A Guide To Food Selection Preparation and Preservation

PART I
Introduction
to Food
Preparation
1
2 A Guide to Food Selection, Preparation and Preservation
INTRODUCTION TO FOOD PREPARATION

Part I presents the basic principles of food preparation and
related information necessary for the development of desirable
food preparation standards. Fundamental knowl edge and under-
standing of cooking and measuring tech niques, cooking equip-
ment, tools and utensils, and kitchen lay-out are necessary to achieve
the basic skills of food preparation. Likewise, the ability to follow and
standardize a recipe will add to one’s skills in achieving excellent results
in the preparation of food. The following essentials are presented in
this chapter:
• a vocabulary of cooking and food preparation terms with
precise definitions;
• a working knowledge of kitchen equipment and lay-out
commonly used in today’s homes; and
• a thorough yet simple procedure in constructing and standard-
izing a recipe.
Introduction to Food Preparation 3
METHODS OF COOKING FOOD

Cooking is the term applied when heat is used in preparing foods.
The different methods of cooking can be grouped according to the way
heat is applied to food. Two methods are commonly identified as using
Moist Heat Cooking and Dry Heat Cooking. Heat is transferred by water,
water-based liquid or steam in Moist Heat Cooking; while heat is transferred
by air, radiation, fat or metal in Dry Heat Cooking. The following diagram
shows the different classifications of cooking methods:
COOKING
Using Moist Heat Using Dry Heat
Scalding Baking
Simmering Broiling
Braising Frying
Parboiling Stir Frying
Steaming Deep-frying
Poaching Roasting
Stewing Grilling
Boiling Sauteing
Blanching Pan Broiling
USE OF HEAT IN COOKING

Heat is used in preparing food by cooking and toasting. Cooking
is the term applied when heating affects the entire mass of food, while
toasting concerns primarily the effects of heat on the surface. Without
heat, foods that are unpalatable or unsanitary when raw could not be in-
cluded in the daily diet. The changes produced in foods by heat depend
upon the methods of heat transfer, the time of heating, the temperature
reached in the surface and within the mass of food, and the nature of
food itself.
Method of Heat Transfer

Heat transfer from the sources of heat to the food are by convec-
tion, conduction, radiation and microwave emission. These factors affect
the intensity and the rate of cooking.
• Convection is the transfer of thermal energy from electricity,
gas or solid fuel to the vapor molecules of the air, which in turn
heat the food or the utensil it comes in contact with.
• Conduction is the direct transfer of heat via metals or any heat-
conducing materials containing the food. In the conduction,
heat penetrates the center of the food. Good conductor of heat
are metals, copper, water and steam, and air.
• Radiation is the transfer of heat from a red hot coil to the
food. It immediately heats the food it strokes on. The process
can be blocked by an obstacle between the source and the object
to be heated.
Many foods are cooked by conduction when heat flows from one
material to another. Metals are good conductor of heat, thus metal pots
and pans are widely used in food preparation. Foods are also cooked
by convection currents (as in food processing) and by radiation. With
radiation, only the surface is cooked by the waves of energy, the
interior is cooked by conduction. Heat, a form of energy, increases
the molecular motion of a substance. The temperature of a substance is
the measure of the vigor of this motion. Freezing and boiling points are
related to molecular structure. The substance with the higher molecular
weights requires a higher temperature for a change of state to occur.
The heat required to change a substance from frozen to liquid state is
known as the heat of fusion.
Measurement of Heat or Temperature

The usual result of an increase in temperature is an expansion in
size. Hence, a convenient way of measuring temperature is by noting
the expansion of a column of mercury in a thermometer scale. Mer-
cury expands uniformly at different temperature and has an extensive
range between the freezing point -39°F and its boiling point 675°F. There
are two kinds of scale in a thermometer: the Fahrenheit and the Centi-
grade.
Heat is measured by degrees Centigrade or Celsius (°C) or degrees
Fahrenheit (°F).
The degree of hotness or intensity of heat is expressed as the tem-

perature of the object (food). To express cooking temperatures, the Met-
ric System using °C and °F are used.
The Fahrenheit scale is named after a German Physicist. It has
32° for its freezing point and 212° for its boiling point. There are 212
equal divisions between 0° and the boiling point. The Centigrade Scale
gets its name from Centum, Latin for “hundred” and Grade which means
“step.” In the Centigrade Scale, the freezing point is marked 0° and the
boiling point is marked 100°. The scale between these two points is
marked off into 10 equal divisions or degrees.
There are 9 Fahrenheit degrees for every 5 Centigrade degrees.
Thus, when a temperature reading is to be changed into centigrade, sub-
tract 32 from the Fahrenheit degrees, multiply it by 5 and divide by 9.
°C = (°F – 32) x 5. If the change is from Centigrade into Fahrenheit, mul-
9
tiply the number of Centigrade degrees by 9, divide by 5 and add 32.
°F =(°C x 9)/5 + 32.

IMPORTANT TEMPERATURES IN PREPARING FOODS

PURPOSE OF COOKING
Some foods, such as fruits and vegetables, are highly palatable
when eaten raw. However, most foods must be cooked to be acceptable
to the human palate. The main purposes of cooking food are:
• to improve its natural flavor and palatability;
• to destroy pathogenic organisms and injurious substances which
may be found on raw foods;
• to improve its digestibility; and
• to make its maximum nutritive value available in a palatable
form.
Natural Flavor and Palatability

Some fruits and vegetables are highly palatable when eaten raw
because uncooked and unsoaked foods retain a good portion of their
nutritive value and natural texture and color. The effect of cooking on
the color and texture is important on its influence in flavor. When the
object is to maintain the original flavor of the food, the cooking process
used should be as short as possible without adding any flavoring materi-
als. For example, fresh and young vegetables should be cooked in a small
amount of boiling water.
When several foods are cooked together, an interesting blend of fla-
vor is developed. The cooking process in this case is often comparatively
long to allow time enough for the new flavor to develop. For example,
casserole dishes, pudding, and the local Sinigang and Nilaga are enjoyed
for their interesting blend of different flavors. Overcooking, however, is
destructive of flavors and food may become soggy or stringy.
The effect of cooking on the color and texture of food has a great in-
fluence on flavor. The methods of cooking used must be those which are
conserving of the natural color of food or developing the new, desired
color.
Pathogenic Organisms and Injurious Substances on Food

All foods in their natural state are subject to spoilage or deteriora-
tion because of pathogenic organisms and injurious substances found
in them. Microorganisms, such as molds, yeasts, and bacteria, grow at
certain temperature generally between 0 degree to 75 degrees. However,
with heat application or exposure to temperatures near the boiling point
of water, microorganisms are easily killed.
Illness may be caused by foods that naturally contain poisonous

substances and foods that are contaminated with pathogenic microor-
ganisms and toxins. Cooking, through application of heat, destroys the
injurious substances in raw food and renders the food in wholesome and
safe form.
Most cooking methods produce an interior temperature of 140
degrees to 185 degrees Fahrenheit. Some baked products may reach a
temperature close to 21 degrees Centigrade. This temperature range is
one in which many harmful organisms do not grow. All portions of food
must reach and maintain a certain temperature within this range.
Digestibility of Food
All foods undergo softening as a result of cooking, which may ren-
der food more digestible. Some cooking processes are identical with the
processes involved in the breakdown of food during digestion. For ex-
ample: the transformation of starch into dextrins and the hydrolyses that
takes place during the cooking of meat break down the protein
collagen in connective tissues. Digestibility to a layman, refers not
only to the completeness of digestion and absorption but also the general
feeling and after effect of eating. When food is hard to digest, it is easily
manifested by a feeling of discomfort. Some fruits and vegetables have to
be cooked to be palatable, soft and easy to digest.
Maximum Nutritive Value

Some foods, like fruits and vegetables group, are highly palatable
when eaten raw because uncooked and unsoaked foods retain a good
portion of their nutritive value. However, in time of food poisoning outbreak,
people are warned not to eat raw or half-cooked food.
The most important nutritive change, which occurs in natural food
through cooking, is the loss of its water soluble nutrients, hence, the
retention of these nutrients in foods is directly related to the amount
of water used in cooking. Destruction of vitamins may also be brought
about by the action of heat. Studies have shown that Ascorbic acid and
Thiamine are unfavorably affected by heat. All these, however, are small
losses if compared to the significance of the effects of cooking to assure
safety from food-borne diseases.
There are some raw foods that have to be cooked in order that their
nutritive value can be used by the body. For example, root crops have to
be cooked to fully enjoy their carbohydrates content. The protein con-
tent of most fish and meat are fully utilized when cooked. To develop,
enhance, or alter the flavor of foods and to maximize its nutritive value,
control must be exercised by the method of cooking used and the length
of cooking time.
COOKING MEDIUMS
The methods of cooking are classified according to the cooking
medium, namely, air, water, steam, fat, and a combination of one or
more of these mediums.
Air and Heat as Cooking Mediums

Boiling, roasting, and baking are examples of cooking meth-
ods with heat as the medium. Without heat, foods that are unpalatable
or insanitary when raw cannot be included in the daily diet. Many foods
are cooked by conduction or the flow of heat from one material to
another. Metals are conductors of heat, thus metal pans are widely
used in cooking. Foods are also cooked by convection currents or the
transfer of kinetic energy by heated air or liquid, and by radiation or
transfer of kinetic energy by means of waves.
Broiling is cooking over or under a source of direct heat such
as coals, a gas burner, or a glowing electric unit. Much of the heat is
derived from radiant energy; some is conducted from the air and
from the broiler rack.
Roasting is cooking on a spit before an open fire or by covering
with hot coals. Nowadays, the term is used synonymously with baking
in meat cookery.
Baking is cooking in an oven, whereby, convection cur rents aid
in heating the air and equalizing the oven temperature.
Water as a Cooking Medium

The methods of cooking with water as the medium are: boiling,
simmering, and stewing.
Boiling is cooking in water at boiling point. This temperature may
be recognized by the presence of many bubbles of steam rises to the top
and breaks. Incomplete cooking by boiling is called parboiling. It is used
when another method is to be employed for the remainder of the cook-
ing time, or when strongly flavored or other water soluble constituents
are to be removed and fresh water is added for continued cooking by
boiling.
Simmering is cooking in a bath of water somewhat below the boiling

point, 180 to 210 degrees F (82-99 degrees C). The presence of bubbles
of steam, which disappears before they reach the surface, is an education
of this range.
Stewing is simmering or boiling in water enough to cover the ingre-
dient.
Bubble size and movement differ
during poaching, simmering, and boiling.
a. Poach b. Simmer c. Boil
Poaching – Water is heated to a temperature of 160° to 180°F (71°

to 82°C). Small motionless bubbles appear in the bottom of the
pan. Poaching is used to prepare delicate foods like fish and eggs.
Simmering – Water is heated just below the boiling point not less
than 180°F (82°C). It is characterized by gently rising bubbles that
barely break the surface. Simmering is used for cooking tough cuts
of meat to make it tender.
Boiling – Water is heated to reach 212°F (100°C), a temperature
at which water bubbles rapidly. The high temperature of boiling
water is used to cook paste and tougher-textured vegetables like
dried beans.
Steam as a Cooking Medium
The methods of cooking with steam as the cooking medium are:
steaming, waterless cooking, and pressure cooking.
Steaming refers to cooking in steam arising from added water.
Waterless cooking is cooking with steam formed from the water origi-
nally present in food.
Pressure cooking is cooking with steam under pressure; since the heat
of vaporization does not escape, the temperature rises steadily to a high
point. This type of cooking requires the use of a pressure cooker, a spe-
cial type of cooking utensil.
Fat as a Cooking Medium

Fat is used as the cooking medium in sautéing, deep-fat frying,
and pan broiling.
Sautéing is cooking in a lightly greased pan allowing the product to
be turned over or “flipped” for complete cooking.
Deep-Fat Frying refers to cooking in an amount of fat sufficient for
immersion of the food. The temperature required for frying runs as high
as 385 degrees F or 196 degrees C.
Combination of Cooking Mediums

A combination of more than one method is used in braising,
fricasseeing, and pot roasting.
Braising represents a combination of sautéing and subsequent cook-
ing in a small amount of liquid in a covered utensil.
Fricasseeing is almost similar to braising. Braising and fricasseeing
are in fact synonymously applied to meat and poultry.
Pot roasting is the term commonly used when a large piece of meat
is cooked by the preceding methods.
Electronic Cooking
Electronic cooking or microwave cooking is done on an electronic
range. Electronic cooking does not involve a cooking medium. In an
electronic oven, a magnetron tube is used to change electricity to high
frequency microwaves; the microwaves are absorbed by the food, caus-
ing agitation of the molecules or friction. By creating molecular friction,
energy is produced in food. This action results in heating of the food.
The food cooks, as in conventional cooking, by becoming hot first. The
interior of the food mass is cooked by heat conducted to it from the
surface. Aluminum, tin and stainless steel utensils and vessels are
not used in microwave cooking because they cut down its efficiency
by shielding the food. Paper, glass, china, and earthware are preferable.
Much time is saved in microwave cooking; and food will not burn.
THE STANDARDIZED RECIPE

A recipe is a set of instructions for making a food dish from various
ingredients. When a recipe is one in which the amounts and proportions
of the ingredients and the methods of procedure will consistently pro-
duce a high quality product, it becomes a standardized recipe.
A recipe has two important parts:
• a list of ingredients and
• a description of the method for putting them together.
Principles to be Followed in Recipe Construction
Good recipes are constructed not only to obtain a good product but
also to be sure of an efficient and orderly procedure that will minimize
the time of preparation. Here are certain principles to follow:
1. The recipe should be simple, easy to read, and interesting to
the reader.
2. The ingredients should be listed in the order they are to be
used.
3. Exact measurements should be indicated; if possible abbrevia-
tions should be avoided.
For example: 1/2 cup chopped onion
not
1.2 c. onion, chopped
4. Descriptive terms should be placed before the ingredient if the
process is to be carried out before measurement.
For example: 2 cups sifted flour
If the process is carried out after measurement, the terms are
placed under the ingredient.
For example: 2 cups flour, sifted
5. Whenever possible, it is desirable to use simple measure-
ments.
• Fractional measurements in a cup (1/2, 1/4, 1/3 cups);
• Weight of uncooked meat, poultry, fish (1/2 kilo, 4 lbs.)
etc.; and
• Measure and weight of canned packaged products (5 oz.
can tomato sauce, 1 lb. cheese).
6. Specify the particular type of ingredient to be used. Thus, if
cake flour is the preferred ingredient, specify as 2 cups cake
flour instead of 2 cups flour.
7. Use the generic names of the ingredients rather than brand

names.
8. Short and clear sentences that give the necessary information
help to make directions understandable.
9. Use the precise term to describe a cooking process or a prepa-
ration method. Do not say mix when you mean fold or beat.
10. Specify the size of the baking pan or utensils needed. State
clearly how preparation should be made.
For example: oiling
greasing
lining with wax paper
11. State information regarding temperature and cooking time to
insure successful results. A statement to describe the stage is
most helpful.
For example: Bake for 25 minutes at 350°F, until it is
golden brown.
12. Every recipe should indicate its yield in terms of average serv-
ings.
A SAMPLE RECIPE
Fish Escabeche
2 medium-sized fish (lapu-lapu, talakitok or pampano)
1 large onion
1 large sweet pepper, cut into long narrow pieces
2 cloves garlic
2 tablespoons cornstarch
2 cups water
2 tablespoons vinegar
4 tablespoons sugar
3 tablespoons soy sauce
1 large carrot cut into strips
Clean the fish. Sprinkle with 1 teaspoon salt. Fry until brown
and set aside. Saute garlic, onion, and sweet pepper. Add the
carrot and cook until crisp and tender. Make medium thick gravy
by mixing water, sugar, soy sauce, salt, and cornstarch. Boil 5
minutes before adding the vinegar. Then add garlic, onion-
carrot-pepper mixture into this gravy. Pour over the fish. Makes
12 servings.
THE KITCHEN: ITS STRUCTURE,

USE, AND CARE
Food preparation is greatly related to the kitchen lay-out, the equip-
ment, the utensils, and the other items in it. Every kitchen is made up
of three main activity centers: (1) the storage and preparation center, (2)
the cooking center, and (3) the clean-up or washing center. The work
involved in all three is so interrelated that these must not be too widely
separated but must form a compact work unit. An effective use of the
kitchen space and equipment is achieved when range, sink, and refrig-
erator are fairly close to each other, with sufficient working surface and
storage cabinets interspersed among them.
The Work Triangle
Situating the three main activity centers in a convenient work tri-
angle is essential to achieve a workable kitchen. The following distances
are recommended:
sink to refrigerator – 4 feet to 7 feet
range to refrigerator – 4 feet to 9 feet
sink to range – 4 feet to 6 feet
Total triangle perimeter – 12 feet to 22 feet
To achieve maximum efficiency with the work triangle factors, the
following four basic kitchen arrangements are recommended by kitchen
planners:
1. The U-shaped Kitchen
The U-shaped Kitchen is generally considered the most effi-
cient arrangement. The three major advantages are: 1) traffic cross-
ing the basic work triangle is prevented; 2) a continuous counter
area exists; and 3) distances between appliances are short.
2. The L-shaped Kitchen

In the L-shaped Kitchen, the work centers are placed along
two adjacent walls. A natural eating corner is created without
sacrificing space from the work area. An easy flow of work from
refrigerator to sink to range is possible in this arrangement of work
centers.
3. The Island Kitchen

The Island Kitchen is usually a modified U-shaped or L-
shaped arrangement of activity centers. An excellent use of the
island is as a cooking or mixing center. The addition of a chop-
ping-block-top and a utensil-hanging-rack makes the design of the
kitchen island attractive.
4. The Corridor Kitchen

The Corridor Kitchen is the simplest and most economical
arrangement. The corridor must be at least four feet wide and
should have a dead end to prevent traffic through the work triangle.
THE KITCHEN EQUIPMENT

The necessary large equipment for the proper preparation of food
includes a range, a refrigerator, and a sink. Proper use and care of the
equipment will not only make food preparation quicker and easier but
also insure their lasting service.
The Range
The range provides the necessary heat in cooking food. The fuel
used for a range may be electricity, gas, kerosene, gasoline, coal, or
wood. Ranges differ in size, shape, and special features, but all of them
are equipped with surface units for top of the range cooking, an oven for
baking and roasting, and a broiler. Both surface burners and ovens have
various temperature control features. On a gas range, the source of heat
is the “burner”; on an electric range, it is the “Unit” or a coil. The heat
of either gas or electric range should be regulated according to the food
being cooked and the size of the utensil. Ranges can provide low heat
for simmering, medium heat for gentle cooking, and high heat for rapid
cooking. The low, medium, and high may each be adjusted to a higher
or lower degree.
Use and Care of the Range

When using the range, remember to
• Use utensils that are large enough to prevent the boiling food
from spilling over the range top or oven;
• Keep a dish on the range top for the spoon that you use in stir-
ring food;
• Avoid putting anything hot on porcelain enameled surfaces

or putting cooking utensils across them because the heat may
cause the surface to chirp or crack;
• Arrange pans in the oven so that the air can circulate around
them; and
• Wipe the chromium trimming with a damp cloth and polish it
with a dry cloth.
Cleaning the Top of a Gas Range
1. Remove the burners and the rack, and scrub them with warm,
soapy water and scouring pad.
2. Clean the holes with a hairpin or wire. Do not use a toothpick.
3. Rinse with clear, hot water, and dry the rack; turn the burners of
the oven upside down.
4. Return the burners and the rack to the range as soon as they are dry.
Cleaning the Units of an Electric Range
1. Turn on the high heat so that any food on the units will burn off.
2. Cool, and then brush each unit with a soft non-metallic brush.
Never clean the unit with a metal brush, a fork, a knife, or a sharp
metal tool.
3. Use steel wool or a cloth for units which are enclosed.
Cleaning the Oven
1. Use a pancake turner to remove food immediately after it has
spilled on the oven.
2. Clean the oven thoroughly with a special cleaner when it is cool.
3. Wipe the oven with soapy water. Rinse with clean water and dry.
4. Turn on the oven for a few minutes to dry all parts so that they will
not rust.
Cleaning the Broiler
1. Remove fat from the broiler pan. Then, wipe the pan and the rack
with paper.
2. Wash the broiler rack and the pan with hot soapy water using a
scouring pad.
3. Rinse and dry thoroughly.
4. Wipe the walls of the broiler. Then, return the broiler pan on the
rack.
Proper Use and Care of Microwave Oven

