Determine in advance
how many responses you require and how
you will gain access to the sample.
5. Analyze the responses
➢ There are many methods of analyzing the
results of your survey. You need to
determine which method or statistical
analysis you are going to use.
6. Write up the results
➢ Finally, when you have collected and
analyzed all the necessary data, you will
write it up as part of your thesis, dissertation
or research paper.
➢ In the methodology section, you describe
exactly how you conducted the survey. You
should explain the types of questions you
used, the sampling method, when and
where the survey took place, and the
response rate. You can include the full
questionnaire as an appendix if relevant.
➢ Then introduce the analysis by describing
how you prepared the data and the
statistical methods you used to analyze it. In
the results section, you summarize the key
results from your analysis.
➢In the discussion and conclusion, you give
your explanations and interpretations of
these results, answer your research
question, and reflect on the implications
and limitations of the research.
What is Data Visualization?
Data Visualization is the graphical
representation of information and data by
using visual elements like charts, graphs,
and maps, data visualization tools to
provide an accessible way to see and
understand trends, outliers, and patterns in
data.
What are the common classifications of
visuals?
Common Classification of Visuals
• Charts
• Graphs
• Tables
• Diagrams
• Visual Images
• Maps
A. Charts
A chart is a graphical representation of data
using symbols that are usually boxes,
lines, and arrows. Its general purpose is to
show ranks, levels, procedures, and
classifications.
Strategies in Reading a Chart
1. Study each step or grouping presented in
the chart.
2. Pay attention to the arrows or lines that
indicate the flow, relationship, steps, and
sequence.
3. To ensure you understood the chart,
summarize each step or component in your
own words and make your own chart in your
mind.
4. Compare your mental chart to the
description in the text to check how
accurate you are.
Two Types of Charts
1. An Organizational Chart presents
rankings, classification, and levels of
ideas.
Strategies in Preparing an Organizational
Chart
1. Use varied shapes carefully. Rectangles
are usually used for all positions.
2. Connect the boxes with solid lines to
show direct reporting relationships oand
dotted lines to show indirect or staff
relationship.
3. You may design the chart creatively but
avoid making it too distracting or
complicated.
2. A Flow Chart illustrates a process or
direction of steps.
Strategies in Preparing a Flow Chart
1. Present only the capsule version of the
whole process.
2. Limit the number of shapes to avoid
confusion. Note that each shape has a
corresponding meaning. Some of the most
basic shapes include:
▪ Rectangle which is used to refer to an
event which is part of the process; it is
usually used for steps or actions taken.
▪ Diamond which is used to show a decision
point in the process, generally, the text
inside the diamond requires a 'yes' or 'no'
response. From here, the flowchart will then
branch to different parts for a 'yes' and a
'no' response.
▪ Rounded box which is used to represent
an event which occurs automatically; it is
usually used to denote the start and the
end of the whole process
3. Provide a legend when necessary.
4. Sequence the data from left to right or
top to bottom.
5. You can be creative in designing the
flowchart but do not make it too
complicated and distracting.
B. Tables
A table is useful in displaying numbers in
columns. It condenses and classifies
information to make comparisons between
and among data and helps the readers
grasp relationships that might be invisible in
prose.
It contains at least two columns with
headings on the sides and at the top of the
columns to indicate what the table
represents. The heading on the top is called
a box head while the heading on the far left
column is called a stub.
Strategies in Reading a Table
1. Read the title of the table.
2. Check whether the information is
updated or obsolete. 3. Check the source of
the information
4. Study the headings and their
relationships.
5. Read the details with the headings in
mind.
6. Compare and contrast the different
columns.
Strategies in Preparing a Table
1. Informal or simple tables need not have
table numbers and titles since they function
as an extension of the text. They should not
be included also in the list of illustrations.
However, they require column heading.
2. Formal tables, which contain complex
data, should contain titles, table numbers,
and detailed headings. They are separated
from the text and are included in the list of
illustrations.
3. Use plenty of white space within and
around the text.
4. Use concise and clear headings for all the
columns and rows.
5. Assign a title and number to each formal
table.
6. Use abbreviations and symbols when
necessary. However, special symbols and
abbreviations must be clarified in a legend
or footnote.
7. Write the source of the table when
necessary.
8. Use uppercase and lowercase instead of
full caps.
C. Graphs
A graph is a graphical representation of
data using bars for bar graphs, lines for line
graphs, circles for pie graphs, and pictures
for pictographs. Each type of graph has a
specific function and purpose.
1. A Bar Graph uses vertical and
horizontal bars that compare amounts
and quantities.