1. Close the oven door properly. Never operate the oven when it is
empty or while door is open. An open door results in harmful ex-
posure to microwave energy.
2. The microwave oven has no temperature control. Cooking is regu-
lated by time alone. The time required to cook food by microwave
depends on the types of food and amount of food.
3. Microwave oven should be cleaned, especially around the seal, af-
ter each use. Food particles and grease that collect around the seal
should be wiped out by paper towels.
4. Glass, china, some plastic, paper, plastic wrap and wax paper are
satisfactory materials that can be used in cooking foods in the mi-
crowave oven. Do not use utensils with metal bands, clips, screws,
delicate glasswares and dishes.
5. Metal containers and materials should not be used in microwave
ovens because the metal iron blocks microwave and prevents them
from entering the food.
6. Don’t be afraid to watch your food through the oven door. The dif-
fused light inside a microwave oven is due to the finely perforated
metal screen embedded in the door. This screen prevents the es-
cape of microwave energy, while it allows you to look as you cook.
7. If food is ready to boil over, stop the cooking immediately by push-
ing the stop button and by opening the oven door.
8. Use dry paper towel to cover bacon or foods which are cooked
uncovered but tend to spatter.
9. Round shape of casserole dishes microwave more easily than
squares or rectangles.
10. The oven should not be adjusted or repaired by anyone except
properly qualified service personnel.
The Refrigerator
Every food preparation area should be equipped with a refrigerator
so that perishable foods may be quickly cooled and spoilage prevented.
A refrigerator must be well constructed and well insulated, if it is to
perform efficiently. Many modern refrigerators are of the combination
refrigerator-freezer type, but individual freezer cabinets are also available
for home use. There are two types of individual freezer cabinets: the up-
right type and the chest type. The upright freezer is like the refrigerator
in appearance and takes up minimum of floor space. Refrigerators and
freezer are available in size from 4 cubic feet to 16 cubic feet. The size
purchased for a particular food preparation unit depends on the number
of persons to be serviced by it and the space available.
Food that is used frequently should be placed in the refrigerator
where it may easily be reached. The coldest part of the refrigerator or
the freezing unit is used for storing perishable foods such as meat, fish,
and poultry. Milk, cream, butter, and eggs should be kept near the freez-
ing unit. Cooked foods, which contain milk and eggs, should be placed
near the freezing unit, too. Other foods should be kept in the center of
the refrigerator. Fruits and vegetables are usually kept in the crisper, the
lowest part of the refrigerator.
Care of the Refrigerator

Refrigerators with automatic defrost should be thoroughly cleaned
every week by wiping off food containers and removing all unneeded
foods. Whereas, refrigerators without automatic defrost should be de-
frosted whenever the frost is over 1/4 inch thick.
Defrosting the Refrigerator

1. Turn off the electric current.
2. Remove all ice trays and frozen foods from the freezing unit.
3. Wrap frozen foods in a newspaper to keep them from thawing.
4. Put the drip tray in the proper place to catch the melted ice.
5. Place pans of hot water in the lower part of the freezing unit. Allow
the ice to melt. Never use a sharp or pointed object to remove the ice.
6. Remove the food in the lower part of the refrigerator.
7. Wipe the inside portion of the freezing unit as well as the refrigera-
tor with water to which 1 teaspoon baking soda has been added for
each quart.
8. Turn on the current and return the food to the refrigerator.
Proper Use of the Refrigerator

1. Study the booklet supplied by the manufacturer.
2. Keep the temperature between 35°F and 45°F.
3. Allow hot food to cool before putting it in the refrigerator.
4. Open the door only when absolutely necessary and keep it open as
short time as possible.
5. Put leftovers in small dishes and use them as soon as possible to

avoid overcrowding the refrigerator.
6. Remove food from paper bags before storing in the refrigerator.
7. Do not store unopened cans of food in the refrigerator unless they
are to be chilled for the next meal.
8. Store foods in covered dishes or glass jars to prevent odors from
spreading.
9. Avoid getting grease on the gasket around the door.
10. Decide on a definite place in which to keep each kind of food, and
put the foods in the same places each time so that you will not
waste time in looking for them.
The Sink
A great deal of food preparation is spent at the sink: cleaning, peel-
ing, cutting food, removing waste, and dishwashing. It is central to all
food operations that require water, and therefore, it should be placed
where it will be easily accessible. The proper height of the sink is im-
portant — too high a sink means stretching. All supplies and equipment
that are used for scraping, washing, rinsing, and drying dishes should be
near the sink. Sinks are available in various sizes and finish with a single,
double, or triple bowl. They are usually either with a stainless finish or
porcelain enamel, which comes in white or several colors.
Care of the Sink

1. Fill the sink or the dishpan half-full with water when washing the
dishes. Put only a few dishes into the sink at one time.
2. Pour the dishwashing through a sink strainer to avoid clogging the
sink.
3. Use soapy water to clean the sink, rubbing it hard. If the sink is
very dirty, use a fine scouring powder and a bleach to remove the
stains.
Equipment and Tools

The use of proper equipment in top condition is of primary impor-
tance in the production of good food. Standardized equipment, a variety
of knives, the right kitchen tools, utensils, and appliances are all contrib-
ute to good quality food.
SUGGESTED BASIC KITCHEN

UTENSILS AND TOOLS
A. Cooking Utensils
tea kettle
saucepan (2 quarts, 3 quarts, 4 quarts)
1 native carajay or frying pan (10 inches in diameter)
1 small skillet (6 to 7 inches in diameter)
1 double boiler
1 large casserole
B. Oven Utensils
1 muffin pan (6 to 12 cups)
1 pie pan (9 inches)
2 layer-cake pans (8 x 1 1/2 inches)
1 square cake pan (8 x 8 x 2 inches)
1 tube pan (10 x 4 inches)
1 loaf pan (8 1/2 x 2 1/2 inches)
1 baking sheet
C. Tools
1 paring knife (3 1/2 inches wide with a blade)
1 large knife (5 to 7 inches wide with a blade)
2 or 3 mixing spoons
2 long-handled cooking spoons
1 long-handled cooking fork
1 spatula
1 can opener
1 kneading board
2 chopping boards
1 rotary egg beater or white beater
measuring spoons and cups
mixing bowls (1 qt, 2 qts, 3 qts, 4 qts)
strainer or sieve
colander
D. Suggested Additions
a pressure cooker
a meat grinder
a juice extractor
a pancake griddle
kitchen shears
a Dutch oven with cover
tongs for hot foods and ice cubes
1 dozen dishtowels
4 pot holders
an omelet pan
an ice pick
SMALL EQUIPMENT FOR FOOD PREPARATION

Small items of equipment are referred to as kitchen utensils. These
are used in cleaning, cutting, chopping, and cooking.
Equipment for cooking on the range
sauce pan heavy skillet or carajay
sauce pot skillet or frying pan
kettle pressure cooker
double boiler tea kettle
Dutch oven coffeemaker
Cutting and chopping equipment

butcher knife scissors
french or chopping knife meat grinders
bread knife pastry blender
cutting board biscuit cutter
paring knife grater
peeler can opener
mallet
mashes
Mixing and preparation equipment
mixing bowls blending fork
sifter rubber scrapper
wire whip strainer
wooden spoon tongs
mixing spoon chopping board
slotted spoon
USEFUL KITCHEN EQUIPMENT
Rotary beater
Wire whisks
Can opener
Mixing bowls
Bottle opener
Mallet Vegetable peeler

Metal spatula Wooden spoons
Kitchen scissors Tongs
Strainer Funnel
Colander
Metal spatula Sifter
Utility spoon
Utility spoon
Slotted spoon
Ladle
Kitchen fork
Grater
Slotted turner
Garlic press
Pancake turner
BAKE WARE
Tube pan Loaf pan
Round pan
Rectangular pan
Pie pan Spring-form pan

(Removable bottom)
Jelly roll pan
Baking sheet
Muffin pan
Square pan
Tart pans Bundt pan

KNIVES: THE BASIC CUTTING TOOLS
Butt
Tip Blade
Rivets
Bolster Heel
Paring knife Utility knife
Boning knife
Slicing knife
Butcher
French knife
Bread knife
Knife Sharpening Steel

POTS AND PANS
3-quart pan
2-quart pan
1-quart pan
Frying pan with lid
Omelet pan
Stock pot
Double-boiler
Cast-iron frying pan Dutch oven

BAKEWARE ACCESSORIES
Souffle Dish
Custard cups
Biscuit cutter
Wire racks
PASTRY TOOLS
Pastry blender
Pastry bag and tips
Pastry brushes
Rolling pins
Slicing wheel
Pastry wheel
MEASURING TECHNIQUES
Dry Ingredients
Liquid
Shortening
Brown Sugar
Butter or Margarine
Shredded Cheese
MEASURING FOOD MATERIALS

The use of standard measuring equipment and standard measuring
techniques will help to ensure successful products. To achieve consis-
tent results each time a particular recipe is used, identical measur-
ing procedures must be followed. Every major ingredient, dry
or liquid, requires a special measuring technique. Liquids are mea-
sured in standard glass or clear plastic cups that hold the exact capacity
specified in a recipe. If it is necessary to weigh foods, use a weighing
scale.
Measuring Techniques
How to measure
Liquids: Use a liquid measuring cup and place it on level surface.
Have the measuring line at eye level to be sure of the exact measure-
ment.
Dry Ingredients or Powdered Materials: Gently spoon the ingredient into
the cup, piling high or filling cup to overflowing; then level off with a
metal spatula or straight-edged knife. Powdered materials such as baking
powder, baking soda, salt etc. must be stirred first to break up any lump.
Dip a dry spoon in the powder and level off with the edge of the spatula
or the knife.
Sugar: Sift granulated or refined sugar if lumpy. Spoon into the
measuring cup and level off. Do not pack or tap the sugar down. Brown
sugar is packed firmly into the cup with a finger until it is even with the
rim. When the cup is inverted, brown sugar will hold its shape.
Solid shortening: With a rubber spatula, pack into cup. Run spatula
through shortening to release air; pack again and level off.
Butter or margarine: When using a bar or stick or butter, cut the de-
sired amount. Use these equivalents: 1/2 lb. — 1 cup; 1/4 lb. — 1/2 cup.
Shredded cheese: Lightly place the shreds in a dry measuring cup until
even with its rim. Do not pack the cheese into the cup.
Spices: To measure less than 1/4 teaspoon, use your finger or divide
1/4 teaspoon in half. This is usually referred to as a dash or a pinch.
Abbreviations used in measuring ingredients.
t or tsp. (teaspoon) lb. (pound)
T or tbsp. (tablespoon) oz. (ounce)
MEASUREMENTS AND CONVERSIONS

Heat Fahrenheit Centigrade/Celsius
Very Cool 230 110
Cool or Slow 275-300 135-150
Moderate 350 175
Hot 425 220
Very Hot 450 230
Conversion of Temperature Measurement
CENTIGRADE = 5/9 (°F – 32) or (°F – 32) x 5
9
FAHRENHEIT = (9 x °C)/5 + 32 or 1.8 x °C – 32
Weight and Measure Equivalent
Dash = less than 1/8 teaspoon
3 Teaspoons (tsp.) = 1 Tablespoon (Tbsp.)
2 Tbsp. = 1/8 cup (1 fl. oz)
4 Tbsp. = 1/4 cup (2 fl. oz)
8 Tbsp. = 1/2 cup (4 fl. oz)
16 Tbsp. = 1 cup (8 fl. oz)
1 gill = 1/2 cup
2 cups = 1 pint
2 pints = 1 quart
4 quarts = 1 gallon
8 quarts = 1 peck
4 pecks = 1 bushel
Approximate Mass and Measures
Ingredients Handy Measures
(Rounded)
1 Teacup 1 Tablespoon
Flour 100 grams 25 grams
Raisins 100 grams 25 grams
Cornflour (Cornstarch) 100 grams 25 grams
Rice 100 grams 25 grams
Cheese (grated) 50 grams 25 grams
Liquid (Milk, Water) 150 ml. 15 ml.
CUTTING TECHNIQUES
Chopping Mincing
Slicing Diagonal Slicing
Julienne Strips Dicing

COOKING TERMS
Bake — Cook in an oven.
Barbecue — Baste meat from time to time with a highly-seasoned sauce
as it cooks by direct heat over coals, in an oven or under a broiler.
Baste — Moisten food while it is being baked to prevent it from drying
out.
Blanch or Scald — Put boiling water over food or dip the food into boiling
water and then into cold water.
Boil — Cook in liquid until bubbles appear and rise to the top and break
on the surface.
Broil — Cook by direct heat.
Braise — Brown meat or vegetable in a small amount of liquid.
Fry — Cook in hot fat without cover.
Fricassee — Cook by braising.
Melt — Change a solid to liquid by boiling.
Poach — Cook food in hot liquid just below the boiling point.
Roast — Cook meat or poultry uncovered in oven without added moisture.
Scald — Heat liquid in the upper part of a double boiler until tiny bubbles
appear around the edge.
Steam — Cook food by steam in a covered steamer rather than in boiling
water.
Steep — Cover tea leaves with boiling water and allow to stand, to extract
the flavor, color, and aroma from the leaves.
Simmer — Cook just below boiling point.
Sear — Brown meat quickly on all sides at high temperature to develop
flavor and improve its appearance.
Stew — Cook food for a long time in a small amount of liquid at simmer-
ing temperature.
FOOD PREPARATION TERMS

Beat — Make the mixture smooth and light by lifting it over and over.
Blend — Mix two or more ingredients until one ingredient cannot be dis-
tinguished from the other.
Break — Divide into pieces.
Chop — Cut into small, uneven pieces.
Cream — Rub, mash or work shortening against the side of a bowl with
the back of a spoon until it is smooth and creamy.
Cut-in — Combine shortening and dry ingredients when making biscuits
or pastry.
Cube — Cut into pieces of uniform size and shapes, first, lengthwise then
crosswise to make cubes.
Dice — Cut into small pieces of uniform size and shapes, first, lengthwise
then crosswise to make cubes.
Dredge — Coat solid food with a dry ingredient such as flour, bread-
crumbs or sugar by sprinkling, dipping or rolling it in one of these
ingredients.
Flake — Separate fish into small pieces.
Fold — Add beaten egg whites or whipped cream to a mixture without
losing what has been beaten into them.
Grate — Cut into fine pieces by rubbing against a grater in circular or
back and forth motion.
Julienne — Cut into thin, match-like strips.
Marinate — Let food stand in French dressing or an oil acid mixture to
add flavor.
Mash — Press food from small pieces into a pulp with an up and down or
beating action of a fork.
Mince — Cut or chop into tiny pieces.
Pare — Cut off the outer skin or rind with a knife.
Peel — Pull off the outer skin or rind.
Puree — Rub food through a sieve to make a smooth semi-liquid mixture
for use in soups or sauces, or food for babies.
Scrape — Remove the skin by rubbing it with the sharp edge of the knife.
Slice — Cut across into flat pieces.
Soften — Cream butter, margarine, or shortening until it is smooth and
creamy or to let it stand at room temperature until it is soft.
Stir — Mix the ingredients in a bowl by circular movement of a spoon.
Sprinkle — Scatter sugar, flour, and salt over food.
Toss — Mix lightly by lifting the ingredients for salad with a spoon and
fork with two forks to avoid braising the ingredients.
Wedge — Cut into shape of a wedge, each piece thick at one and thin at
the other end.
Whip — Beat rapidly with a whisk beater to incorporate air and increase
volume of egg white.
PART II
Food
Preservation
39
FOOD PRESERVATION
Part II highlights the basic principles of food preservation. It in-
troduces the readers to the causes and prevention, and/or delay of food
spoilage. Several techniques of food preservation are discussed in the
simplest terms. The role of food additives and food packaging in food
preservation is given importance. Modern commercial methods are in-
troduced along with traditional methods of processing foods; nonethe-
less, the basic principles of food preservation still apply.
Food Preservation 41
VALUE OF FOOD PRESERVATION

Food preservation is the application of techniques to prevent or
minimize undesirable changes in food. Spoilage, no matter what form
it takes, has to be minimized and possibly prevented; otherwise, large
portions of fruits, vegetables, fish, and other food materials would go to
waste.
Food preservation assures the consumer of a supply of foods that
are out of season. In addition, it prevents the waste of perishable foods
that are in season. Surplus of preserved foods may be sold to augment
family income. Farmers particularly will be encouraged to plant and
raise more crops, thus stimulating agricultural development.
From the nutrition viewpoint, food preservation is essential in im-
proving the general health of a family by supplying it with a varied and
balanced diet. Protective foods should be provided in quantity and qua-
lity needed by the body. Nutritional inadequacy remains a problem in
our country because of increasing population coupled by the lack of food
supply. With preservation, a year-round availability of the necessary nu-
trients is assured.
PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PRESERVATION

All methods used for preserving foods are based upon the gen-
eral principle of preventing or retarding the causes of spoilage — micro-
bial decomposition, enzymatic and non-enzymatic chemical reaction and
damage from mechanical causes, insect and rodents.
Preservation is temporary when the growth of microorganism is
only retarded and inhibited. Permanent preservation is achieved when
spoilage organisms are completely destroyed and no other microorgan-
isms are permitted to reinfect it. An effective method of food preserva-
tion prevents or slows down spoilage without damaging the food or add-
ing injurious substances to it.
No method of food preservation will improve the original quality
of a food product. Fresh and flavorful food produced at optimal stage
of ripeness or maturity must be used to achieve a satisfactory preserved
food.
All methods of food preservation are based on the following prin-
ciples:
A. Microbial Decomposition must be prevented and delayed to prevent food spoilage
and prolong the keeping quality of food.
Microbial decomposition may be prevented or delayed by:

1. Keeping out microorganisms through sanitary handling and
minimizing the initial bacterial load. It is easier to kill micro-
organism if there is a smaller number of bacteria.
2. Removal of microorganisms.
3. Hindering the growth and activity of microorganism by low
temperature, drying, anaerobic condition or chemicals.
4. Killing microorganism by heat.
B. Self-Decomposition of food may be prevented and delayed by:
1. Destruction or inactivation of food enzymes
Enzymes are organic catalyst produced by living cells.
A catalyst is a substance that changes the rate of reaction
without itself being used up in the reaction. Enzymes catalyze
many different chemical reactions in plant and animal tissues.
For example, the chemical changes that occur in fruits and the
maturing of vegetables are due to enzymatic actions. Enzymes
are proteins and therefore may be denatured by heat. Unless
enzymes are destroyed in heating, they maybe responsible for
certain undesirable chemical changes in preserved food.
2. Prevention or delay of chemical reactions in foods
Chemical reactions in food include oxidation, rancid-
ity of fats, and fermentations. Chemical reaction caused by
light and oxygen accelerates the oxidative rancidity of fats in
food producing undesirable changes in flavor as well as in
color. The nutritive quality of certain vitamins, like Ribofla-
vin and Ascorbic acid, is destroyed or reduced by oxidation.
The use of antioxidant prevents delay or delays the chemical
reactions.
C. Damage by external factors like insects, animal or mechanical causes may be
prevented only with adequate packaging of food.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF FOOD

Physical Properties
The physical properties of food play an important role in cookery.
These are specific gravity, melting point, freezing point and boiling
point. The knowledge and understanding of these physical properties
will insure success in food preparation and food preservation.
1. Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity of food is its weight in reference to the weight
of an equal volume of water at a given temperature. It varies ac-
cording to composition. Specific gravity of food is used as a basis
for the specification purchase of food products such as sugar, syrup,
jams, jellies, milk, cream, ice cream, and alcoholic beverages.
2. Melting Point
The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which
it changes from solid to liquid state. For example, pure water in the
form of ice melts at 0 degree Centigrade. With foods, the softening
point may be identified as its melting point.
3. Freezing Point
The freezing point of a material is the temperature at which
it changes from liquid to solid state. The freezing point of some
foods, such as milk, for example, may be used to determine adul-
teration. The freezing point of salt water is lower than that of fresh
water.
4. Boiling Point
Every pure liquid substance has its own characteristic boiling
point. The boiling point of liquids varies with the pressure to which
the liquids are subjected. The boiling point of water is lowered as
the atmospheric pressure is lowered. For example, water boils at a
temperature lower than 212 degrees Fahrenheit on a mountain top
where the pressure is lower than sea level (76 cm.), but it boils at a
higher temperature inside a pressure cooker, where the pressure is
high. The presence of a dissolved solid elevates the boiling point,
hence, the boiling point of a syrup is always higher than as com-
pared with that of water.
Chemical Properties
The chemical properties of a material are those characteristics that
describe its capacity for being transformed into another materials. For
example: certain fruit juices (apples, grapes etc.) can be transformed into
alcohol and carbon dioxide by fermentation; the alcohol can be broken
down with acetic acid, which imparts the sour taste to vinegar. All these
are chemical changes. The following chemical changes take place when
food is processed either at home or in a community:
1. Hydrolysis of Sugars and Starches
Sucrose, table sugar (Disaccharides) and starch (Polysaccharides)
are capable of being hydrolyzed to form simple sugars (Glucose and
Fructose). Glucose and fructose are prepared commercially for the
manufacture of certain foods. Fructose has a strong tendency to
stay in a syrup condition. Glucose is particularly in demand and is
used in the making of table syrup and baked products. Both Glu-
cose and Fructose do not crystallize readily when they are present
in a syrup, thus is used to advantage in the preparation of cane
syrup from sucrose. In making jellies and fondant, if sufficient fruc-
tose and glucose are present, a smooth and even texture results.
2. Fermentation
Chemical changes brought about in carbohydrates are known
as fermentation. Simple sugar and Disaccharides (Maltose and Fruc-
tose) are easily fermented by bacteria and yeast. The spoilage of
fruits and vegetables is accompanied by a destruction of glucose.
It is the basis for the manufacture of alcoholic beverages. Maltose
found in germinating seeds is capable of being fermented. For ex-
ample: malt syrup maybe made from germinating barley and water
because yeast and bacteria ferment maltose and glucose easily.
3. Starch Dispersion
Chemical changes take place in starch during cooking. Starch
is a very large molecule in nature called granule. Every plant has its
own characteristic granules. Starch is insoluble in cold water but in
heated water, the starch granules burst resulting in starch pastes. If
an acid ingredient is present in starch mixture, it will cook to a soft
gel and may not thicken properly because the acid material reduces
the size of the starch granule.
4. Pectin Formation
Pectins are carbohydrates found in water extract of many
fleshy fruits. When sugar and acid are added in the proper con-
centration to this extract, it forms a gel. A certain amount of pectin