 Strategies in Reading a Bar Graph
1. Read the title, caption, and source note.
2. Determine the purpose of the graph.
3. Look at the dates mentioned, if there are
any.
4. Identify what is being compared. Is it an
amount or quantity?
5. If the data changes over time, determine
the time span and the amount of change.
6. If products, services, and other items are
being compared look carefully at their
names.
Strategies in Preparing a Bar Graph
1. Limit the number of bars. Too many bars
may create confusion and complicate the
data.
2. Show the comparisons clearly.
3. Keep the bar widths consistent.
4. It is ideal to use spaces between bars.
However, if comparisons are too close or
too many spaces between bars may be
deleted.
5. Arrange the bars based on sequence (by
year to show trends) or by ascending/
descending order (to show direct
comparison).
6. Use legends as much as possible.
2. A Line Graph shows trends and
changes in data. Usually, the bottom grid
scale represents time.
Strategies in Reading a Line Graph
1. Read the title, caption, and source note.
2. Determine the purpose of the graph.
3. Read the horizontal axis.
4. Determine the kind of time intervals.
5. Read the vertical axis and identify what is
being measured.
6. Trace the jagged line that connects each
point and determine the changes over time.
Strategies in Preparing a Line Graph
1. Plot the data very carefully.
2. Use different line colors for line graphs
using multiple lines. 3. Make the chart lines
thicker than the axis lines.
4. Do not put the numbers on the line graph
itself.
3. A Circle Graph or pie graph which uses
pie-shared sections, shows the
relationship of the parts to the whole in
percentages and proportions.
Strategies in Reading a Circle Graph
1. Read the title and the captions carefully.
2. Note the number and labels of pie
sections of the graph.
3. Check if there is any "legend" section and
study it.
4. Identify the shares, quantity, and
percentage of each section. Identify which
sections have the smallest and largest
percentages.
Strategies in Preparing a Circle Graph
1. Use no more than seven divisions.
2. Move clockwise from 12:00. Start with the
largest wedge going to the smallest.
However, "others" or miscellaneous items
must be placed last no matter how large
they cover.
3. Use circle graph for percentages and
money especially when the items they
represent are divisible by 100.
4. Make the circle graph as simple as
possible.
5. Label each component.
6. If you want to show a subdivision of a
particular wedge in a circle graph, use a "pie
within a pie”
D. Diagram
A diagram is a plan, drawing, or outline
created to illustrate how separate parts work
and overlap at the connecting points.
A Venn Diagram is a visual depiction of
the similarities and differences between
two or more different items. It consists of a
series of shapes - usually circles - whose
edges overlap. While it's not required that
you use a circle, it's probably the most
convenient shape because several circles
can overlap easily.
Each shape represents some group or
entity. Characteristics the two entities have
in common are found where the shapes
overlap. Items unique to only one entity are
written in the non-overlapping part of their
respective shapes.
Strategies in Preparing a Venn Diagram
1. Decide what to compare. Place a
descriptive title at the top of the page.
2. Create the diagram. Make a circle for
each of the subjects. Every circle should
overlap with at least one other
circle.
3. Label each circle. Near or inside of each
circle place the name of the topic or item
which the circle represents.
Avoid writing the titles inside neighboring
circles in order to maintain clarity. It may be
useful to distinguish the
titles from other text by placing them in a
box or altering their font or color.
4. Enter the differences. Inside each circle
place characteristics that are unique to that
specific item or idea, and are
not true of any of the other topics.
5. Enter the similarities. If two or more
subjects have a feature in common, place
that feature in the section in
which all such shapes overlap.
General Guidelines for Adding Visuals to
your Text
The following are some of the basic rules in
adding visuals to your text.
1. Determine the purpose of the visual.
2. Evaluate the accuracy and validity of the
data.
3. Visuals should be accompanied by clear
references within your text (ex.: as shown in
Figure 5, the...).
4. Visuals should be placed on the same
page as the text reference. Complex visuals
should be placed on the page opposite the
text reference.
5. Preferably, position the visual vertically.
6. Make your visual as simple and self-
explanatory as possible by adding data
labels.
7. If the visuals are colored, go for basic
contrasting colors which are easy on the
eyes; as much as possible avoid adding
patterns and textures, as well as neon
colors.
How do we interpret visual presentation of
data?
Steps in Interpreting Visuals
Interpretation of Data
1. Read the title and the subtitle,
2. Read the captions, keys, and labels.
3. Determine the purpose of the material.
4. Identify the organization of information.
5. Analyze the relationship of details such as
changes and trends.