is necessary for making jellies. Overcooking of pectin can produce
harmful effects in color, flavor, and strength of gel.
5. Browning Reaction
The browning reaction in food is a complex process; this
chemical process is not completely known. Studies, however,
have shown that three processes in food can produce brown color
namely: 1. Non-enzymatic browning – reaction between protein, amino
acids, and sugar; 2. Ensymatic browning or Oxidative enzymatic changes.
For example: The browning that occurs in the cut surface of an
apple; and 3. Caramelization – occurs when sugar is heated to a high
temperature.
6. Hydrogenation of Fat
The saturating or hardening of fats within an oil is known as
hydrogenation. It occurs when a soft fat is exposed to the action of
hydrogen. This is an important process in the food industry be-
cause hydrogenated fats are used to produce shortening, lard and
other commercial products. Hydrogenated fats are better adapted
to cooking operation because they are more stable to heat. Hydro-
genation is a means of transforming the physical properties of a
natural fat, making it possible for liquid fats to be substituted for
plastic fats. Special hydrogenated fats or shortening are prepared
products specifically for the production of cookies and cakes, which
require long shelf life.
7. Coagulation of Protein
One of the well-known changes that proteins in food undergo
is the transformation from liquid to solid state. This process is
called coagulation, which is generally considered irreversible.
When heat, acid, alkali, agitation or high pressure is applied to
protein foods, the protein changes and becomes denatured, and
precipitation occurs. Denatured protein is the result of applied heat,
the PH value of the food, the temperature, presence of sugar, the
concentration of oil, and the process of freezing.
8. Hydration of Protein
The ability of protein to form hydrates with water is clearly
illustrated in wheat protein. Wheat, when milled as flour, is capable
of forming dough that will retain the gas evolved during fermenta-
tion and upon baking yield a light and well-aerated bread. This
characteristic is due to the wheat protein, which when combined

with water and mixed as dough and kneaded, an extensible mass is
obtained. The PH value and presence of water-attracting materials,
such as sugar and salts, affect the hydration of protein.
9. Acids and Bases
Acids are compounds that have a sour taste and cause blue
litmus to turn red and cause carbon dioxide. Strong acids exhibit
their acidic character to a marked degree; weak acids only slightly.
For example: Hydrochloric Acid is a strong acid. Acetic acid and
Citric acid in foods are weak acids. Numerous important acids are
found in food. For example: Tartaric acid is found in grapes; Citric
Acid in Citrus fruits; Malic acid is found in apples, pears and a vari-
ety of other fruits and vegetables. Oxalic acid, Lactic and Benzoic acid
have also been found in fruits and vegetables. Carbonic Acid is chiefly
used in the softdrink industry.
Bases from water solutions cause red litmus to turn blue. They
have bitter taste and soapy feel in a concentrated form. Bases are
specially reactive towards acids. The only common base in foods is
that which is supplied by the Sodium Bicarbonate in baking powder or
baking soda.
10. Oxidation
Whenever any substance loses an electron, the process is
called Oxidation. Oxidation may convert elements into oxides
resulting in a higher state of oxidation. The substance that
furnishes the oxygen to an oxidation reaction is called an Oxidizing
agent. The speed into which oxidation takes place is influenced by
temperature, the chemical environment, the size of the particles
being oxidized and the degree of concentration of oxygen. Higher
temperature leads to a more rapid oxidation. In food, oxidation
affects the baking quality of bread. Bread flours are usually treated
with oxidizing agents before processing. A small amount of yeast
foods containing oxidizing agents such as Potassium Bromate, when
added to flour, usually produces bread that has a good volume
and a soft and velvety texture. Dry foods such as milk and coffee
are packed in containers that exclude contact with air to prevent
oxidation by Atmospheric Oxygen. Tallowy flavors and odors in dry
milk are caused by oxidation by atmospheric oxygen.
CAUSES OF FOOD SPOILAGE

Food deteriorates or spoils in quality because of biochemical action
of enzymes in the food or of those found in molds, yeast, and bacteria.
Enzymes are found in all fresh foods and although their action is impor-
tant to the ripening of certain foods (such as fruits and vegetables) the
continuance of this action after the peak of maturity brings about unde-
sirable changes in the food tissue. These changes include the darkening
of cut surfaces, the formation of soft spots, and the development of off-
flavors.
Bacteria, yeast, and molds may cause putrefaction, fermentation,
or molding in food. Most foods are subject to microbial spoilage.
Microorganism is usually found on the skin membrane. It penetrates the
inner tissues only when the outer covering of the food has been broken.
Worms, bugs, weevils, fruit flies, and moths may damage food and
render it unfit for human consumption. The bruises and cuts caused by
these insects serve as pathways by which microorganisms reach the inner
tissues of food.
Chemical reaction is another cause of food spoilage. Temperature,
moisture, and oxygen favor these chemical reactions. Decomposition of
refined oil, non-enzymatic browning or amino-aldehyde reaction, and
oxidation of ascorbic acid are examples of purely chemical reactions.
Physical and mechanical causes also contribute to food deterioration.
Bruising, moisture loss or gain, temperature extremes, absorption of
foreign odors or flavors not associated with enzymatic reactions, are just
a few examples.
Microorganisms
Microorganisms are tiny living things that can only be seen under
a microscope. The three groups of microorganism are bacteria, yeasts,
and molds. These microorganisms cause food to spoil. However, some
food manufacturers deliberately add microorganism into certain foods
to make another food. For example, bacteria are added to milk to make
cheese and yogurts, molds are allowed to grow in soya bean cakes, and
yeast is added to dough to make bread.
Microorganism exists in two states:

A. Vegetatives or growing state – which are easily killed by ex-
posure to temperature near the boiling point of water.
B. Spore or resting state – which are more resilient and can

survive even after boiling for 6 hours, to germinate and
develop again when more favorable condition of moisture,
temperature and food supply are present.
Each of the microorganisms grows at certain temperature
condition and hydrogen ion concentration. They need moisture and
food for development and most of them require free oxygen. Survival of
microorganism is generally longer at temperature near their minimum
than at temperature closer to the maximum. It is easier to control
microorganism by the application of heat than to check them by low
temperature storage.
Bacteria, Yeast, and Molds
Bacteria
Bacteria are of many types and are found in air, soil, water, and
food. Bacteria are microscopic single-celled plants, which occur singly
or are grouped in pairs or chained. They are aerobic, which require
free oxygen, and anaerobic, which can live in the absence of oxygen.
Bacteria are widely distributed over the earth surface but are not capable
of growing everywhere. In order to grow, bacteria need food, moisture
and suitable conditions of temperature. Bacteria like to grow readily and
multiply easily on food such as meat, seafood, and eggs. It will not grow
when it is too cold and when it gets too hot, it will die. Moisture will
make bacteria to grow well. One bacterium can become one million in
less than seven hours. Given such favorable conditions, the growth of
bacteria causes food to spoil and is one of the main causes of food poi-
soning. The range of temperature over which bacteria is able to grow is
generally between 0˚C to 75˚C. Bacteria cannot reproduce when the tem-
perature is raised or lowered sufficiently from the optimum temperature.
Most bacteria grow over a Ph range of 4.5 to 8.5 with optimum values of
6.5 and 7.5. Ph range is its degree of acidity for growth.
The forms of bacteria are rods (bacilli), oval or group of gelatinous
cells (cocci), and spirals (esprilla). Rods and spirals occur singly or
grouped in pairs (diplococci) or chains (streptococci). Cocci also appear
in grape-like cluster known as (staphylococci).
Some products of bacterial decomposition bring about the spoilage
of foods and cause them to be highly toxic. Bacteria that cause diseases
and food poisoning are called pathogenic. They produce toxins or
poisonous substances in foods, which may not be detected by casual
observation.
Signs of bacterial growth include the following:

1. production of acids, giving the flat-sour taste in canned foods;
2. evolution of gases causing the ends of tin cans to swell or
bulge; and
3. cloudiness or turbidity and development of foreign odors and
flavors.
Some types of bacteria produce substances of desirable flavor and
are cultivated for their beneficial action. The lactic acid of buttermilk,
Saukraut, fermented milk, cheese and butter (when made from sour
cream) is an example of a desirable flavor substance formed by bacterial
action.
Yeast
Yeasts are true fungi and are visible only under a microscope. They
are always present in the atmosphere and contaminate food exposed to
the air. Most yeasts grow best with plenty of available moisture and in
the presence of greater concentration of salt and sugar. Many yeasts are
powerful fermented of sugars to alcohol and carbon dioxide. They are
of great importance in the production of wine and vinegar, in the mak-
ing of bread and beer, and in the fermentation of various materials. Over
fermentation, however, produces off flavors and foreign tastes in fruits.
Yeasts play useful or harmful roles in foods. Yeast fermentation is a
chemical change in which enzymes produced by the yeasts cells convert
sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Fermentation is important in the
production of foods such as bread, vinegar, beer and wine. Yeasts are un-
desirable when they grow and ferment fruits, fruit juices, syrup, honey,
molasses and so on. Most sugar containing foods, specially those that
are slightly acid like fruits and fruits juices, are particularly susceptible to
spoilage by yeasts.
Yeasts grow most rapidly at temperature of 68˚C to 100˚F (20 to
38˚C). Temperature somewhat below boiling may be adequate for the
destruction of yeast if time of heating is extended. Yeast growth is inhib-
ited by low temperature. Boiling temperature destroys yeasts cells and
spores.
Molds
Molds are multicellular and filamentous fungi usually giving a fuzzy
or cottony appearance when growing on foods. They may be white,
dark or in various colors. Spores are produced by molds in large num-

ber, usually light and resistant to drying, and are easily spread through
the air to alight in any exposed foods.
In general, molds require less moisture than yeasts and bacteria,
and because they are adaptable to many condition of acidity and
temperature, they are commonly involved in the spoilage of food. They
commonly occur on meat, cheese, milk, and other protein foods. They
grow on fresh fruits, vegetables, and cereal products.
Worms, Insects, and Rodents

Worms attack fruits and vegetables, and are often the cause of big
economic losses to farmers. Insects, like ants, beetles and cockroaches,
have brought big losses to packers of flours, nuts, dried fruits and con-
fections. These insects infect and often reproduce, and the development
of the larval stage is done in the food product. Other insects, like beetle,
scatter their feces on the food, thus rendering it unpalatable. It also at-
tacks and scavengers on foods such as bread or cracker, spices, drug,
cereals, nuts, confection and products of animal origin.
Insects and rodents do not only cause great economic waste by con-
suming foods intended for human use, but in some cases contaminate
these with pathogenic organism and render these aesthetically unaccept-
able by the signs of their presence. Signs of rats and mice include their
dropping, urine markings and holes in packaging. Pantry pests, such as
beetles, mites, moths, weavers, and silverfish, prefer pantry food such as
flour, sugar, rice, and other dry goods. Cockroaches are drawn to food
crumbs and often regurgitates while eating.
FOOD-BORNE ILLNESSES
Food is a potential vehicle for food-borne illnesses. Food-borne ill-
nesses are transmitted to people and usually resulted in intestinal upset
and fever. These are often caused by the consumption of food and water.
It is therefore important for one to be able to distinguish foods that are
unsafe for human consumption. The very young, the old and those with
immune systems compromised by diseases are most seriously affected by
food-borne illnesses.
There are two types of food-borne illnesses namely: Food
Intoxication and Food Infection. Food intoxication or Food Poisoning
is caused by toxins formed in the food or by toxin-producing pathogens
or bacteria. The most common food intoxicants originate from bacteria.
Certain plants and animals produce toxins. Bacteria grow on food and
release toxins that cause illness in the person consuming the toxin-laden
food or beverage. Food intoxication occurs when bacteria enter the
intestinal tract and then start to produce the toxin in the intestine. E.
Coli is the most common example of bacteria naturally found in the
intestinal tract and causes problem when fecal matter gets into the food
or water supply. Undercooked meat is the most common source of E.
Coli contamination because meat comes in contact with its intestinal tract
during the butchering of a carcass. Carcass may become contaminated
during slaughter if the intestines were accidentally cut and the contents
touched the muscles (meat).
Food Infection occurs when pathogens enter the body through inges-
tion of contaminated food. Examples are Salmonella and Escherichea
Coli contamination. Bacterial food infections are caused by ingesting
bacteria that grow in the host intestine, replicate, and create an infection
through their colonization.
People get sick from food that has been contaminated by Biological
(bacteria and other microorganisms), Chemical (plant, toxins, industrial
and agricultural chemicals), and Physical (glass, bone, metal, and plas-
tic).
Parasites need a host to survive. Two of the most common food-
borne parasites are the Round Worms and Protozoa. Roundworm infections
can result from eating undercooked pork or fish. Raw or undercooked
fish may contain the live worms and people who consume such food
may experience the symptoms when the worm penetrates the stomach
or intestinal wall, causing severe abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting or
diarrhea. Protozoa are animals consisting of just one cell. They most
frequently infect humans through contaminated water.
Harmful Chemicals in food are hazardous to health. These chemicals
can come from plants, fruit pits, mushrooms, animals, fish, or chemicals
used in agriculture or industry that may end up in food unintentionally.
Seafood toxins can cause food-borne illnesses. Shellfish such as mol-
lusks, oysters and clams that consume red tide algae become poisonous
and should not be eaten. Red tide is the result of the rapid growth of a
reddish marine algae usually occurs during the summer or in tropical
waters.
Mad Cow Disease causes or creates holes in the bovine brain causing
convulsion, loss of coordination, and ultimately, death. The disease
infects cows or sheeps, and is speculated to have occurred in Great
Britain. Prion, an infectious protein particle that does not contain DNA
or RNA, causes the Mad Cow Disease. Livestocks growers kill the sickly
animal and speculate that healthy cattles become infected and when
slaughtered for their meat, would potentially spread the disease to the
consumer.
MAJOR FOOD-BORNE ILLNESSES

(Adapted from A. Brown 2005. Understanding Food)
NAME FOOD SYMPTOMS PREVENTION

SOURCES
Staphylococ- Lean meat, pastry Gastrointestinal Rapid cooking of

cus (Staph) products, cream- Abdominal cramps foods
filled patries, Thorough heat-
whipped butter, Diarrhea
ing
cheese, dairy Nausea
products, ham Avoid contamina-
Vomiting tion from bare
and other protein
foods hands and sick
Within 2-4 hours food handlers
after eating
Proper refrigera-
Duration: 1-2 tion of food
hours
Botulism Improperly Fatigue, weakness Thorough heat-

canned foods and Double vision ing and cooking
processed low- of food
acid foods Inability to swal-
low Follow recom-
mended process-
Slurred speech ing time and
Respiratory failure temperature for
Death canned foods
Duration: 12-36
hours
Salmonella Raw, undercooked Diarrhea Cook eggs, meat

eggs Abdominal pain and poultry
Raw milk thoroughly
Chills, fever,
Meat and poultry vomiting Pasteurize milk
Dehydration ei- Refrigerate cooked
ther 12-16 hours meat products
properly
Duration: 12-36
hours
Streptococcus Raw milk Sore throat General sanitation

Deviled Eggs Fever Pasteurize milk
TIPS TO AVOID FOOD POISONING

(Source: Dept. of Health Services, LA, USA 2007)
1. Keep food either hot or cold. Most bacteria die at temperature

above 168˚F. They cannot multiply at above 150˚F or below 40˚F,
but in between, they multiply rapidly and that’s the danger. Cooked
foods should be stored at 40˚F or frozen rapidly. Keep hot food hot,
cold food cold.
2. Cook all meat, poultry, and seafoods thoroughly. Raw chicken

is highly contaminated with salmonella. Internal temperature of
165˚F can kill these bacteria. Leftovers should be reheated to 165˚F
and not just warmed up. Do not taste food when they are not thor-
oughly cooked.
3. Keep everything clean. Wash hands, counter top and utensils in

hot and soapy water between each step in food preparation. Wash
all fresh fruits and vegetables before eating.
4. Never leave food out of the refrigerator for more than 2 hours.
Avoid contact between raw foods and cooked foods. Wrap and dis-
card foods in your refrigerator that are heavily covered with molds.
Always clean the refrigerator and examine nearby items.
5. Keep your kitchen equipment clean. Always scrub the utensils

and cutting board thoroughly with soap and hot water. Add a little
chlorine bleach to rinse.
FOOD SAFETY THERMOMETER
Lethal temperature for botulinus bac-

teria
Twenty (20) minutes at
boiling point in the presence of
air will destroy botulinus toxin.
Cooking temperature (above
140˚) destroys most bacteria.
The higher the temperature, the
faster they die.
At 165˚ most bacteria are
killed but a few survive. Above
140˚, bacteria survive but do not
grow. Above 120˚, growth slows
but does not stop. Between 60˚
and 120˚, bacteria grow rapidly
and some bacteria produce tox-
ins. Body temperature is ideal
for bacterial growth.
Between 40˚ and 60˚, bac-
teria grow slowly. Refrigerator
temperatures inhibit growth.
Freezing temperatures (be-
low 32˚) halt bacterial growth,
but some bacteria survive.
METHODS OF FOOD PRESERVATION

Heating
Nearly all types of food can be preserved for a considerable
period of time by cooking. When raw foods deteriorate, it is through the
action of the enzymes they contain and action of bacteria with which
they become contaminated. Heating or cooking destroys or inacti-
vates these enzymes, thus preventing this type of deterioration. Cook-
ing also destroys certain types of microorganisms that cause spoilage.
At home, cooking is used as a preservation method as well as a method
to make food more palatable. However, ordinary cooking does not
destroy all bacteria. Deterioration, although delayed, will occur through
the growth of surviving bacteria.
Pasteurization
In this method of preservation, which named after Louis Pasteur,
foods are subjected to sufficient heat to kill most of the bacteria without
markedly altering flavor or other characteristics. The food is heated in
a closed system, rapidly cooked, and then placed in covered or sealed
container to prevent recontamination. This method is generally used for
liquids such as milk, fruit, vegetable juices, and beer.
Canning
Canning is a method of preserving foods, which combines the tech-
niques of heating to kill spoilage microorganisms and inactivate enzymes
by sealing in an airtight container to prevent subsequent contamination.
Microorganisms may exist in two forms: a growing vegetative cell
or an inactive form called a spore. Vegetative cells can be killed by rather
mild heat (140°F-180°F) depending upon the time of exposure. However,
some spores can withstand boiling water for hours and after cooking still
germinate into vegetative cells that cause spoilage. Therefore, it is neces-
sary to use much higher temperature to kill spores in foods. Food prod-
ucts are heated to expel air, then sealed in containers of glass or plated
steel and heated or sterilized in retorts and cooled. The resulting product
is altered in flavor and texture from that of the raw product. Neverthe-
less, it is preserved so that it can be shipped or stored for several years at
ordinary temperature.
Baking
Baking has two-fold purposes: developing a different type of food
product from grains, then preserving it for future use. Grains for bread
are ground into flour, then made into dough by fermentation with yeast
to develop desirable flavors and textures. The dough is then subjected
to heat. This coagulates the bread, reduces the moisture, and kills the
microorganisms that would otherwise cause spoilage. Cakes and other
items owe their oven structures to chemical leavening agents such as bak-
ing powder or natural gas such as beaten egg whites. Unless the heat is
sufficient to kill yeasts, molds, and spoilage bacteria, the products have
a short shelf life. However, in hermetically sealed containers they keep
very well.
Refrigeration
The rate of deterioration by naturally occurring enzymes and the
rate of growth of microorganisms are progressively retarded by low tem-
perature. In supermarkets, fresh meat is displayed in a chilling case, and
fresh poultry in crushed ice to maintain quality and retard deterioration.
Fresh fruits and vegetables are held in a refrigerated warehouse regulated
to obtain maximum storage according to product requirements. To ex-
tend storage life, products such as butter, cheese, dehydrated eggs, and
canned goods are stored in cooled warehouses. No change of form or
texture is involved when products are simply cooled to prolong fresh-
ness.
Sun and Air-Drying
In certain localities where the warm sun and low humidity prevail,
local fruits are dried on trays in the open. Rapid drying is essential to
prevent molding and to maintain quality. For fast drying where sun dry-
ing is not practicable, mechanical air-drying offers a solution. Fruit and
vegetables are prepared, spread on perforated trays as belts, and passed
through temperature regulated air until dry. In some products, sulfur
dioxide is applied to preserve color and retard deterioration. Some liquid
foods such as milk, liquid eggs, and instant coffee are dried by spray-
ing them into rapidly moving current of hot dry air then covering the
resulting powder. Drying on a rotating heated drum is also employed for
certain products.
Vacuum Drying
With products that deteriorate from heat or oxidation, a vacuum
drying process may be employed in batch or continuous flow. A high
vacuum plus heat causes the product to dry rapidly by evaporation.