6. Make a conclusion about the data, if
necessary.
 What are the steps in writing a research
report?
Steps in Writing a Research Report
Step 1: Decide on the 'Terms of
reference'
➢ To decide on the terms of reference for
your report, read your instructions and any
other information you've been given about
the report, and think about the purpose of
the report:
• What is it about?
• What exactly is needed?
• Why is it needed?
• When do I need to do it?
• Who is it for, or who is it aimed at?
➢ This will help you draft your Terms of
reference.
Step 2: Decide on the procedure
➢ This means planning your investigation or
research, and how you'll write the report.
Ask yourself:
• What information do I need?
• Do I need to do any background reading?
• What articles or documents do I need?
• Do I need to contact the library for
assistance?
• Do I need to interview or observe people?
• Do I have to record data?
• How will I go about this?
Step 3: Find the information
➢ The next step is to find the information
you need for your report. To do this you may
need to read written material, observe
people or activities, and/or talk to people.
➢ Make sure the information you find is
relevant and appropriate. Check the
assessment requirements and guidelines
and the marking schedule to make sure
you're on the right track. If you're not sure
how the marks will be assigned contact your
lecturer.
➢ What you find out will form the basis, or
main body, of your report– the findings.
Step 4: Decide on the structure
Reports generally have a similar structure,
but some details may differ. How they differ
usually depends on:
• The type of report – if it is a research
report, laboratory report, business report,
investigative report,
etc.
• How formal the report has to be.
• The length of the report.
Depending on the type of report, the
structure can include:
• A title page.
• Executive summary.
• Contents.
• An introduction.
• Terms of reference.
• Procedure.
• Findings.
Conclusions.
• Recommendations.
• References/Bibliography.
• Appendices.
• The sections, of a report usually have
headings and subheadings, which are
usually numbered.
Step 5: Draft the first part of your report
Once you have your structure, write down
the headings and start to fill these in with
the information you have gathered so far. By
now you should be able to draft the terms of
reference, procedure and findings, and start
to work out what will go in the report’s
appendix.
➢ Findings
The findings are result of your reading,
observations, interviews and investigation.
They form the basis of your report.
Depending on the type of report you are
writing, you may also wish to include
photos, tables or graphs to make your
report more readable and/or easier to
follow.
➢ Appendices
As you are writing your draft decide what
information will go in the appendix. These
are used for
information that:
• is too long to include in the body of the
report, or
• supplements or complements the
information in the report. For example,
brochures, spreadsheets or large tables.
Step 6: Analyze your findings and draw
conclusions
The conclusion is where you analyze your
findings and interpret what you have found.
To do this, read through your findings and
ask yourself:
• What have I found?
• What's significant or important about my
findings?
• What do my findings suggest?
➢ For example, your conclusion may
describe how the information you collected
explains why the situation occurred, what
this means for the organization, and what
will happen if the situation continues (or
doesn't continue).
➢ Don’t include any new information in the
conclusion.
Step 7: Make recommendations
Recommendations are what you think the
solution to the problem is and/or what you
think should happen next. To help you
decide what to recommend:
• Reread your findings and conclusions.
• Think about what you want the person
who asked for the report should to do or
not do; what actions
should they carry out?
• Check that your recommendations are
practical and are based logically on your
conclusions.
• Ensure you include enough detail for the
reader to know what needs to be done
and who should do it.
➢ Your recommendations should be written
as a numbered list, and ordered from
most to least important.
Step 8: Draft the executive summary and
table of contents
➢ Some reports require an executive
summary and/or list of contents. Even
though these two sections come near the
beginning of the report you won't be able
to do them until you have finished it, and
have your structure and recommendations
finalized.
➢ An executive summary is usually about
100 words long. It tells the readers what the
report is about, and summarize the
recommendations.
Step 9: Compile a reference list
➢ This is a list of all the sources you've
referred to in the report and uses APA
referencing.
Step 10: Revise your draft report
It is always important to revise your work.
Things you need to check include:
• If you have done what you were asked to
do. Check the assignment question, the
instructions/guidelines and the
marking schedule to make sure
• That the required sections are included,
and are in the correct order.
• That your information is accurate, with no
gaps.
• If your argument is logical. Does the
information you present support your
conclusions and recommendations?
• That all terms, symbols and abbreviations
used have been explained.
• That any diagrams, tables, graphs and
illustrations are numbered and labelled.
• That the formatting is correct, including
your numbering, headings, are consistent
throughout the report.
• That the report reads well, and your
writing is as clear and effective as
possible.

agathuh