Raising the temperature increases the rate of evaporation but this must
be regulated according to product requirements. This method lends itself
to the drying of certain fruit juices.
Freeze Dehydration
Certain products require a porous structure to facilitate dehydra-
tion; otherwise, they may suffer heat or oxidation damage during dry-
ing even at room temperature. Products such as raw or cooked meat,
fish, and certain fruits and vegetables are frozen, placed in a chamber,
and subjected to a high vacuum. This causes the ice crystals to sublime
or evaporate leaving small cavities. The spongy material takes up wa-
ter rapidly during dehydration. To facilitate evaporation, heat is applied
through the shelves upon which the frozen food seats. Temperature of
the shelves must be regulated to increase the drying rate without melt-
ing. Many products can be dried in this way and very closely resemble
raw products when dehydrated, yet will keep for long periods without
refrigeration provided proper moisture proof packaging is used.
Fermentation
Wines and beers are produced by adding yeast to ferment the natu-
ral sugar. Because fruits and juices spoil through the action of many
types of organisms, these are placed in a container to seal out air. Yeast
can utilize sugar even without oxygen and produce alcohol, which acts
as preservative. When the container is opened, acetic acid bacteria will
oxidize the alcohol within the beverage, producing vinegar.
Preserving, Concentration, and Carbonation

In jams, jellies, marmalades, and such, preservation is accomplished
by addition of sugar, while concentration of products by the removal
of water produces syrups and various fruit concentrates. Most of these
products can be kept without refrigeration, but some require cool storage
to retain flavor. Such products add variety to the diet through use of this
preservation method. Honey is a natural product owing preservation to
soluble sugars gathered from flowers and concentrated by the bees.
Beverages are often pressured, and made more palatable, by use of
carbon dioxide gas under pressure. The gas is soluble in the liquid and
inhibits bacterial and mold growth. Fine filtration with raw fruit juices
coupled with saturation with CO2 under about 7 atmosphere pressure is
used for long term bulk refrigerated storage.
Salting, Curing, and Smoking

Meat, fish, and certain vegetables may be preserved by high salt
concentration. The salt inhibits microorganisms and enzyme action.
Products are later utilized by leaching the salt out with water. In curing
ham, bacon, brine fish, and producing pickles, the product is submerged
in a solution of curing salts, allowed to undergo a “cure”; then certain
products are processed in a smokehouse by dry heat. Corned beef is
curing salt brine and distributed under refrigeration. Certain sausages,
like salami, are made by adding a small amount of curing salt to control
fermentation that imparts a characteristic flavor and exerts preservative
qualities. These products are partially dehydrated in the smokehouse
and are stable for a time without refrigeration.
Irradiation
Energy imparted by atomic radiations can kill cells and is used
as preservation method. This has been referred to as cold sterilization
method since it does not employ heat. Extensive work is now in progress
employing gamma rays from radioactive Cobalt 60, machine accelerated
electrons, and X-rays. When used in small amount, a pasteurizing effect
can be obtained for short storage; or when used in a higher dose of en-
ergy, sterilization can be obtained. Certain low levels will inhibit sprout-
ing of potatoes in storage. Use of this method is still in the experimental
stage, and extensive work is yet to be done to prove the commercial
practicability and to assure the safety and wholesomeness of the product
thus treated.
Chemicals
Chemical preservatives can contribute substantially in the preser-
vation of food. High temperature and humidities favor microbial attack
and increase the rate of development of oxidative rancidity — which can
be controlled by the use of chemicals. Food processors have been using
many types of additives aside from preservatives to improve the appear-
ance, flavor, texture, or storage properties of food products.
New Preservation Methods
Recent innovations in technology have come up with new preser-
vation methods such as Pulsed Light, Pascalization, and Aseptic and
Modified-Atmosphere Packaging (MAP). (Brown, 2005)
Pulsed Light is still undergoing approval by the Food and Drugs
Administration (FDA). This method works by exposing food to intense
and very brief flashes of light, which disrupts the cell membranes of
bacterial cells but not the surrounding food. The intensity of the light,
which lasts only a second, is 20,000 times brighter than sunlight. There
is no thermal effect, so quality and nutrient content are retained. Pascal-
ization is a food preservation process utilizing ultra high pressure to in-
hibit the chemical processes of food deterioration. Pascalization is named
after Blaise Pascal, a 17th-century French scientist who described how
contained fluids are affected by pressure. Pascalization subjects food to
very high pressure, a process that kills many bacteria, yeasts, and molds.
Acidic foods are best suited for this method because bacterial spores
remain resistant and must be treated with acid to block their ability to
germinate.
Aseptic and Modified-Atmospheric Packaging (MAP) has been
used for many years on food products. Food that is aseptically packaged
is sterilized, packed, and sealed in a sterilized container under sterile
conditions. The “juice box” is an example of an aseptically packaged
product. It is sometimes combined with modified-atmospheric package,
which consists of changing the air composition around the food to pro-
long its shelf life. The shelf life of products packaged with MAP is con-
siderably longer than foods packaged without this technology. Modified-
Atmospheric Packaging is commonly used for fruits and vegetables that
are ready to use, fresh, peeled, sliced, shredded or grated sold within
a week of preparation. Cured cheeses, most meat and poultry are also
packaged using MAP.
FOOD ADDITIVES
Food additive is a substance or a mixture of substance other than
basic foodstuffs, which is present in food as a result of production, pro-
cessing, storage, or packing. Food additives are added to foods in precise
amounts during processing. They are technologically justified for:
• maintaining the nutritional quality of the food;
• enhancing the keeping quality or stability of food thereby re-
ducing food wastage;
• making food attractive to consumers in a manner which pre-
cludes deception; and
• providing essential aids in food processing.
Food Additives are substances added to food to improve its:
• storage properties,
• appearance,
• flavor, and
• nutritional value.
Additives are very important for the processed food industry. Natu-
ral additives are came from plants and animals while other additives are
artificial using various chemicals.
Common types of additives are:
• preservatives,
• coloring,
• flavoring, and
• nutrient.
The FDA makes sure that food additives used by food manufactur-
ers are safe and approved for regulated use.
Classification of Food Additives

1. Preservatives are substances added to food to prevent or inhibit the
growth of organisms causing spoilage. Examples of selected preser-
vatives are:
a. Salt, sugar, vinegar, and pepper (common household preser-
vatives)
b. Saltpeter or sodium nitrate (used for meat curing)

c. Sulfur dioxide (sulfurous acid) and sulfide (inhibit discolor-
ation of cut fruits and serve as anti-browning agent)
d. Benzoic acid or Sodium benzoate (for fruit juices, jellies, mar-
garine, and catsup)
e. Citric and Tartaric Acids (provide the acid for flavor improve-
ment in syrups, drinks, and jellies)
f. Alum and soaked lime or apog (used as a firming agent for
pickles and fruit preserves)
2. Antioxidants
Oxidative reaction results in many deteriorative effects on
foods. For examples, the rancidity of food fats and discoloration
(enzymes) in fruits. Anti-oxidants are used to prevent these. The
antioxidants perform their function by breaking the oxidation chain
of reaction, thus preventing further oxidation. Acidic substances,
like Ascorbic, Citric and Phosporic Acids, are frequently added
with antioxidant to prevent discoloration. The commonly used
antioxidant are Leutylated Hydroyausele (BHA) and Leutylated
Hydroxyloluene (BHT). BHA is excreted rapidly while BHT is
slowly excreted by the human body.
Anti-oxidants are very beneficial in preventing spoilage in
animal’s fats caused by oxidation. During prolonged storage, anti-
oxidants may also be added to fats to increase the storage time of
certain foods (example: pastry, potato chips, and crackers) made
with fats. Use of anti-oxidants must be government-approved.
3. Sequestrants
A sequestrant is a chemical which combines with a substance
and sets aside so it can be removed from the food. Sequestrants are
used to inactivate a substance which interferes with the process-
ing of a food. They are frequently used to keep the minerals from
settling out of beverages and making them cloudy. Sorbital and
Phosporic Acid are used as sequestrants.
4. Humectants
Humectants prevent food from drying out. Glycerine, Sor-
bital, and Monitol are called humectants and are used in foods such
as coconut and certain confections to help retain moisture.
5. Bleaching and Maturing Agents, Starch Modifier

Chemicals such as Chlorine Dioxide, Bromate and Iodate,
and Chlorine are used as bleaching and maturing agents for flour.
The use of these materials reduces the time required for natural ag-
ing of flour and therefore is economically important. It is usual pro-
cedure that flour is bleached and matured with chlorine. Bleaching
agents are also used in manufacturing of certain cheese to impart a
white color. The bleaching agent used is Benzoyl Peroxide. Hydro-
gen Peroxide is used to bleach tripe, a variety meat.
6. Stabilizers, Thickener
Agar-agar, Gelatin, Pectenate Sodium are commonly used as
stabilizers and thickening agent for beverages, ice cream, icings,
baked goods and cheese spreads.
7. Surface Active Agents
Lecithin is an emulsifier, an example of surface-active agents.
When added to baked goods, it facilitates in machining of dough
and improves resulting bread appearance. In frozen deserts, like ice
cream, the whipping qualities are enhanced when small amount of
emulsifier is added.
8. Anti-Caking Agents and Enzymes
Calcium Phospate, Silica Gel in curing mixes and Stearate are
examples of anti-caking agent.
Criteria for Use

Before being considered for use, a chemical preservative needs to
fulfill the following conditions: (Borgstrom, 1968)
1. It must be non-toxic and suitable for application.
2. It must not impart off-flavors when used at levels effective in
controlling microbial growth.
3. It must be readily soluble.
4. It must exhibit antimicrobial properties over the PH range of
each particular food.
5. It should be economical and practical to use.
Food Additives Commonly Used

Binders and strengtheners — Aids in binding ingredients together to
improve the texture of baked products. All comes from milk, soybeans,
or wheat.
Colors — Probably the most controversial category of food additives.
Coloring may be natural (N) or synthetic (S). However, the words
“artificial color” must be included on the label if the substance is added
solely for the purpose of coloring the food. This is regardless of whether
it is natural or synthetic.
Emulsifiers — Added to foods to prevent separation of ingredients
such as oil and vinegar in salad dressings. In baking, emulsifiers improve
the volume and uniformity of breads and rolls.
Flavor ingredients — The largest category of food additives used strict-
ly to add flavor to foods. Synthetic flavors are often cheaper than the real
thing and help to meet consumer demand when there are not enough of
certain flavors available in nature.
Flavor enhancers — Improve the natural flavor of foods without actu-
ally adding any flavor of their own.
Humectants — Help food to retain moisture.
Nutrients — Added to foods to improve their nutritional value and/or
to replace nutrients that are sometimes lost in processing.
Preservatives — Extend storage time. Prevent spoilage and growth of
bacteria, molds, and fungi.
Sweeteners — Added to make the aroma or taste of food more agree-
able or pleasurable.
Stabilizers, Thickeners — Added to foods to improve body consistency,
and texture. Many are natural carbohydrates.
Sealants — Used to seal moisture in fresh fruits and vegetables, can-
dies, gums, and dietary supplements.
FOOD PACKAGING
Food packaging is valuable to food preservation because it aids
in lengthening the life of food. A package protects the foodstuff from
physical damage during handling, and contamination by dirt and other
foreign materials. It also prevents infestation of insects, rodents, and mi-
croorganisms. Moreover, loss or gain of moisture is controlled and con-
tact with air, light, heat, and contaminating gases is minimized.
Food packaging serves the following purposes:
1. It protects food from physical and chemical spoilage.
2. It enhances the shelf stability of preserved foodstuffs.
3. It facilitates the handling of food.
4. It simplifies storage of foodstuffs.
5. It protects food from physical and chemical spoilage.
Package Characteristics
The main function of a package is to insure complete protection of
the contents. The packaging material should be suitable to the product
properties and should not alter the good qualities of the product. Pack-
age characteristics include moisture proofness, resistance to grease, re-
sistance to microorganisms, resistance to insects and rodents, protection
against light, and odor retention and absorption.
Types of Packaging Materials

The types of packaging material best suited for a particular food
depend on the size and shape of the food, consistency, and state when
packed as solid or liquid. Here are the classifications of the types of pack-
aging materials.
1. Flexible or Soft Packaging Materials
a. cellophane
b. aluminum foil
c. polyethylene
d. wax-coated papers
e. tetrapack
TYPES OF FOOD PACKAGING MATERIALS
Flexible and Soft Packaging

Materials Rigid Containers
Non-Rigid Materials
f. saran film
g. laminated wrappings
h. others — such as box, edible packages, plastic bags
2. Rigid Containers
a. glass jars
b. cans
c. rigid plastic containers
d. paperboard cartons
e. oven glass casseroles
f. bags and boxed bags
g. wooden boxes
3. Non-Rigid Materials
a. paper such as carton, greaseproof paper
b. cloth such as muslin, cheese cloth and burlap
PART III
Selection,
Preparation
and
Preservation
of Selected
Food Groups
67
SELECTION, PREPARATION AND

PRESERVATION OF SELECTED FOOD GROUPS
To achieve excellent results in food preservation, proper selection
of food materials is necessary. A thorough knowledge and understand-
ing of the nature of each foodstuff in a particular good group will help
one to select the best quality item from the market place and elsewhere.
More importantly, the conservation of the nutritive value of food can be
achieved if one is familiar with the proper storage and handling, cook-
ing techniques and appropriate recipes. This chapter presents the most
advanced thinking on the selection, storage, preparation, and cooking of
these food groups.
Fruits Shellfish
Vegetables Cereals
Meat Flour
Poultry Starch and Alimentary Pastes
Fish Fats and Oil
Sugar
Selection, Preparation and Preservation of Selected Food Groups 69
FRUITS
Fruits are produced from flowers. As ripened plant ovaries and
their adjacent tissues, fruits are fleshy or pulpy in character, often juicy
and usually sweet with fragrant, aromatic flavors. Most fruits are edible
when ripe.
Fruits differ in structure according to the kinds of flowers from
which they have been developed. Some fruits come from a simple blos-
som and others from a flower with many stamens and pistils. In addition,
there are some fruits formed from many flowers that have collected to-
gether. Nuts, on the other hand, yield a seed rather than a fleshy portion
but are botanically classified as fruit.
Fruit Classification
Fruits may be classified on the basis of consistency and structure:
1. Fleshy fruits — These are fruits from a single ovary, which remain
succulent instead of turning dry at maturity. Examples are: citrus
fruits such as orange, calamansi, grapes, bananas, mangoes, and
others.
2. Dry fruits — Fruits that developed when the ovary opens at maturity
and discharges the seeds, allows them to fall, or fails to do so. Ex-
amples are: nuts, legumes, and cereal grains.
3. Aggregate Fruits — These are fruits that develop from a flower with
carpels distributed loosely or closely over a common receptacle. In
short, they are formed from several ovaries produced as one flower.
Examples are: atis and strawberries.
4. Multiple or Collective fruits — These are fruits that are formed from
many flowers that have collected together. Examples are: pineapple
and jackfruit.
Changes During Ripening
Knowledge of the ripening process of fruits is essential because

most fruits are good only when ripe. Several important changes occur
during ripening: the fruit develops to its full size; the pulpy edible tis-
sue surrounding the seeds becomes soft and tender; the color changes;
the starch content changes to sugar giving a mild, sweet flavor; and the
full characteristic aroma of the fruits develops. However, the enzymes

continue to function even after the fruit has reached its peak of maturity.
Changes beyond this point cause spoilage and deterioration of texture
and flavor.
Ripeness and the manner of ripening may influence the vitamin

content of fruits. For example, the ascorbic acid content of banana is
greatest in fully ripe fruit. Fruits ripened in the sun are rich in ascorbic
acid.
KINDS OF FRUITS
Fleshy Fruits Dry Fruits
Aggregate Fruits Collective Fruits

COMPOSITION OF FRUIT FLAVORS

The flavors of fruits are due to the combinations of sugar, acids,
phenolic, aromatic compound and essential oils.
1. Organic Acids
Organic Acids that are located in the cell sap of fruits con-
tribute to its tart flavor. Natural sugar, such as fructose, glucose
and sucrose, contributes to the sweetness of fruits. Acidity usually
decreases as fruits ripen. Citric Acid found in citrus fruits, and ma-
lic acid in apples and strawberries are examples of organic acids in
fruits. These organics acid found in fruits are either volatile or non
volatile.
2. Pectic Substances
Pectin is a general term used for carbohydrates-like substanc-
es found in fruits. It acts as a cementing substance and is partially
responsible for the fruits firmness and structure. It is used commer-
cially to contribute to the gelling of fruit preserves. Pectin is very
important in the ripening of fruits and the gelling of fruit preserves.
3. Phenolic Compounds or Tannins

Phenolic compounds are responsible for the browning and
bruising that often occur in ripening fruits. Tannins are commonly
found in unripe fruits, which give them a bitter taste and astringent
feeling in the mouth.
Storage of Fruits
Some fruits are picked and shipped to market in an unripe state.
Unripe fruits are easier to transport than the ripe ones, which are more
delicate. Unripe fruits can be left at room temperature in a paper bag
until ripe. It is best to store them outside the refrigerator. Unripe fruits
are stored commercially under controlled atmosphere storage and with
the aid of preservatives coatings. This process maintains a higher quality
in fresh fruits in shipping over long distances.
Ripe fruits with high water content will spoil quickly within three
days, and it is best to store them unwashed in plastic bags in the refrig-
erator and washed prior to consumption. The plastic bags should be
punctured with air holes. Ripe Bananas are best stored at room tempera-
ture. Refrigeration interferes with their ripening process, thus causing
their skin to blacken. An overripe fruits should not be stored with the
good ones because they will ruin the others by releasing ethylene gas
that speeds up ripening. Dented, damaged, and bruised fruits should be
sorted out and removed before storing other fruits.
Fruits continue to respire after harvesting, that is, they take in oxy-
gen and give off carbon dioxide. This fruit metabolism is controlled or
retarded and reduced by cold storage.
Fruit Cutting
Pineapple
1. Twist crown 2. Cut pineapple 3. Trim each end, 4. Cut the quar-
off pineapple. in quarters, then cut away tered fruit
lengthwise. the center core into bite size
strip and the fruit pieces.
(as close to the
shell as possible).
Avocado
1. Halve the 2. Twist the 3. Remove the 4. Peel off the

avocado. halves apart. seed by striking skin and cut
it with a knife. balls, crescents,
cubes or slices.
Nutritive Value
Fruits do not contain large amounts of protein and fats but are high
in carbohydrates and water content. They are the best food sources of
minerals and vitamins. Sugars in fruit are in a form ready for use by
the body. The minerals, phosphorus, and iron are found in abundant
quantity in fresh fruits. Although there is a variation of vitamin content
from fruit to fruit, most fruits in the raw state contain some ascorbic
acid. Citrus fruits, berries, and melons are among the best sources of
ascorbic acid. Carotene is present in good amount in yellow fruits such
as papayas, mangoes, and bananas. Fruits are also valuable for their bulk
or indigestible fiber.
The following table gives figures of the nutritive composition of
some locally available fruits.
Table 1. Proximate Composition of Selected Fruits

in 100 gms. Edible Portion
The Philippine Food Composition Table, 1997-FNRI
Fruit Moisture Cho Protein Fat Ascorbic Carotene Iron

% GM GM GM ACID EQUIVALENT MG
MG MG
1. Bananas 68 29.6 1.4 0.2 25 360 0.8

2. Lanzones 83.9 14.2 1.0 0.3 2 –– 0.9
3. Avocado 81.8 10.5 0.9 6.2 14 130 0.8
4. Guava 82.4 16.0 0.8 0.3 127 40 0.9
5. Kasoy 90 13.8 0.7 0.6 67 15 0.5
6. Durian 59.9 36.1 2.0 1.2 44 — 1.1
7. Mango 82.4 16.4 0.6 0.2 46 1165 0.6
8. Sampaloc 83.4 61.4 2.0 0.6 4 — 0.9
9. Papaya 86.6 12.1 0.5 0.3 74 450 1.0
10. Atis 73.3 23.7 1.3 0.4 40 — 0.9
SELECTION OF FRUITS
Efficient selection of fruits involves a consideration of its special
characteristics. Knowledge of these characteristics will ensure the
selection of fruits with desirable qualities. Here are some character-
istics of fruits to consider:
FRUIT DESIRABLE
CHARACTERISTICS
Banana Plump and fully matured; skin flecked
with a brown tip; yellow or brown, not
green.
Mango Golden yellow skin; sweet and juicy;
fully cheeked.
Melon Heavy in relation to size; fragment, nor-
mal in shape; free from decay and dis-
ease; a bit soft when pressed at the bot-
tom end.
Pineapple Yellowish brown; stiff leaves that can eas-
ily be pulled from the fruit; heavy in rela-
tion to size; fragrant.
Citrus fruits Heavy; fine-grained; thin-skinned
(Suha, Calamansi, and smooth.
dalandan)
Strawberries Firm; free from decay; bright red; uni-
formly large in size.
Papaya Firm with trace of yellow at the apex or
between ridges; free from lump; not mis-
shapen.
Avocado Smooth and firm; purplish black.
Guides in Buying Fruits

1. Shop for fruits early in the morning when fruits are fresh.
2. Buy the fruits in season. They are less expensive and better in qual-
ity than those out of season.
3. Because fruits deteriorate rapidly after they have ripened, avoid
buying large quantities at one time, unless you have provisions for
preserving the surplus fruits.
4. Decide how the fruit is to be used before buying it.
5. Select the fruit personally whenever possible in order to make the

best selection for your purpose.
6. Purchase the fruit by weight; the heaviest rather than the biggest
may be the best.
7. Select fruits that are ripe but firm and smooth. Overripe, soft, or
bruised fruits are not desirable.
8. Handle fruits with care to preserve their attractive appearance.
9. Select fruits with good color and aroma; these are guides to ripe-
ness.
10. Fruit price is not an identification of quality or nutritive value but
is determined by supply and demand.
Some Principles in Cooking Fruits

1. Some underripe fruits of firm texture require cooking because of
their starch content and cellulose structure that needs softening.
Fruit is cooked to provide variety of dishes as well as to prepare it
for canning purposes.
2. Whenever possible, fresh fruits should be cooked with the skin on
for better color, flavor, and nutritive value.
3. Fruit should be cut into uniform pieces before it is cooked so that
all pieces will be tender at the same time.
4. Fruit should be cooked in small amount of water as possible until
tender to prevent loss of vitamins and minerals.
5. The amount of sugar to be added depends on the sweetness of the
fruit. Too much sugar destroys the delicate flavor of the fruit. Fruits
are better cooked in sugar rather than in syrup because too long
cooking in syrup develops an off-flavor.
6. When it is desirable to retain the shape and firm texture of fruit, it
is cooked in sugar syrup or with sugar.
7. Red fruits, such as strawberries, may lose color when heated rap-
idly, so slow heating is preferable.
8. Short cooking time will ensure greater vitamin and flavor retention.
9. Cooked fruit is most palatable when served immediately.
10. Fruits with heavy skin, such as apples, are good to bake because the
peel serves as protective covering and holds in the steam necessary
to soften the cellulose and decrease the loss of volatile flavors.
SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR FRUIT PRESERVATION:

JELLIES, JAMS, MARMALADE AND CANDIED FRUITS
Jelly
Jelly is the semi-solid food made from sugar and fruits. It is a beau-
tiful colored transparent product with texture so tender. It cuts easily
with a spoon and quivers when removed from its mold. A good jelly
is not syrupy, gummy or sticky. The four essential ingredients in jelly
making are fruits, pectin, acid, and sugar. Not all fruits can be made into
jellies. Only fruits rich in both pectin and acid are ideal for jelly mak-
ing, namely, Guavas, Santol, Tamarind, Bignay, Sour Oranges and Tart
Apple. Pectin is the general term used for Carbohydrates-like substances
found in some fruits that form colloidal solutions in water. Pectin is ca-
pable of forming a gel with sugar and acid.
General Directions for Jelly Making

1. Choose fruits with high pectin content. Fruits with low pectin
should be combined with high pectin ones.
2. Prepare the fruit by washing and chopping. There is no need to
peel or core. Do not use damaged fruit.
3. Cook fruits slowly but thoroughly by boiling with water.
4. After 30 minutes to one hour, depending on the softness of fruit,
pour the content into a jelly bag or a fine cloth and leave it to drip
into a bowl until all juice is strained off. Do not touch or squeeze
while juices are dripping or jelly will be cloudy.
5. Measure the strained juice and add sugar as specified in the recipe.
The amount of sugar will depend upon the pectin content of the
juice.
6. Stir sugar into juice until dissolve. Boil for 10 minutes until setting
point is reached. Remove any scum from surface. Pot and cover.
Failure in jelly making are characterized by bubbles (trapped air),

tough or stiff (overcooked), glass-like particles (too much sugar), and
cloudy (cooking too long). All these problems are preventable.
SUGGESTED RECIPES
Guava Jelly
1 cup juice
1 cup sugar
1. Use mature but slightly underripe guavas. Wash and remove blos-
soms end.
2. Cut into small pieces, place on a pan and add enough water to
barely cover fruits. Boil gently for 10 to 15 minutes or until soft.
3. Transfer cooked fruit in jelly bag. Twist the end slightly to extract
the juice but not the pulp.
4. Add 1 cup sugar per cup juice. Stir to dissolve sugar. Bring to a boil
and strain again to remove undercooked sugar, scum and dirt.
5. Cook rapidly to a jellying point without stirring.
6. Skim and pour while hot into warm jelly glasses.
Santol Jelly
1 cup juice
1 cup sugar
1. Use rare-ripe or just ripe santol. Wash and blanch in boiling water
for 5 minutes.
2. Cut pulp into small pieces and combine with the seeds. Place pulp
and seeds in pan and add enough water to cover fruits.
3. Boil gently for 15 to 20 minutes or until soft. Pour cooked pulp into
jelly bag, squeeze out juice and allow to settle.
4. Add 1 cup sugar per cup juice. Stir to dissolved sugar. Bring to a
boil and strain again to remove undissolved sugar, scum and dirt.
5. Cook rapidly to a jellying point without stirring.
6. Skim and pour immediately into sterile jelly glasses.
Jams
Jams are basically a cooked mixture of fruit and sugar to a mod-
erately thick consistency. The high concentrations of sugar used in jam
making prevent the growth of microorganisms and allow the jam to be
kept for many months.
The Steps for Jam Making Include:

1. Choosing fruits with sufficient quantities of pectin acid and sugar.
Some fruits are naturally rich in pectin such as guava, santol, tama-
rind, bignay, sour orange and tart apple. Others may need to be
boosted with added pectin from calamansi, citric or tartaric acid.
Commercial pectin can also be used.
2. Testing for pectin content. Cooked the fruit until soft, take 1 tsp.
juice and put it in a glass. When the mixtures form a jelly-like clot,
the fruit has a good pectin content.
3. Adding the exact amount of sugar specified in the recipe. Too
little sugar produces a poor set; too much of sugar makes a dark
sticky jam, overpowers the fruit flavor and may crystallize.
4. Testing for the doneness of set. The saucer test is done by put-
ting a small amount on a cold saucer or plate. Allow it to be cool,
and then push a finger gently through it. If the surface of the jam
wrinkles, setting point has been needed. The temperature test is
most accurate. Stir the jam and insert a sugar thermometer in the
middle of the pan. When the reading is 105°C (221°F), a set should
be obtained.
5. Skimming the scum. As soon as set has been reached, remove the
pan from the heat and with slotted spoon, skim of any scum. Leave
the jam from the pan for about l5-20 minutes before potting. Spoon
the jam into the warm jar, filling right to the top. Either cover im-
mediately or leave the jam until cold. Store in a cool, dark places.
SUGGESTED RECIPES
Whole Strawberry Jam
1 kg. (2 1/2 lbs.) small strawberries, washed and hulled
3 tbsp. lemon juices
1 1/4 kg. sugar (3 lbs.)
knob of butter
8 fl oz. bottle of pectin
1. Place strawberries in an aluminum or stainless steel pressing pan
with lemon juice and sugar. Leave to stand for one hour, stirring
occasionally.
2. Heat slowly, stirring when sugar has dissolved, then add butter.
3. Bring to a boil rapidly for 4 minutes, stirring occasionally.
4. Remove the pan from the heat and stir in pectin. Leave to stand for
at least 20 minutes before potting.
5. Pot and cover.
Strawberry Jam
1.6 kg. (3 1/2 lbs.) strawberries, washed and hulled
4.5 ml. (3 tbsp.) lemon juices
1.4 kg. (3 lbs.) sugar
knob of butter
1. Place the strawberries in a preserving pan with the lemon juices
and simmer gently, stirring occasionally for 20-30 minutes until re-
ally soft.
2. Take the pan off the heat, add sugar and stir until dissolved then
add butter. Bring to a boil rapidly for about 20 minutes, stirring
frequently.
3. Test for a set then take the pan off the heat and remove scum with
slotted spoon.
4. Test for set. Leave to stand for 15 minutes. Pot and Cover.
Marmalades
Marmalade is made from citrus fruits. Bitter oranges make the best
marmalade. Sweet oranges give marmalade a rather cloudy appearance
and are best used in combination with other citrus fruits. Fruits like Gua-
va, Santol, Papaya and Pineapple may also be made into marmalade. A
true marmalade is a clear, jelly-like mixture in which are suspended small
pieces or thin slices of fruits.
General Directions for Making Marmalades

1. Prepare the fruit by hand or by a food processor. Chop the sliced
peel of fruits to a preferred thickness.
2. Put the cut fruits in a pot and simmer gently for 1 to 1 1/2 hour
until the peel is really soft and the contents of the fruit are reduced
by half.
3. Add the sugar and stir until dissolved. Boil rapidly for 15-20 min-
utes.
4. Test for a set. Pot and cover.
SUGGESTED RECIPES
Orange Marmalade
2 lbs. (900 gram ) oranges
juice of 2 lemons
2.6 liters (4 1/2 pints) water
3 lbs. sugar
1. Peel off enough rind from the oranges and cut into thin strips.
2. Cut up the rest of the fruits and simmer in a covered pan with the
water and lemon juice for about two hours until fruits are soft.
3. Put the shred rind, covered with water (1 pint) and simmer gently
until soft.
4. Pour the mixture into a jelly bag and leave into a large bowl for 15
minutes.
5. Test for pectin and boil rapidly.
6. Test for a set, then remove the pan off the heat. Leave the marma-
lade to stand for 5 minutes then stir to distribute the peel. Pot and
cover.
Makes 2.3 kg. (5 lbs.)
Papaya-Pineapple Marmalade
2 cups papaya juice
1 cup chopped pineapple
1 tbsp. calamansi juice
2 cups sugar
1. Use rare-ripe papaya. Wash, pare, cut in half and remove seeds.
Cut into small pieces and measure.
2. Place cut papaya in pan. Add 1 tbsp. calamansi juice per pint of cut
pulp and enough water to barely cover fruit.
3. Simmer papaya pulp for 15 minutes or until soft. Strain juice, mea-
sure.
4. Use fresh pineapple. Chop finely and measure.
5. Combine papaya juice, chopped pineapple, calamansi juice and
sugar in the proportion given in the recipe.
6. Cook rapidly with constant stirring until mixture thickens.
7. Remove from heat, stir and skim alternately for 3 minutes and pour
while hot into warm sterile jars. Seal immediately.
Candied Camias
1 kilo camias
2 kilos sugar
1 tbsp. lime in 1 liter of water (lime solution)
Soak camias in lime solution overnight. Wash thoroughly to remove
all traces of lime in the camias. Boil in enough water for 3-5 minutes.
Soak in water. Drain. Prepare syrup (1 part sugar to 1 part water) and
boil. Add camias. Boil for about 3 minutes. Soak overnight. Drain.
Add 1 cup of sugar to the syrup. Boil. Add camias and heat for 3 min-
utes. Soak again overnight. Drain. Add sugar to thicken syrup. Add
camias and boil. Allow to soak overnight. Drain and concentrate
syrup. Add camias. Allow to cool. Drain and arrange in trays to dry
under the sun. Finish drying in an oven at a low temperature. Cool and
wrap in cellophane.
VEGETABLES
Vegetables are edible parts of plants. They are the roots, tubers,
bulbs, stems, leaves, flowers, seeds, or pods. In culinary arts, vegetables
are considered those plant materials eaten with the principal parts of
the meal. They may be served cooked or raw in their natural state or
in a completely changed appearance. Vegetables may be combined with
other food items or eaten as is. In the Philippines, vegetables are always
the popular item in people’s diet.
Classification of Vegetables
Plant parts used as vegetables maybe classified as follows:
Leafy Vegetables are often called green vegetables. Examples of these
are kamote tops, kangkong, pechay, saluyot, malunggay, ampalaya leaves, alug-
bati, spinach and other leaves used for food.
Seed Vegetables are sometimes called leguminous vegetables. Exam-
ples of these are paayap, mongo, bataw, and other beans and peas.
Stems and Bulbs consist of asparagus, bamboo shoots, coconut shoot,
onions, and celery.
Roots and Tubers are at times referred to as root crops. Examples
are kamote, cassava, carrots, ubi, singkamas, potato, gabi, ginger, garlic, and
other plants identified with roots.
Fruit Vegetables consist of tomatoes, squash, eggplants, upo, ampalaya,
patola, sayote, cucumbers, and okra.
Flowers consist of katuray, squash blossoms, cauliflower, and kakawati
flowers.
Nutritive Value of Vegetables

Vegetables are naturally rich sources of vitamins and minerals.
They also contain cellulose-fibrous materials that aid in digestion. Pro-
tein, sugar, and starch are most abundantly found in vegetable seeds and
pod, root crops and fruits and flowers. Dark green and yellow vegetables
are especially rich in Vitamin A as well as other minerals.
CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES
Leafy Vegetables Seed Vegetables
Stem Vegetables and Bulbs Roots and Tubers
Fruit Vegetables Flower Vegetables

The following table shows the nutritive value of selected locally

grown vegetables:
Table 2. Proximate Composition of Some
Common Vegetables
In 100 grams Edible Portion
VEGETABLES CHO FAT PROTEIN VIT. A ASCORBIC IRON CALCIUM

gm gm mg (Carotene) mg mg mg
Equivalent
mcg)
1. Ampalaya 4.5 0.4 0.9 185 40 0.8 42
2. Squash 8.6 0.5 1.4 880 20 0.7 61
3. Tomato 5.2 0.9 0.3 385 34 1.0 31
4. Kamote
Tops 9.1 0.8 3.3 3,195 28 4.6 137
5. Kangkong 3.5 0.6 3.5 2,575 30 4.6 92
6. Carrots 10.5 0.4 1.5 10,290 8 2.1 69
7. Cabbage 4.8 0.3 1.4 20 42 0.8 74
8. Eggplant 5.8 0.2 1.0 80 85 0.6 35
9. Monggo 64.2 1.0 24.4 80 10 5.7 142
10. Bitsuelas 6.8 0.1 2.0 360 17 1.2 77
11. Sitaw 7.2 0.2 3.1 250 22 0.9 61
12. Petchay 3.2 0.5 2.0 1,450 54 3.7 168
13. Malunggay
Leaves 12.4 1.9 6.1 14,945 231 4.5 346
SOME GUIDELINES IN THE SELECTION AND

PURCHASE OF VEGETABLES
Vegetables have high perishability and great variation in quality. It
is therefore important for one to know how to select vegetables at their
best quality. The quality of vegetables depends on:
a) favorable conditions for their growth;
b) the season of their harvest;
c) the variety of the vegetable;
d) degree of maturity;
e) size and uniformity of shape; and
f) presence of defects.
The Essentials of Buying Vegetables

1. Buy vegetables that are in season; they are cheap and plentiful.
They are also most nutritious and better in flavor.
2. Select the vegetables that are free from surface bruises or blemishes
due to decay.
3. Choose leafy vegetables that are fresh, young, and free from decay.
Avoid the wilted ones.
4. Pick out dry seeds or legumes that are not powdery and are free
from holes. Legumes are susceptible to weevil attacks especially
when they had been stored improperly for sometime.
5. Get root crops that are free from dark spots and dirt. They must be
firm, not soft.
6. Buy quality vegetables that will best suit your particular purpose.
7. Consider the cost in relation to the edible portion and the amount
of waste for each type.
8. Buy by weight, if possible or by the count if necessary.
9. Consider the prices of similar vegetables from at least two sources
before buying.
10. Consider equality above all other considerations.
Vegetables Cookery
1. Cook fresh green vegetables uncovered for the first few minutes
and continue cooking until tender and still slightly crispy.
2. Peel and cut vegetables just before cooking; avoid soaking them in
water.
3. Never cook vegetables in an iron container. Enamelware is suitable
and preferable.
4. Use the smallest amount of water possible in boiling leafy vegeta-
bles. If vegetables are to be cooked with meat, add the vegetables
just before the meat gets too tender.
5. To preserve the green color of vegetables, avoid overcooking them;
do not use baking soda; uncover the pan for the first 2 or 3 minutes.
6. Use the same water in which dried legumes are soaked, by simmer-
ing them instead of boiling.
7. Cook starchy vegetables such as potatoes, gabi etc. long enough to
gelatinize. Drain off after boiling.
8. Save the liquid left after cooking vegetables; use it for gravies,
soups, or sauces.
9. See that cooked vegetables are crispy rather than mushy, with fla-
vor and color as natural as possible.
10. For the best method of cooking frozen vegetables, read what is
stated on the package. On the other hand, canned vegetables have
already been cooked. They need only to be heated and seasoned.
To prepare dehydrated vegetables, add water and cook according
to the directions on the package.
SELECTION OF VEGETABLES
Vegetables Desirable Characteristics
Beans Firm, clean, tender, crisp
pods, seeds hardly half grown.
(Toughness, wilting, or discolo-
ration indicate over maturity.)
Cabbage Hard, compact heads, greenish-
white in color, (Puffy,
slightly yellow leaves indicate
overmaturity.)
Carrots Firm, fresh, smooth, well-shaped
roots of a bright yellow to orange
color.
Cucumbers Firm, fresh, well-shaped bodies and
firm, crisp, tender flesh, immature
seeds.
Eggplant Firm, heavy body of a uniform
dark, rich purple color, free of scars
or decay.
Green Leafy
Vegetables
(Camote tops,
Kangkong etc.) Fresh, tender young leaves,
(Discolored and wilted leaves
indicate poor quality.)
Onions Bright, clean, hard, well-shaped
globes with dry skins.
Squash Fresh bright-colored, hard rind.
Tomatoes Well-formed, plump bodies with
a uniform red color.
SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR VEGETABLE

PRESERVATION
Pickled Vegetables
Materials:
Chinese pechay or any of the following vegetables:
Cabbage
Cucumber (unpeeled)
Radish (peeled)
Singkamas (peeled)
Carrots (peeled)
Procedure:
1. Trim, wash, and drain the vegetables.
2. Cut them into halves, lengthwise.
3. For every kilo of vegetables, sprinkle 4 to 5 tablespoons of salt.
4. Press vegetables with the palm of the hand. Arrange them in a con-
tainer. Place a cheesecloth or plastic on top and put weight so as to
drain the juice from the vegetables. Cover.
5. After a day, wash vegetables in running water and squeeze gently.
If they are too salty, soak them in water.
6. Squeeze and slice them thinly. Serve with ginger sauce.
Ginger Sauce:
2 tbsp. soy sauce
1/2 cup water
2 tbsp. sugar
1 tbsp. finely chopped ginger
1 piece sili labuyu (crushed)
Combine all ingredients and serve with the pickled vegetables.
Tomato Ketchup
Materials:
2 kilos of fully ripe, thick-pulped red tomatoes
1/2 cup sugar
1/2 cup vinegar
1/4 cup native onions (chopped)
1 tbsp. pickling spices
1/4 tbsp. chili sauce
2 tbsp. salt
Crushed sili labuyu in small amount of water.
Procedure:
1. Scald and peel tomatoes.
2. Cut into halves and remove seeds.
3. Strain seeds from juice and add to pulp.
4. Add onions and boil until soft.
5. Remove mixture from fire and pass through a stainless strainer or
through a blender.
6. Add salt, sugar, vinegar, and the spices placed and tied in a piece of
cloth.
7. Cook to a thick consistency.
8. While hot, pour in sterile ketchup bottles.
9. Seal, cool, and label. Store.
Instant Ginger Tea

Materials:
1 kilo ginger (whole)
2 to 3 kilos sugar (a mixture of brown and white)
Procedure:
1. Select round young ginger rhizomes.
2. Clean and remove bruised and spoiled particles. Wash and weigh.
3. Scrape off skin.
4. Cut or slice the ginger thinly and chop.
5. Add water, approximately 1 cup or enough to cover.
6. Grind chopped ginger in an osterizer; beat chopped ginger.
7. Strain and measure. To the extract, add sugar (2-3 kilos).
8. Stir and boil. Reduce fire, if ginger syrup is already thick.
9. Cook and stir continuously until granules are formed and become
dry.
10. Pound granules and sift to obtain a uniform product.
11. Pack in a small plastic bag and seal.
12. To make a beverage or salabat, add 1 tablespoon instant ginger tea
to every cup of hot water.
Garlic Salt
1. Peel garlic and chop finely.
2. Mix salt, 1/5 of the weight of garlic.
3. Spread on nylon screen and dry thoroughly under the sun or in a
dehydrator.
4. Pack in plastic bags and seal.
MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS

Meat is an important food in the diet and is the foremost food of
the people in the world. In nearly every home the daily menu is built
around meat as the central dish. This extensive use of meat is due to its
palatability and high nutritive value. Technically, the term meat is used
to designate only those portions of the various animals used for food
like muscle, fatty tissues and some glands such as the liver, heart, and
spleen. Commercially, the term meat includes all portions of the dressed
carcass as muscle tissues, connective tissues, fat, lymphatic glands, edible
organs, and the bone.
Zoological classes of animals from which meat is obtained are:
1. Mammalia — Examples are: cattle, carabaos, sheep, swine or
pigs, and other similar four-footed animals.
2. Aces — fowls and birds.
3. Pisces — fishes.
4. Reptilia — turtles.
5. Amphibia — frogs.
6. Mollusca — oysters and clams.
7. Crustacea — lobsters and crabs.
Grading of Meat
After the meat has been inspected by an authorized veterinarian
and declared wholesome, hygienic and fit for human consumption, then
it is graded. The basis for grading is quality, conformation, and finish of
its carcass.
1. Quality includes tenderness, juiciness and palatability.
2. Conformation refers to the shape, form or general outline of the
side or the whole carcass. This indicates the relative propor-
tion of lean to bone ratio, as well as the relative percentage
of each of the different wholesale cuts. Good conformation
means a high meat to bone ratio and high percentage of the
tender cuts.
3. Finish refers to the amount, quality, and color of the fat within
and around the muscle.
The Bureau of Standards (Philippines) standardized and prepared

in 1970 the meat grading as Excellent, Superior, Good, and Unclassified.
But grading is an expensive operation, hence it is not widely practiced
in the Philippines. Imported meat cuts that find their way to the modern
supermarket may have grades according to the grading system of their
country of origin.
Structure of Meat
A piece of meat usually consists of lean tissues, fatty tissues, connec-
tive tissues, and bone. The lean tissues or the lean meat consist mainly of
muscular tissues and lesser amounts of connective tissues. The muscle
fiber size has much to do with the grain or texture of the meat. Fine
grain, smooth texture, and a smooth and soft surface indicate tender
meat. Young animals have finer-grained flesh than mature animals.
The type and quantity of connective tissue in meat also affect ten-
derness. There are two kinds of connective tissue: white (collagen) and
yellow (elastin). Collagen is changed into gelatin and water by moist
heat. Elastin cannot be changed by cooking. To make it tender, it is bro-
ken up by mechanical treatment such as grinding, pounding, or cubing.
Fats in meat occur mainly in the adipose tissues as visible fat. It is
present in intermediate amounts in between the muscle as intramuscular
fat and in minor quantities inside the muscle cell as intracellular fat. In-
tramuscular fat when present in sufficient quantity and visible, is called
marbling. Fats in meat are important because they contribute to tender-
ness, juiciness and flavor.
The bone is an essential part of the gross structure of the meat.
The conditioning of the bone is an indication of the age of the animal.
In young animals, the backbone is soft and has reddish tinge. In fully
mature animals, the bones are flinty and white. A high proportion of
bone to meat increases the cost of meat; therefore the carcass with a high
proportion of meat to bone is more desirable. The shape of the bone is
an excellent guide for identifying the various cuts of meat.
Nutritive Value of Meat

Meat is a very valuable food. It is rich source of high quality protein
needed for building and repairing worn-out body tissues. It contains rich
supply of phosphorous, copper, iron and Vitamin B, thiamin, riboflavin,
and niacin. It is relatively low in calories without the fat. The fat in meat
gives the body energy and warmth. The variety meat or the internal
organs that include the brain, sweet breads, liver, spleen, and intestines
are equally as nutritious as the lean meat. Liver is a good source of iron
which is needed to make the blood red.
Table 3. Proximate Composition of Lean Meat From Pork, Beef

and Carabeef, 100 gms.
PORK BEEF CARABEEF

Protein (gm) 17.3 22.9 20.6
Moisture (%) 58.6 71.8 77.3
Fat (gm) 23.2 4.2 0.8
Calcium (mg) 29 96 22
Phosphorus (mg) 142 194 161
Iron (mg) 1.3 3.2 2.6
Vitamin A (Retinol) 35 180 85
Thiamine (mg) .45 .10 114
Riboflavin (mg) .27 .20 .26
Niacin (mg) 4.5 6.4 4.3
Classes of Meat
Beef carcasses are classified on the basis of age and sex. The specific
classes are:
stear — a male cow, castrated when young;
heifer — a young female which has not borne a calf;
cow — a female that has not borne a calf;
stag — a male castrated after maturity; and
bull — a mature male not castrated.
Cara beef is carabao meat. Although widely eaten by Filipinos, it is
still sold and passed as beef.
Veal is meat from immature animals of the bovine species. The best
veal carcasses are usually from animals 4 to 8 weeks of age of either sex.
Pork is the meat of swine. Good quality pork comes from young
animals usually 7 to 12 months of age. In young animals there is no
distinction in quality or grade of meat due to sex. However, in older
animals sex differences are pronounced.
Lamb and mutton are sheep carcasses so classified according to the
age of animals. Lamb meat is taken from young animals of one year
or less of age. Mutton is derived from those that have passed the lamb
stage. Carcasses of yearlings are heavier and their flesh darker than those
of lamb. It is the best of the mutton class. The flesh of all carcasses in the
mutton class is darker in color, less tender, and stronger-smelling than
lamb.
Goat’s meat is quite popular in some parts of the Philippines particu-
larly in the Ilocos Region. It is taken mainly as “pulutan” with basi or tuba
by men who drink during their leisure hours or after work in the farm.
Rabbit’s meat comes from rabbits that should be 3 to 4 months old
before they are slaughtered for food. At this age, a large breed of rabbit
weighs about 1/2 to 2 kg. Older stocks are heavier and make good ma-
terials for roasted meat. Domesticated rabbits are meatier but gourmet
relishes the wild rabbit’s meat. Rabbits are known in the Philippines as
pets and certainly not for eating.
Market Forms of Meat

Meat is available in the market as fresh, chilled, frozen, cured,
canned, or dried.
Fresh Meat has not undergone chilling, freezing, or any processing
treatment. Most market meat in the Philippines is in this form.
Chilled Meat has been cooled to a temperature range of 1 to 3°C (34°
to 36°F) within 24 hours after slaughter.
Chilled Meat has been chilled and then frozen. Most meat in su-
permarkets are pre-packaged frozen meat for self-service. Frozen meat
should have an expiry date stamped on the package.
Cured Meat is preserved meat acted upon by curing agents such as
salt, sodium nitrate (salitre), sugar, and sometimes spices and vinegar
without refrigeration. Sausage, hotdog, langoniza, tocino, ham, bacon,
corned beef and tapa are examples of cured meat.
Canned Meat is cooked and requires only to be reheated. Corned
beef, adobo, liver spread and other meat recipes are examples of this
form.
Dried Meat is also known as dehydrated meat. There is a limited
amount of dried meat available. Tapa is an example of dried meat that is
also cured.
MEAT CUTS
A slaughtered animal is called a carcass. The carcass is cut into
larger pieces called wholesale cuts, which are further reduced into retail
cuts. The retail cuts commonly found in the market are further classified
as tender cuts, less tender cuts, tough cuts, and variety cuts. The specific
cut determines the price of the meat.
Tender Cuts
Tender cuts contain lean meat and little collagen. These are the
least exercised parts of the animal and are the most expensive cuts. Meat
of the upper half of an animal, along the backbone, is tender because
the back muscle simply supports the spine and does not perform much
movement. The most tender muscle in both beef and pork is the psoas
major muscle or the loin. This portion is most appropriate for broiling,
roasting, and frying. The whole loin or kadera of the beef yields the loin
end, short loin, sirloin and the tenderloin. In pork, the loin is known as
lomo, when sliced is called pork chops. Other tender cuts in pork include
the ham and side bacon or belly.
Less Tender Cuts

There are more developed connective tissues in less tender cuts
than the tender cuts. Considerable portions are present in the shoulder
and neck of the animals. It is necessary to apply moist heat methods of
cookery to gelatinize the connective tissues, thus tenderizing the meat.
Braising and stewing are also appropriate cooking methods. Most often,
less tender cuts are ground to break and cut the muscle fibers and con-
nective tissues. In a pork carcass, the shoulder, Boston Butt, picnic and
neck bones are examples of less tender cuts. The round, rump and chuck
are for the beef carcass.
Tough Cuts
The tough cuts are usually those muscles which get more exercise
while the animal is alive. They are usually located in the lower part of
the animal. Muscles that are exercised a lot contain higher quantities of
connective tissues. Really hardworking muscles such as the shoulder (or
chuck) and neck produce tough meat. The tough cuts in beef are the
shank, flank, plate, brisket, and neck. There are no tough cuts in the
pork carcass.
Variety Cuts
Variety cuts are the animal glands and other internal organs. They
include the liver, kidney, tripe, sweetbreads, brain, lung, and tongue.
The tail, blood, and skin are also grouped under the variety meats. Va-
riety meat should be cooked until well-done to minimize the danger of
transmitting the organisms found in them. In the Philippines, the variety
cuts are considered choice parts and are priced accordingly.
LIST OF VARIETY CUTS

Local Name English Name Suggested Recipes
Puso Heart Bachoy, Bopiz, Dinu-
guan, Egado
Atay Liver Liver spread, Bachoy,
Bopiz, Dinuguan,
Adobo, Egado
Bato Kidney Bachoy, Bopiz,
Egado, Dinuguan
Baga Lungs Egado, Bopiz, Dinu-
guan
Lapay Pancreas Dinuguan, Egado,
Bopiz
Empella Small Adobo, Kilawin,
Intestines Dinuguan
Bahay guya Uterus Dinuguan, Bopiz
Dila Tongue Pastel de lengua,
Gisado
Tuwalya/
Libro Tripe Menudo, Goto,
Callos, Kilawin
Balat Skin Sitsaron
Dugo Blood Dinuguan, Bopiz
Kaloogan Esophagus Egado, Bopiz
Tastasin Omentum Bopiz, Dinuguan
Trepella Omentum Goto, Bopiz,
Dinuguan
MEAT CUTS OF BEEF AND CARABEEF
The chuck or paypay contains the square-cut shoulder and the top five
ribs, the arm, the blade bones, and the neckbones.
The brisket or punta y pecho has layers of lean and fat, and pieces of
breast bone.
The ribs or costillas include 6 to 12 ribs and the blade bones.
The plate or tadyang is a fatty cut whose meat is ground for ham-
burgers.
The short loin or solomillo consists of the backbone and sometimes the
last rib. This is the cut that yields the beef steaks, porterhouse, T-bone
and club steak.
The flank or kanto is lean and tough, and contains a high percentage
of fat.
The loin end or tagilirang hulihan lies between the rump and the short
loin and yields sirloin steaks, pin bones, wedge bones, and flat bones.
The rump or tapadera is the rear part behind the upper sirloin.
The round or pierna costa is oval shaped with a small round bone and
a high proportion of lean and fat roast cut.
The sirloin tip or kadera is from the bottom and round and the lower
sirloin.
The foreshank or kenchi or pata is a very bony piece that contains a

high percentage of cartilage and connective tissues.
PORK CUTS
Jowl Tail
(Kalamnan)Boston Butt Loin (Buntot)
(Paypay) (Lomo)
Ham
(Pigi)
Bacon Side
Picnic
(Liyempo)
(Kasim)
Spare Ribs
Hindshank
(Buto sa Tadyang)
(Pata)
Foreshank
(Pata)
Jowl or kalamnan is the loose flesh above the lower jaw or throat
with a high percentage of fat.
Boston Butt or paypay is cut from the upper shoulder, has a compact
shape and is easy to slice.
The loin or lomo is a long cut that extends along the backbone of the
animal. This may be cut into smaller loin roasts known locally as costil-
las.
The picnic or kasim is cut from the lower portion of the shoulder of
the animal that has more bone in proportion to lean meat.
The bacon side or liyempo is cut from the belly portion of the long
carcass, usually cured and sold in slices or slabs.
The ham or pigi is composed of the butt or shank end. It contains a
higher proportion of lean to bone.
The spare rib or buto sa tadyang is taken from the belly portion of the
animal; it contains a large proportion of bones.
The shanks (foreshank and hindshank) or pata are the pig’s legs, con-
sidered by the Filipinos as a delicacy, they contain a high percentage of
cartilage and connective tissue.
MEAT COOKERY
Meat is cooked to make it more palatable and digestible. To tender-
ize meat, it must be cooked with heat. Dry heat seldom softens meat and
overcooking even with dry heat toughens the flesh. High temperatures
and extended cooking even with moisture are not advisable. Doneness
can be judged by the outside and inside appearances of the meat.
There are six stages of doneness: (Kotchevar, 1975)
1. Very rare. Only a thin portion around the edge of the meat is
fully cooked. Red that almost bloody juices ooze out. Under
finger pressure, the meat feels soft and jelly-like inside.
2. Rare. The raw, red portion of the meat is small and around
it is pink; there is good brown outer surface. The meat has a
full, plump appearance and gives in to pressure; juices are red
but not bloody.
3. Medium rare. The interior portion is rich pink and exudes
juice of the same color. The meat is still plump and firm; the
amount of gray outer surface has increased.
4. Medium. The interior color of the meat is a modified rose.
Pink juices are apparent but less. The exterior portion is well-
browned. The surface does not appear plump or full. When
pressed, there is definite resistance.
5. Medium well. The pink color has completely disappeared. Juici-
ness is still evident, but the juices are clear or gray, not pink.
There is no plumpness; the meat is firm to touch.
6. Well. The meat is completely gray inside, hard, flinty and
shrunken. Little or no juice appears on its surface which is
brown and dry.
Cooking Techniques
The extent of its tenderness largely dictates how meat should be
cooked. Tender cuts are usually cooked by dry heat and tough cuts by
moist heat. Some tough cuts may be treated mechanically with tender-
izers to make them soft, and then be cooked by dry-heat methods.
Dry heat methods are:
1. Broiling, pan broiling, or griddle broiling
2. Roasting or baking
3. Barbecuing
4. Sautéing, pan frying, or grilling
5. Deep-frying
6. Ovenizing
Moist heat methods are:
1. Braising (pot-roasting, fricassing, casseroling, and stewing)
2. Simmering
3. Steaming
4. Blanching
Principles of Cooking Meat

1. Meat should be immediately removed from wrapping paper
because paper absorbs the juice of meat. Soaking meat in a
pan of cold water for a long period of time draws out the meat
juices.
2. Low to moderate heat is the best cooking temperature for
meat. Such temperature produces a tender and flavorful prod-
uct, minimizes meat shrinkage and retains much of its nutri-
tive value.
3. Tough cuts of meat must be cooked with moisture or in water
at low temperature for a longer period of time.
4. Pressure-cooking meat results in decreased cooking time.
However, the process reduces the color and flavor of food
produced by ordinary cooking. Nevertheless, these qualities
can be attained by the use of other food materials such as
spices, sauces, and vegetables.
5. When defrosting or thawing frozen meat, one should not re-
move its wrapping to prevent the growth of bacteria.
Meat that has been defrosted should be cooked immediately.
It should never be refrozen.
6. Pork should always be thoroughly cooked because it may
contain harmful pathogenic organisms or small worm harm-
ful to the human body.
7. Meat is done when the heat necessary to bring about desired
changes in color, texture, and flavor has penetrated to the cen-
ter of the piece.
8. Ground meat will cook in a much shorter time because its

connective tissues have been broken making it more tender.
9. When broiling meat, one must keep the fire very hot and turn
the meat every two or three minutes to keep it at proper tem-
perature.
SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR MEAT PRESERVATION

Langgonisa or Native Sausage
1 kilo meat (3 parts lean,1 part pork fat)
2 1/2 tbsp. fine salt
2 tbsp. sugar
2 tbsp. vinegar
2 tbsp. wine (Anisado) optional
1 1/2 tbsp. soy sauce
1 1/2 tsp. chopped garlic
1 tsp. peppercorn, pounded
1/2 tsp. saltpeter
3 meters casing
1. Use either lean pork or beef. A good combination for sausage
is 3 parts lean meat (3/4 kilo) and one part pork fat (1/4 kilo).
2. Chop lean meat and pork fat or grind together using a course
blade.
3. Thoroughly mix curing ingredients with ground meat and
pork fat.
4. Stuff into pig casing and into links 4-5 inches long.
5. Hang in a cool dry place for 1 to 2 days before cooking.
Chorizo De Recado
1 kilo pork (2 parts lean, 1 part fat)
2 1/2 tbsp. pimenton
2 tbsp. wine (Anisado)
1/4 ground black pepper
3/4 tsp. saltpeter
1/4 tsp. thyme
1/2 tsp. chopped garlic
1/8 tsp. nutmeg
1. Chop or grind lean meat and pork. Mix well with the curing
ingredients.
2. Stuff into casing and tie into 4 inches long.
3. Allow to cure at room temperature for 1 day or in a refrigera-
tor for 3 days.
4. Dry slightly under the sun for 2-3 hours.
Home Made Bacon

1 kilo pork (liempo or pork sides)
3 tbsp. fine salt
2 tbsp. sugar
1 tbsp. saltpeter
1. Cut and trim pork into rectangular pieces.
2. Mix curing ingredients and rub well on the surface of the
meat.
3. Pack meat with the skin side down in a covered dish. Store
in the refrigerator and cure for 2 weeks. In the absence of a
refrigerator, cure at room temperature for 5 days.
4. Wash, dry and smoke at 125ºF for 2-3 hours or until bacon is
tanned. In the absence of a smoke house, apply either liquid
or powdered smoke to give the desired smoke flavor of bacon.
Homemade Ham
1 kilo pork loin
1/3 cup sugar
1 tsp. saltpeter or prague powder
3 tbsp. salt
1. Combine salt, sugar, and saltpeter. (These form the curing
mixtures.)
2. Spread mixture all over meat.
3. Refrigerate for 3-6 days turning once or twice.
4. Bake or stew in:
1/2 cup sugar
1 cup pineapple juice
1 cup water
3-4 pcs. cloves peppercorn as desired
a leaf of laurel
5. Boil and/or bake till done.
6. Baste all over. Slice and serve.
Instant Corned Beef

1 kilo beef (punta y pecho)
1 1/2 cup water
1 tsp. prague salt
1 tbsp. sugar
1. Cut the beef into 1 1/2 inches cubes.
2. Combine and add the rest of the ingredients.
3. Pressure cook for 40 minutes.
4. Cool and shred beef with a fork.
5. Combine with broth left from cooking. Cool and refrigerate.
Tocino
1 kilo pork (pork chop or liyempo)
2 tbsp. salt
4 tbsp. sugar
1/4 tsp. salitre
a dash of pepper
food color as desired (1/4 tsp.)
1. Mix sugar, salt, salitre, and color.
2. Rub both sides of the pork.
3. Place the salted pork in a container and cover.
4. Keep at room temperature for 5 days or keep in the refrigera-
tor for 3 days.
5. Wash a little before cooking.
POULTRY
Nature of Poultry
Poultry, which consists of domestic birds specially bred for the ta-
ble, includes chicken, duck, goose, pigeon, and turkey. Poultry is now
available in many convenient forms and sizes the year round. The pro-
duction of poultry may be adapted to most areas of the world. At pres-
ent, it is a main source of meat in the people’s diet throughout the world.
In the Philippines, a total of 3.9 kg. poultry meat is consumed per person
in a year and 97% of this consists of chicken, while the rest consists of
turkey, pigeon, and duck. Comparable in nutritive value to other meat
forms, it is economical. It has a rapid growth rate and a rapid generation
time, that is, a poultry farm can produce meat in 8 weeks and eggs in 24
weeks. Furthermore, poultry meat is low in calories in relation to other
nutrients present in it. Hence, it is good food for those on weight control
diets, convalescents, and old people who are not physically active.
CLASSIFICATION OF POULTRY
Chicken Turkey
Duck
Pigeon Goose
Classification of Poultry
Chicken
Throughout the year, chickens are available, fresh or frozen. When
sold oven-ready they are plucked, drawn, and trussed.
1. A Pullet is a baby chicken, four to six weeks old and weighs at
most 1 lb. It is suitable for roasting and grilling.
2. Double Poussin (Broiler). This chicken is six to ten weeks old
and weighs about 2 lbs.
3. A Spring Chicken (Fryer) is about six weeks old, with an aver-
age weight of 2 1/2 lbs.
4. A Roasting Chicken (Roaster) is the most popular size for a
family. It is eight weeks old and weighs 3.4 lbs.
5. A Broiler Fowl is an older bird usually a laying hen, about 8
months old, weighing 6 lbs. Meaty but also fat, it is suitable
for stews or casseroles.
6. A Capon is a surgically unsexed male chicken (usually un-
der 8 months of age) that is tender-meated with soft, pliable,
smooth-textured skin.
7. A Stag is a male chicken (usually under 10 months of age)
with coarse skin, a toughened and darkened flesh, and consid-
erably hardened breast-bone cartilage. It shows a condition of
fleshing and a degree of maturity intermediate between a cock
and a roaster.
8. A cock or roaster is a mature male chicken with coarse skin,
toughened and darkened meat, and hardened breastbone tip.
Ducks
Most ducks are marketed as ducklings or young ducks. A duck
weighing the same as a chicken cannot be served to many people. A 6
lb. duck is only enough for 4 people. A duck is a fatty bird that is best
roasted.
A broiler duckling or fryer duckling is a young duck usually under 8
weeks of age, of either sex, with tender meat, a soft bill, and a soft wind-
pipe.
A roaster duckling is a young duck, usually under 16 weeks of age,
of either sex, that is tender-meated and has a bill that is not completely
hardened and a windpipe that is easily dented.
A mature duck or old duck is usually over 6 months of either sex, with
toughened flesh, and hardened bill and windpipe.
Turkeys
Turkeys are not readily available in the market although they may
be classified into:
A fryer-roaster is a young immature turkey (16 weeks of age, 4.8 lbs.)
of either sex that has tender meat with soft pliable, smooth-textured skin
and flexible breastbone cartilage.
A young hen is a young female turkey (5-7 months weighing 8-4 lbs.)
that is tender-meated with soft pliable, smooth textured skin, and breast-
bone cartilage that is somewhat less flexible than in fryer-roaster turkey.
A young tom is a young male (5-7 months weighing 12 lbs. and over)
that is also tender-meated with soft pliable, smooth-textured skin, and
breastbone cartilage that is somewhat less flexible than in fryer-roaster
turkey.
A yearling hen is a fully matured female turkey (under 15 months
of age) that is reasonably tender-meated and with reasonably smooth-
textured skin.
A yearling tom is a fully matured male, under 15 months of age that
is reasonably tender-meated and with reasonably smooth-textured skin.
A mature or old turkey is an old turkey male or female usually more
than 15 months old with coarse skin and toughened skin.
Pigeons
A squab is a young immature pigeon of either sex, and is extra
tender-meated.
A pigeon is a mature one of either sex, with coarse skin and rough-
ened flesh.
Goose
It is a fatty with creamy-white flesh, which is light brown when
cooked.
It has a slightly gamey flavor. It is marketed young and usually
weighs 6-12 lbs., but again it serves less per pound than chicken.
Gosling is a young goose not more than six months old.
COMPOSITION OF POULTRY MEATS

The nutritive value of poultry is similar to that of other meat-
producing animals. The proteins supplied by poultry are complete and
contain amino acids essential in building body tissues. In addition,
poultry is a very good source of B-Vitamins, thiamine, riboflavin, and
niacin. A concentration of niacin is especially high in the flesh of young
chickens. Dark chicken meat is richer in riboflavin and thiamine, poorer
in niacin and more abundant in fat and connective tissues than white
meat. It has a high myoglobin content which is practically absent in white
meat. The dark meat belongs to those which are more active. Hence,
wild birds, which are very mobile, have only dark meat. Filipinos prefer
dark meat over the white meat. Chicken fat is yellow mainly because of
the presence of carotenoids, xanthophyll, and carotene.
The fat content of goose, duck, squab, or turkey is higher than that
of a chicken. The fat of poultry is deposited in the muscle tissue, in thick
layers under the skin and in the abdominal cavity. The fat of all types of
poultry is of a softer consistency than that of other meats. It also has a
lower melting point.
Table 4. Proximate Composition of the Dark Meat of Chicken,
Turkey, Duck and Pigeon per 100 gm. Edible Portion
FNRI-Food Composition Table Recommended
for use in the Philippines. (1997)
CHICKEN TURKEY DUCK PIGEON

Moisture (gm) 76.3 76.6 73.1 64.6
Protein (gm) 22.6 20.3 19.8 14.6
Fat (gm) 0.1 2.1 6.0 20.1
Carbohydrates (gm) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Ash (gm) 1.0 1.0 1.1 0.7
Calories 108 106 139 244
Calcium (mg) 4 8 11 10
Phosphorus (mg) 86 141 164 218
Iron (mg) 1.0 1.0 2.8 0.6
Sodium (mg) 56 119 71 86
Potassium (mg) 365 357 365 286
Thiamine (mg) 0.11 0.09 0.18 0.15
Riboflavin (mg) 0.07 0.28 0.38 0.41
Niacin (mg) 5.2 4.7 4.1 2.9
How to Bone the Chicken

Chicken are easy to bone if one follows these simple instructions.
It is not too difficult once you have tried it, but care should be taken not
to pierce the skin except for the initial slits. Here are the step-by-step
procedure:
1. Place the bird breast down on the board

and make an incision in the entire length
of the spine, through both skin and flesh.
Push the skin and flesh back as you cut.
2. Work the skin off the neck down, so you can

get the neck bone to extend way beyond it.
3. Start with the ball and socket joint of the

shoulder, cutting it free and boning the
shoulder blade. Pull the wing bone through
from the inside, bringing the skin with it.
4. Strike for the ball and socket joint of

the leg and pull the bone through.
5. Continue to work the meat free, from

one side of the body, then from the
other, until the center front of the
breastbone is reached. Get the whole
skeleton out with its contents all in
one piece.
Principles of Selection
In the Philippines, poultry is marketed in these forms: live, whole,

dressed, drawn, and pieced ready-to-cook. It is important to know the
characteristics of each form to insure proper selection when purchasing
poultry.
Live Poultry. When selecting live poultry, choose those that are alert,
healthy, well-feathered, and well-formed. They should have a good fat
covering and free from broken bones, bruises, and blisters. Sluggish
looking birds should not be purchased.
Whole Poultry. Similar qualities to those of live poultry should be

considered here except that this poultry is not alive. Most poultry in this
form are those that are hunted as game birds.
Dressed Poultry. Most of the chickens available in most markets are

in this form. These are slaughtered poultry with head, feet, and viscera
intact, and blood and feathers removed. The good dressed poultry have
moderate fat covering, free from pin feathers, no missing skin or parts.
Those with slimy, off odors, and discoloration should be avoided.
Drawn Poultry. These are dressed poultry with the visceral organs,
feet, and head removed. Drawn poultry are usually available in super-
markets, either chilled or frozen. Freezing is done in local poultry pro-
cessing plants which insure quality control. There are a number of good
brands of frozen drawn poultry in the local supermarkets. Frozen poul-
try with freezer burns should not be purchased.
Ready to Cook Poultry Parts. Several pieces of a single poultry parts are
usually available and packed in one carton, wrapped, and are chilled or
frozen. Wings, drumsticks, thighs, backs, breasts, legs, halves, quarters
and internal organs, such as livers with hearts, and gizzards are sepa-
rately packaged and sold in most supermarkets. Consumer acceptance
of these ready-to-cook poultry parts is indicated by the brisk sales in the
frozen compartments of supermarkets. Wet markets also sell these poul-
try parts minus the fancy packaging of supermarkets. Likewise, even
chicken heads, feet, and intestines are sold in the wet market because
some people have preference for them.
POULTRY CUTS
Drumstick
Leg with Thigh
Thigh
Quarter Half
Wing
breast
Leg with Thigh and
Meat from back
Principles in the Preparation of Poultry

In the Philippine countryside, poultry is still slaughtered at home.
This practice is becoming rare in the urban area where commercial prep-
aration of ready-to-cook poultry is taken care of by the poultry farms
business. The steps in dressing the poultry are basically the same except
that commercial preparation makes use of automated devices and ma-
chineries.
Steps in Dressing Poultry

1. Slaughtering and bleeding. Proper handling prior to slaughter is essen-
tial to prevent bruising and injury to the bird. Live birds are not fed
8 to 24 hours prior to slaughter to allow easier removal of entrails.
Water may be given to the live animals. This practice improves
flavor and tenderness of the meat. Slaughtering is done by slitting
the large or jugular vein in the animal’s throat. Bleeding may take
about 1 to 3 minutes to effect proper draining of its blood. In the
case of large scale slaughtering, the live birds are shackled and elec-
trically steamed.
2. Scalding. The bled birds are scalded by dipping in hot water at about
60°C (140°F) for 30 to 75 seconds. Scalding is done to facilitate re-
moval of feathers. In commercial dressing of poultry, big tanks with
good temporary control are used for scalding.
3. Defeathering. Feathers are removed by rubbing. The birds are now
called dressed poultry. Defeathering in commercial basis is done in
machines with rubberized “picking fingers.”
4. Evisceration. Slitting the abdominal part and pulling out the entrails
in one piece is called evisceration. When this is accomplished, the
poultry is called drawned poultry. The head and feet are cut off
cleaned and the oil glands are removed. If pin feathers are present,
they may be removed by singeing over on an open flame. Internal
organs are removed and cleaned.
Commercially, evisceration is done in cool rooms where the car-
casses are also inspected by an authorized veterinarian and then chilled
quick-frozen and vacuum-packed prior to marketing.
Principles of Poultry Cookery

1. Poultry meat lacks color. Therefore to add color to the meat and
intensify its flavor, poultry should be browned as part of cooking.
2. Mature birds have more extractives than young ones. Thus, they
are excellent for various kinds of soup and broth. Fryers and broil-
ers are suitable for frying.
3. Low to moderate heat is the best cooking temperature for poultry
because it produces a tender and flavorful product and allows little
shrinkage of meat and more retention of nutritive value.
4. Frozen poultry should be thawed without removing the wrapping
to prevent the growth of bacteria. It should be cooked immediately.
5. When cooking poultry, the age and fat distribution of the birds
should be considered. Young birds are more palatable when cooked
by dry heat; older birds are best cooked by moist heat.
6. Chickens and turkeys should be stuffed immediately before roast-
ing so that the danger of bacterial action is minimized. The cavity
should not be filled completely with stuffing which will tend to
swell and fill up the air spaces and prevent the stuffing from being
thoroughly cooked.
7. In roasting, chicken cuts are laid with the breast-side down to pro-
duce a tender and juicy product. The breast-side up position tends
to dry it out.
8. Cooked poultry should always be eaten as soon as possible after
being removed from the heat.
9. Poultry leftovers, a common source of Salmonella bacteria, must
be refrigerated immediately. Left-over stuffing from chicken relleno
should be removed and refrigerated separately.
10. Basting improves the desirability of the lean meat of poultry in
terms of improved flavor, palatability and appearance.
SUGGESTED RECIPES
Poultry Ham
(Chicken, Turkey, Duck)
Procedure
1. Select birds that are healthy and plump, preferably those that be-
long to the meat breed.
2. Handle them carefully to avoid bruising them.
3. Bleed thoroughly and scald in water at 533°C or simmering tem-
perature.
4. Remove the feathers, the pin feathers, and the legs. Cut the neck
close to the body leaving portions of loose skin uncut. In eviscera-
tion (removal of internal organs), leave no trace of blood or adher-
ing tissue inside.
5. Wash and soak in cold water (with little ice) for about 15 minutes
to remove body heat.
6. Prepare curing ingredients as follows:
Curing pickles must be prepared a day before processing. For the
pumping pickle, prepare a stock of saturated salt that can be dissolved
by stirring in a certain amount of boiling water. Cool in a refrigerator or
ice box, place the container with cold water. Strain in the brine to remove
the excess salt. Boil plain water for dilution purposes and cool. Then
measure and mix all the required ingredients as follows:
Pumping Pickle
Ingredients
2 1/2 cups saturated salt solution
2 1/2 cups cold boiled water
2 1/2 tbsp. sugar
1/2 tsp. salitre
2 1/2 tbsp. Phosphate blend for ham (optional)
1 drop of oil anise
1 drop of oil cloves
2 drops maplein
The diluted brine should give a salinity of 50°S which can be tested
if a salometer is available. Dissolve the ingredients in small amount of
brine before finally mixing with the rest of the liquid. Stir thoroughly
and strain before using. Unused pickle may be set aside in a refrigerator
for future use.
Cover Pickle
Ingredients
6 cups saturated salt solution
4 cups boiled water
1/8 tsp. salitre
5 tbsp. sugar
The cover pickle is slightly more saltier than the pumping pickle.
Spices are omitted.
Dry-Cure Mixture
Instead of using cover pickle, prepare the following ingredients
which will be rubbed on the surface of every kilo of trimmed poultry.
2 tbsp. salt
4 tbsp. spoons sugar
1/16 tsp. salitre
anisado wine
7. Injection of the pumping pickle, immersion or application of dry
cure mixture.
Introduce the pumping pickle into the clean portions of the
chicken carcass using a large syringe or needle. The amount of
pickle to be pumped should be 10% of the dressed weight of the
bird or 100cc. of the pickle per kilo of the material. After injection,
massage the carcass lightly to spread out the pumped pickle, then
place in palayok or any sufficiently large non-corrosive container
(wooden, plastic, aluminum or enameled) and pour enough cover
pickle. To keep the whole carcass submerged in the pickle, place the
clean pieces of banana leaves or wax paper and wooden weight on
top. Finally cover the container tightly with muslin cloth. Store to
room temperature for 2 days or refrigerate for 5 days. Once each
day during curing period, stir the pickle to promote even absorp-
tion of the ingredients.
If the immersion process is not desired, the day cure mixture

may be used for surface treatment. Mix the salt, sugar, and salitre
thoroughly as prescribed. For duck ham, drench the trimmed car-
cass in anisado wine and place in a shallow container. This will
eliminate the peculiar duck odor. Run each piece with the dry cure
mixture. Place the treated poultry in a porcelain, plastic, or earthen
ware, and cover very well. Keep at room temperature for 8 hours
and in the refrigerator for 3-5 days.
8. Smoking and drying.
At the end of the curing period, pull out the chicken from the
pickle, wash with plain water, and tie the legs with abaca twine. Al-
low to drain for a while and hang in an improvised smokehouse,
such as in an elevated bottomless gasoline drum. Place guava leaves
over charcoal embers to produce a good amount of smoke. Con-
tinue smoking for 2-3 hours and dry further for 2-3 days at 110°F
to 120°F (optional) to a brown finish.
9. Cooking the finished chicken or poultry ham.
For every piece of ham, mix the following with the final cook-
ing:
1/2 bottle beer or 1/2 cup pineapple juice
1/2 cup sugar
2 pieces laurel leaves
2 pieces clavo de comer
2 strands oregano
Keep the ham immersed. Cook until well-done. Drain, then
spread brown sugar on the surface of the ham and caramelize with
either a blow torch or hot sianse, or in an oven of 450°C. Serve hot
or cold.
Steamed Chicken in Salt

(Manok na Pinaupo)
Ingredients
1 ready-to-cook chicken
2 cups coarse salt enough to cover the bottom of one kaldero.
Allow the chicken to sit on the salt in the kaldero. Cook over low
heat.
Asadong Manok
(Tangy Chicken Stew)
3 lbs. chicken, cut up 2 medium tomatoes, chopped
1/4 cup vinegar 1 tbsp. pabrika
2 tsp. salt 1 small bay leaf
1/8 gloves garlic, minced 1 cup water
1 medium onion, sliced
Combine chicken pieces with vinegar, salt, pepper, and garlic. Let
stand for at least 30 minutes. Heat oil in skillet over medium heat and
sauté onions and tomatoes until tomatoes are mushy.
Drain the chicken pieces; save the marinade. Add the chicken pieces
to tomato mixture. Sauté until the chicken colors slightly. Add marinade,
paprika, bay leaf, and water. Simmer in 30 minutes or until the chicken
is tender. Correct the seasoning.
Chicken Liver Sauce

1 lb. chicken livers, halved 1 tsp. salt
2 tbsp. bacon fat pinch of pepper
1 medium onion, thinly sliced 1 tbsp. chopped parsley
Wash and dry chicken livers. In hot bacon fat, sauté chicken livers
and onions for 2 minutes. Add salt and pepper, and cook for 5-8 minutes
more over medium heat. Sprinkle with parsley and serve.
Galantina
(Stuffed Rolled Chicken)
5 lbs. chicken capon 1/3 cup pistachio nuts
1/2 tsp. salt 2 carrots, cut in two pieces each
1/4 lb. fresh pork fat cut 1 stalk celery, cut in 3 pieces
in long strips
22 oz. chorizo cut in 4
long strips each
Filling
1/4 lb. lean cooked ham, 1/4 cup dry white wine
cut into thin strips 1/4 cup heavy cream
1/4 lb. chicken livers cut into pcs. 1 tbsp. salt
1/4 lb. salt, pork, cubed 1/4 tsp. pepper
1 lb. ground pork 2 tbsp. chopped green onions
2 eggs
Bone the chicken. Carefully remove the meat from the skin to leave
a shell. Sprinkle the shell with 1/2 tsp. salt. Wrap in waxed paper and keep
in a refrigerator until ready to use. Place all chicken bones in a pot, cover
with water and simmer covered for two hours to make a rich broth. Let
chicken broth cool; then refrigerate. Grind or finely chop chicken meat;
combine with all filling ingredients; place mixture in a covered container,
and refrigerate for 1 to 2 days for a full blending of flavors. When ready
to use, test seasoning days by dropping a tablespoon of meat mixture
in a small pan of simmering water. Cook for 2 to 3 minutes and adjust
seasoning if necessary. Generously butter a large piece of clean linen or
several layers of cheesecloth. Lay the chicken shell on it, outside skin
down. Spread marinated meat mixture over shell; arrange alternate rows
of fresh pork fat and chorizo strips on top. Sprinkle with pistachio nuts.
Bring the edges of the skin together to form a tight sausage-like roll. Sew
up the seams carefully; tightly wrap galantina in the buttered cloth; tie at
both ends. Place it in a casserole large enough to hold it. Add the carrots,
celery, parsley and enough broth to cover the roll. Cover and bring to a
boil. Reduce heat; simmer for 1 hour. Let cool in the broth. Remove the
cloth from the roll and re-roll in plastic wrap. Chill in the refrigerator.
When ready to use unwrap roll and slice.
FISH
The Nature of Fish
Fish is scientifically known as Istiophorus Orientalis. This group of
flesh foods may be classified into two major categories: fish (vertebrate)
and shellfish (invertebrate). Fish is covered with scales while the shellfish
is encased in some type of shell. Shellfish is of two groups, the mollusks
and the crustaceans. The mollusks are soft in structure and are either
partially or wholly enclosed in a hard shell that is largely of mineral
composition. Examples of mollusks are oysters, clams, abalone, scallops,
and mussels. The crustaceans are covered with crust-like shells and have
segmented bodies. Common examples are lobster, crab, shrimp, and
crayfish.
The kinds of scaly fish available for food vary widely in different
localities. They include both saltwater and freshwater varieties and differ
in flavor and quality depending partly on the water in which they are
grown. Most fish are caught in the open seas and their availability is not
dependent on man’s productive efforts, unlike agricultural or farming
crops, but rather on his ability to detect and catch large schools of fishes.
However, in the Philippines, we have learned to culture some marine fish
and bangus. This is the foremost example. The act of culturing fish in in-
land water is called aquaculture, while that of culturing in saltwater bodies
such as coves and shores is mariculture. Mariculture, presently applied
to tahong and oysters, is relatively in its infancy in the Philippines.
Fish has always been an important item in the Philippine diet and
one of the cheapest sources of protein; and thus can take the place of
chicken, pork, carabeef, or beef. Like these meats, the protein of fish
contains all the essential amino acid; hence it has a high biological value.
Deteriorative Changes After Death

Most fish caught from the sea die even while still in the net in the
water. Those caught or harvested from inland waters also die shortly af-
ter they are taken from water. An exception are those fish with accessory
breathing organs like hito and dalag which stay alive after catch.
The deteriorative changes after death of fish are important to its ac-
ceptability as food. Immediately after death, the fleshy portion or muscle
of fish is soft, gel-like, and sticky. The rigor mortis sets in and is character-
ized by rigidity of the muscle. When rigor has passed, spoilage starts.
This is caused mainly by fish enzymes and bacteria. The bacteria come
from the slime of the fish skin as well as from the gills and intestinal
tract. The flesh of a healthy fish is actually sterile. The enzymes which
are found mainly in the intestinal organs of the fish start digesting the
neighboring flesh. A substance which is found in living fish flesh called
trime-thylamine oxide is converted to trimethylamine which imparts the char-
acteristic odor of stale fish. Oxidative deterioration or rancidity of fish fat
follows.
Nutritive Value of Fish and Shellfish

Protein. Fish is one of the most valuable sources of high grade pro-
tein. Most fish contain 18-20% protein with most of the essential amino
acids in the right proportion. Apahap, lapu-lapu, labahita, tulingan, talakitok,
bia, and kanduli have generally high protein content. Protein is needed for
growth and repair of body tissues.
Fat. The fat content of fish varies. Most fish varieties are low in fat,
(less than one percent) thus being moderately low in calories. Fat is not
always uniformly distributed throughout the flesh of a fatty fish but it is
found on the belly, head and liver — where the bulk of it is stored.
Vitamins. Fish liver oils are topically rich sources of Vitamin A. Of-
ten, parts of a fish not normally eaten like the liver and gut, contain
much greater quantities of oil-soluble vitamins than the flesh. Fish roe,
when present, is also a good source of vitamins. An average serving of
fish meat supplies 1/20 to 1/5 of the daily allowance for B, 1/25 to 1/5 of
B2, and 1/10 to 1/2 of niacin. These water-soluble concentrates contain
an appreciable amount of Vitamin B2 — a growth promoting compound.
Minerals. The edible portions of fish are satisfactory sources of mag-
nesium, phosphorous, iron, copper, and iodine. Shellfish is rich in miner-
als such as calcium, which is good for our bones. Inclusion of fish in the
daily diet provides an abundant mineral intake.
Carbohydrates. All shellfish has some carbohydrates in the form of
glycogen. Its sweet taste is due to the glucose formed by enzyme action
from glycogen.
The nutritive component of fish is shown in the illustration: Fish is

high in vitamins, minerals, and protein but low in fat and carbohydrates.
Fig. 11 — Nutritive Value of Fish

Distinguishing Characteristics of Fresh and Stale Fish

Criteria Fresh Stale
Eyes Bright, full, bulging Dull, wrinkled, sunken
Gills Bright red, covered with Dull brown or gray, slime
clear slime, odor fresh cloudy, odor offensive
Odor Fresh seaweedy odor State, sour, putrid
Body Firm Soft
Color Bright, shiny Faded
Flesh Firm, elastic, finger Soft and flabby finger
impression does not impression remains
remain
Slime Clear Opaque
Belly Intact Often ruptured, viscera
walls protruding
Muscle White, light Pinkish, tainted with blood
tissue especially around backbone
Vent Pink, not protruding Brown, protruding
Scales Complete, adhere Loosely attached
tightly, sink
Test Sinks in a basin of Floats in a basin of water
water
Taste Sweet Biting, itchy
MARKET FORMS OF FISH

1. Live Fish or whole, round Live fishes are transported and
marketed alive. Whole, round
fishes are caught and taken from
the water.
2. Dressed Dressed fish is whole fish with

scales, entrails, fins and head re-
moved.
3. Butterfly Fillet Butterfly fillets are the two sides of

the fish cut lengthwise away from
the backbone and held together
by the uncut flesh and skin of the
belly.
4. Fillet Fillet is the boneless side of the fish

cut lengthwise from the backbone.
5. Steaks Steaks are cross section slices cut

from a large, dressed fish; the
cross section of backbone gener-
ally included.
6. Sticks Sticks are uniform stock cuts from

large blocks of frozen fillets.
FISH COOKERY
Fish tastes much better when cooked. Fish is cooked to destroy
any bacteria present as well as to improve its taste and tenderness. In
cooking, moderate temperature is used, long enough for the fish delicacy
flavor to develop, for proteins to coagulate and for very small amount of
connective tissue present to break down. The flesh of fish is sufficiently
cooked when it falls easily into clumps of chalky-white flakes when test-
ed with a fork.
When no additional water is used to cook fish, it is important that
no overcooking be done, otherwise the fish would be very dry. This
method is known as dry cookery. Broiling, baking, frying and toasting
are examples of such method. As a rule, fat fishes are more desirable for
dry heat cooking.
When moist cookery is employed (fish is cooked in water, it is best
to allow the water to boil before plunging or adding the fish). Prolonged
boiling tends to break the flesh of the fish until it falls apart. Ten to 15
minutes cooking is generally enough time for the fish to be done. Indi-
cation of doneness is evident when the flesh becomes opaque and the
muscles are easily flaked.
Principles of Cooking Fish

1. If fish is not to be cooked at once, it should be dressed and wrapped
completely and placed in the freezer, in a closed container or pack-
age.
2. Fish requires less cooking time for it has no connective tissues. It is
fully cooked when it can be easily flaked and the eyeballs come out.
3. Fat fish is best cooked by dry heat, broiled or baked.
4. Cooking should be done in the shortest possible time to avoid loss
of moisture, flavor, and nutritive value.
5. Because fish has a mild flavor, it is frequently served with sauce and
some garnishes. Garnishes and sauces add to the appearance and
flavor of the fish. Sliced cucumber, tomatoes, green pepper, hard-
cooked eggs, pickles, etc. are good garnishes. Butter, tomato, chili,
mayonnaise and catsup are examples of sauces.
6. Fish should be served soon after it has been prepared, otherwise
it will become dry, hard and lose some of its flavor. Something
colorful, crisp, or tart-like celery, raw vegetables, coleslaw or tossed
green salad should be served with fish.
7. Fish may be fried at moderate heat until golden brown. Fry only a
single layer at a time and drain it on absorbent paper.
8. When baking fish, baste the fish occasionally to prevent it from
drying out.
New Fish and Fishery Products

Fish Quekiam is prepared by mixing the fish meat with shrimp meat,
egg, spices, and vegetables; and is served with sweet sour sauce to en-
hance its flavor.
Fish Croquettes are mixture of fish meat, chicken, and vegetables
chopped into fine pieces. It is formed into balls, rolled in breadcrumbs
and deep-fried in oil until brownish color is obtained.
Tuna Ham is a convenient item simply prepared from the meaty por-
tion of fish. It undergoes curing in a mixture of flavoring and preserving
agents such as salt, sugar, and nitrates for one week, finally smoked to
obtain a distinctive flavor and aroma.
Boneless Bangus is a result of deboning bangus, after which it may be
closed, frozen, smoked, or fried. It may also be left open and pickled in
preparation for making it into daing.
Fishburger is derived from a wide variety of fish such as lapu-lapu,
tuna, and parrot fish. It is easily prepared by mixing the chopped fish
meat with the ingredients such as salt, pepper, milk, onions, eggs, and
hamburger seasoning. Then, it is molded into patties and fried in oil
until brownish color is obtained.
Spicy dilis is prepared from dried dilis, completely coated with mix-
ture of well-blended ingredients such as egg, sugar, salt, sili, and corn-
starch. It is fried in deep fat or oil.
Fish Sausage, similarly prepared as to meat sausage, consists mainly
of the white meaty portion of fish like labahita, sharks, or marlin. It is
prepared by grinding the fish meat and thoroughly blending it with other
ingredients and cooked in simmering water for one hour.
By-Product Technology
Fishery by products is largely derived from fish left unsold; these
include products that cannot be sold as fresh fish or rejects from drying
and smoking plants. Such by-products comprise the following:
Fish sauce-bagoong — residue left after the extraction of patis.

Fish meal — a dried product, ground to small particles and used as
an additive in animal feeds.
Fish sauce — locally called “patis” is drawn off from the liquefaction
of salt mixture.
Fish silage — for animal feed ingredients; a product of acid hydrolysis.
FISHERY PRODUCTS AND BY-PRODUCTS

SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR FISH

PRESERVATION
Smoked Fish
(Tinapa)
Raw Materials: tamban, salt, sugar, salitre, pepper, bay leaves
Utensils: kitchen knife, smoking trays, tin cans
Procedure:
1. Cut the fish along the back just above the backbone so that it will
open, leaving the belly solid.
2. Remove all internal organs and wash off blood.
3. Make another cut under the backbone.
4. Wash well and soak for 30 minutes in salt solution of 1/2 cup salt
and 4 cups water.
5. Cook the fish in boiling solution of 1/2 cup water, 2 tablespoons
salt, 1 tablespoon sugar, 1/4 teaspoon salitre, crushed black pepper
and crushed bay leaves.
6. Arrange the fish in smoking trays and drain for 10 minutes.
7. Partially dry the fish in a cool, shady place for about 3 hours before
smoking.
8. Smoke the fish in tin cans using saw dust for 1-2 hours until golden
brown.
Dried Fish
(Tuyo)
Raw Materials: Any fish (bangus, dalag, hito, tunsoy, dilis), salt
Utensils: Wire screen or bamboo rack
Procedure:
1. Wash the fish well in clean water.
2. Remove the internal organs through a cut made across the belly.
3. Soak the fish for 30 minutes in a solution of 1 part salt to 9 parts
water to remove blood.
4. Put the fish in a solution of 2 tablespoons salt to 1 cup water for
12-24 hours.
5. Place the slated fish in a single layer on wire screens, rattan, or
bamboo racks to dry.
Fish Paste
(Bagoong)
Raw Materials: Dilis, sapsap, and ayungin can be made into bagoong.
Utensils: wooden, steel barrels or vats instead, or earthenware pots.
Procedure:
1. Wash the fish in clean fresh water.
2. To every 3 cups of fish, add 1 cup of salt and mix well.
3. Place the fish and salt mixture in earthenware pots.
4. Cover the containers tightly to keep away flies and other insects.
5. Let it stand for 2 weeks to 1 year to develop its characteristic aroma
and flavor.
Fish Sauce
(Patis)
Raw Materials: Fresh Dilis, Galunggong, Tamban, and Tunsoy, or can be
made into Patis or Fish Sauce.
1. Wash fish several times in water and drain thoroughly.
2. Mix coarse salt with drained fish in the proportion of 1 to 3
1/2 parts to 2 to 7 parts by weight.
3. Place salted fish in a clean jar with cover to protect from flies
and insects.
4. Allow to ferment in a warm place for at least 2 weeks (for small
fishes) or longer (for large fishes) to develop the characteristic
flavor and aroma of Bagoong.
5. After 2-3 months of fermentation, big fishes like Galunggong
and Hasa-Hasa may be ground and mixed with its own sauce.
6. Continue Bagoong fermentation. After 4-6 months, liquid will
form on top of the mixture.
7. Drain the liquid (Patis) and strain, or filter until light in color.
Pack in clean bottles.
SHELLFISH
Fish and shellfish are very perishable and deteriorate rapidly af-
ter removal from water. Fish with shells as distinguished from fish with
bones forms two groups based on differences in the character of the
shells. Oysters, clams, scallops live in hinged shells. They have unseg-
mented bodies and the whole portion is eaten except in the case of the
scallops which only the muscles are used. Lobsters, crabs, and shrimps
have various appendages and shell-like crusts that conform to the shape
of their bodies. Fifteen percent of the total fish consumption in the Phil-
ippines consists of shellfish. It also includes squid, cuttlefish, and sea
cucumber.
The production of fish in saltwater bodies such as in coves and
shores is called mariculture. Mariculture is presently applied to tahong and
oysters; and is relatively in its infancy in the Philippines.
Types of Shellfish: Crustaceans and Mollusks

Crustaceans
Crustaceans are shellfish with hard shells over the back and along
the claws but have softer shells covering the lower part of the body and
legs. Examples of these are crabs, lobsters, and shrimps.
Crabs. There are various types of crabs commonly found in the
Philippines: the alimango or green crab, the alimasag or blue crab, and the
talangka.
The talangka or kapi is unique due to its small size, about one-fourth
the size of a regular crab. A fresh water crab obtained from the rivers
has a shell that covers the lower part of its body and is soft enough to
be edible. The carapace or hard shell covers its back which contains the
fat or aligi that may be separated from the meat and preserved, called
taba ng talangka. It is eaten as sauce, a delicacy prepared laboriously by
experts. The bigger crabs, alimango and alimasag, also contain aligi which
is normally with its meat.
Lobster is popular shellfish in New England Fisheries. The claw
meat is preferred and brings a higher price than the tail meat. Lobsters
are expensive and marketed mainly for export.
Shrimps are more commonly eaten than lobster. Like crabs, some
shrimps are also small and would normally be eaten whole with their
shells. Suahe is a saltwater shrimp while ulang and tagunton are freshwater
shrimps.
Mollusks
Mollusks have soft unsegmented bodies and are protected by cal-
careous shells in one or more pieces or enclosed in hard shells, which
are largely mineral in composition. Examples of these are oysters, clams,
scallops, and sea mussels.
There are two types of mollusks: the univalves, with only one shell
and the bivalves, with two shells. The shells of mollusks are usually hard
all over so that they are not in any case edible. Examples of univalves is
kuhol while examples of bivalves are clams (halaan), kabibi, tulya, oysters
(talaba), and mussels (tahong).
The composition of the edible portion of mollusks is quite differ-
ent from fin fishes and crustaceans, even if the former’s shells are not
normally eaten. Their flesh are generally leatherly in texture. They are
comparatively high in glycogen content. For instance, in the case of oys-
ters, the ph does not rise after death but decreases down to as low as 4.8
due to the formation of lactic acid from glycogen. The ph serves as an
index of freshness of oysters.
Tahong is a salt water mussel cultured mostly in Bacoor, Cavite. Its
meat is considered more delicious than that of oysters.
Oysters grown in artificial beds are usually of better quality than
those grown in natural beds. Oyster eggs are now being planted in many
waters. When the eggs are hatched, the tiny oysters, which are not any
larger than the point of a needle, move about the water and finally attach
themselves to some body such as stone, stick, or shell. They grow slowly
and at the age of one year they have usually reached about the size of a
silver quarter. Oysters are harvested by picking and scooping the shells
from the bottom of the sea.
Clams are of two types: the hard-shell clams and the soft-shell clams.
The former have tightly shut shells but the latter may have partially open
shells because of the long siphon extending from the interior. Clams are
dug by hand.
Scallops are highly prized because of their buttery texture and deli-
cate flavor. Scallops have two shells and are capable of swimming freely
through water.
Table 5. Classification of Philippine Shellfish
1. Mollusks
English Name Tagalog Name Scientific Name
a. Oyster Talaba Ostrea Sp.
b. Clam Halaan Cyraeidae
1. Clam Tulya Cyrenidae
2. Clam Kabibi Sotetellina
Cumingiana
c. Mussels
1. Saltwater mussel Tahong Mytilus Smaragdinus
Cheamitz
2. Freshwater snail Susong Pilipit Thiara Asperata Lim
2. Crustaceans
English Name Tagalog Name Scientific Name
a. Crabs
1. Small crab Talangka Potamon Grapsoides
2. Crab Alimasag Neptunus Pelagacius
3. Crab Alimango Scylla Serrata
b. Shrimps
1. Small shrimp Alamang Acetas Indicus
2. Freshwater shrimp Ulang Palaenonidae
3. White shrimp Suwahe Metapenaeus Sp.
4. Tiger prawn Sugpo Penaeus Monodom
Fab
c. Other family
a. Squid Pusit Loligo Pealli
b. Octopus Pugita Octopus Spp.
Types of Shellfish
Lobster
Blue Crab
Dungeness Crab
Oyster Clam
Shrimp
Scallop Mussel
Table 6. Proximate Composition of Local Clams,

Snails, Mussels, and Oysters in Grams
per 100 gms. Edible Portion
Proximate Kabibi Halaan Kuhol Tahong Oyster

Components Clams Snail Mussel Talaba
Moisture 84.8 89.2 77.6 40.8 85.5
Protein 9.0 5.8 12.2 21.9 5.9
Fat 1.6 0.6 0.4 14.5 5.2
Carbohydrates 3.0 2.6 6.6 18.5 5.2
Ash 1.6 1.8 3.2 4.3 1.7
Table 7. A Proximate Composition of Local Types of

Fresh Crabs in Grams per 100 gm. Edible Portion
Proximate Alimango Alimasag Alimango Talangka

Components Meat Meat Aligi E.P.
Moisture 74.6 75.5 58.1 68.1
Protein 19.8 29.9 26.0 13.8
Fat 4.0 0.5 5.6 3.8
Carbohydrates 0.0 2.2 8.5 8.1
Ash 1.6 1.9 1.8 6.2
Market Forms of Shellfish

Shellfish are sold in the shell, shucked or removed from the shell, or
cooked. All forms are quickly perishable and care is needed in selecting
them.
Live Shellfish
Ideally, crabs, clams, mussels, snails, oysters, and shrimps should
be marketed live. A live crab is indicated to be fat if its claws do not have
sharp teeth and if it is heavy in weight. The female crab has a rounded
apron and usually contains aligi; the male crab has a narrow and more
pointed apron. Filipino consumers generally prefer the female variety.
Because of the proximity of most markets to the sources of shellfish, live
species can be sold to consumers.
Whole Shellfish
Whole shellfish are served in the form in which they are caught but
are no longer alive. The head and thorax are intact. Filipinos are fond of
eating the heads and extremities of crabs and shrimps.
Shucked Shellfish
Oysters, clams, mollusks and scallops when removed from the shell
are known as shucked shellfish. Fresh shucked shellfish have a translu-
cent appearance but become opaque when no longer fresh.
Headless Shellfish
Shrimps, lobsters, and prawns are marketed for export in headless
form; the head and thorax removed. Foreign consumers do not favor
the consumption of these parts of the shellfish. Furthermore, the head is
removed mainly because it is the main source of bacterial spoilage.
Cooked Form
Most cooked shellfish are canned for export. The meat of shrimps,
crabs, and lobsters are usually popular items for canned products. At
present, only a small volume of canned and cooked shellfish is available
locally; most of it is imported.
Principles of Cookery
1. Shellfish requires a little cooking time; overcooking causes the flesh
to become tough and fibrous.
2. Unwholesome parts of most shellfish such as the beard of mussels,
crabs’ gills, or lobsters’ intestinal tubes must be removed before
cooking.
3. Color change in crustaceans is an indication that cooking is done.
Shrimps and crabs, for example, change from dark blue green to an
attractive orange or bright red.
4. Crabs are usually boiled in small amount of brine for 10 to 20 min-
utes until color change occurs. Over cooking would make the food
watery.
5. Clams, oysters, and mussels may be roasted, baked, or broiled in
their shells to retain their delicacy flavor.
6. Shellfish are all very lean. Therefore, dry heat, high heat and long
cooking time will make them tough and rubbery. Ideally, they
should be either steamed or simmered within the temperature
range of 190°-210°F. All shellfish cook very quickly.
SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR SHELLFISH

Tulya Crunches
1 cup flour A.P.
1 cup cornstarch
1 1/2 tsp. salt
1 tsp. white pepper
1 tsp. baking powder
1/2 cup diluted or tulya pure (1/4 cup tulya meat in
1/4 cup) water
1 egg
oil for deep frying
Procedure:
1. Boil clams in just enough water to open the shells.
2. Scoop the meat from the shells and measure. With an electric
blenderizer, blend it properly; if no blenderizer is available,
chop the clam meat and squeeze its juice in 1/4 cup water.
3. Sift all dry ingredients and sprinkle the clam juice.
4. Knead the mixture until it blisters and is strengthened with
the use of rolling pin.
5. Cut it thinly and shape it lengthwise to look like noodles.
6. Pre-heat oil and fry well. Serve.
Shrimp Kroepeck
350 grams cooked shrimp
12 cups rice (wagwag)
15 teaspoonfuls salt
12 teaspoonfuls apog or lime
Procedure:
1. Soak the rice overnight in water.
2. Drain well and grind finely together with the blanched whole
shrimp and an equal amount of water until a fine and thin paste is
obtained.
3. Mix one teaspoon lime (apog) and 1/2 cup water. Add this lime solu-
tion to the paste and stir well to produce a homogeneous mixture.
4. Transfer a thin layer into a pie plate and cook by steaming for 2
minutes until the mixture is clear or transparent.
5. Cut into appropriate pieces (1 x 2 inches square), transfer to the
trays and dry in the sun for six hours until crisp. The use of artifi-
cial heat for drying the kroepeck is recommended.
6. Fry in hot oil for serving.
Quekiam
1/2 kilo flaked fish (labahita)
1/2 kilo chopped shrimps
2 eggs
1/2 cup chopped turnips or carrots
3 tbsp. minced onions
13 pieces minced garlic
1 tbsp. pepper
1/4 cup A.P. flour
1 tsp. quekiam powder
1/2 cup soy sauce
3 tbsp. salt
Que kiam wrappers or lumpia wrapper
Procedure:
1. Mix all ingredients thoroughly.
2. Shape into rolls and wrap in que kiam wrapper or lumpia wrapper.
3. Steam and cook. Fry before serving. Serve with sweet and sour
sauce or ketchup.
CEREALS
The word cereal is derived from the name of the Roman goddess
of grain, Ceres. Cereals are the edible seeds of grass or the edible grains
derived from cultivated plants of the grass family. The term cereal also
applies to breakfast foods and a large group of foods made from the
grains. At present time, cereal grains in some form are produced in every
area of the world. Each area grows its own preferred cereal, generally the
grain best adapted to its soil and climatic condition. Lacking of cereals,
the world can hardly feed its masses. In many countries, 80 to 90 percent
of the food calories consumed are supplied by one single kind of cereal
grain.
Kinds of Cereal
Rice, corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, and buckwheat are some of the
most important cereal grains. The form in which they are used varies
with their kind. Some cereals are ground into flour for making baked
products; others are converted into breakfast cereals; and still others are
milled and eaten as a staple food.
Rice
In the Philippines, rice is a staple food eaten three times a day. It
is an important food crop. Rice provides a low-cost and palatable staple
food to over one half of the world’s population. Over 90 percent of the
world rice crop is produced and consumed in Asia, but the United States
has also its major areas of rice cultivation. Rice to be edible should have
the bran removed to yield white or polished grains. Milling makes pos-
sible the removal of inedible grain husks but oftentimes results in broken
rice kernels. Each rice variety has its own characteristic, cooking proper-
ties and cooking time. In countries where milled rice is eaten as a staple
food, preferences depend mainly on flavor and tenderness. Some people
like their rice soft, some not too soft and others hard. The popular vari-
eties of rice in the Philippines include wagwag, milagrosa, elon-elon, binirhen,
intan, C4-636, and IR 20.
Corn
Corn is the second staple crop in the Philippines. Classified as white
or yellow, local varieties include Batangas, yellow flint, College yellow
flint, Cebu or Bicol white flint, sweet corn, pop corn and lagkitan or waxy
maize. Corn occurs in the diet in many different forms — most frequently
in the form of cornmeal, grits, or hominy. Cornmeal is produced by

grinding the kernels of corn to a fine or coarse mixture. The coarse
mixture is known as grits. Hominy is normally made from white corn,
pulverized into rather large particles. Other corn products are ready-to-
eat breakfast cereals, cornstarch, corn oil, and animal feeds.
Wheat
Wheat is used mainly for the manufacture of flour. It is the most
important grain for making bread. For commercial purposes, wheats
are divided into five major groups: hard red spring wheat, hard red
winter wheat, soft red winter wheat, durum wheat, and white (winter
and spring) wheat. Wheat is traditionally grown in temperate climate.
Attempts to grow in the Philippines have failed but the search for the
right variety adopted to our country continues. Wheat is important and
milled locally by Philippine flour mills.
Rye
Rye is used mainly for the commercial manufacture of bread. Bread
products made with rye flour are moist and less elastic in texture. Forty
percent of the total world supply of rye comes from the U.S.S.R. Rye is
also used for making whisky and for feeding livestock.
Oats
Oats as food for human beings are used mainly in the form of
breakfast foods. Most of the oats crop grown in the United States are
used for fodder. Oatmeal is prepared by dehulling the oat grains into
grains which are rolled into flakes. Rolled oats or oatmeals are used as
breakfast hot cereal or ingredients in baked products.
Barley
Barley is used in soups and baby foods but its most important use
is in the production of malt. Malt is used for the manufacture of alco-
holic beverages. Malt syrups are used for malted milk concentrates and
enzyme supplements of breakfast foods.
Buckwheat
Buckwheat is used for the manufacture of pancake flour. Some
buckwheat groats are sold for use as breakfast cereal. It has a character-
istic flavor which limits consumers acceptability.
Physical Structure of Cereal Grain

All cereal grains have similar structure consisting of three parts: the
bran, the germ or embryo, and endosperm.
The BRAN is the outer covering, which is about 5% of the kernel,
contains cellulose, minerals, or ash, vitamins and some proteins. The
aleurone layer, which is a group of singled layer cells just beneath the
brain, is rich in protein, ash and thiamin.
The ENDOSPERM makes up 85% of the kernel. It is the large
central portion of the kernel and contains most of the starch and protein
of the kernel (75% starch, 10% protein) and traces of fats, ash, and fiber.
The GERM or EMBRYO is a small structure at the lower end
of the grain. It makes up 3% of the kernel and is concentrated with oil,
protein ash, and vitamins.
barley corn
oats
wheat
rice
Nutritive Value
All cereals are excellent sources of energy. The energy value is
mainly contributed by starch and fat. Cereals are also significant sources
of proteins although these proteins are usually incomplete. The nutritive
value of cereal protein is great and is improved when cereal is mixed
with animal protein food such as milk. Good amount of Vitamin B is
also found in cereals, which is sometimes reduced by milling processes.
Whole grain products have a great variety of nutrients but are valuable
chiefly for their iron, phosphorus, and thiamin. A comparative summary
of the important nutrients is shown in the table.
Table 8. Approximate Composition of Whole

Cereal Grain in Percentage
Grain Water(%) Protein (%) Fats (%) Cho (%) Ash (%)
Rice 12 7.5 1.7 77.7 1.1
Corn 11 10.0 4.3 73.4 1.3
Wheat 8.7 11.7 2.0 75.8 1.8
Reference: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Circular 549
Pointers In Buying Cereals

In buying cereals, it is assumed that the consumer knows the family
preference, new or old harvest, long or short grained, waxy type or not.
The family budget has to be considered too. Cereal grains that are whiter
with a higher percentage of whole kernels are more expensive.
Tips on buying cereals:
1. Check how clean the cereal is.
2. Look closely for the proportion of broken kernels or
3. Smell a handful to detect off-odors especially from insect in-
festation.
4. Note the presence of seeds, stones, or rice weevils.
5. Buy by weight. Get your cereal supply from reliable sources.
Storing Packaged Cereals

A cool dry place in your cupboard is right for unopened cereal
packages of all kinds. Once opened and tightly reclosed, all types of
cereal except whole grain cereals (and jars of wheat grain), should be
refrigerated.
Open packages carefully, following label instructions so that they

can be reclosed. Fold and close the inner wrapping as well as the box
in which ready-to-eat kind of cereal will store longer. To keep it fresher,
transfer it to a jar or canister with an airtight closure that helps defeat
humidity.
Avoid keeping cereals in an open containers uncooked; or keep-
ing ready-to-eat cereals longer than 3 months in the kitchen cupboard.
Uncooked whole grain cereals can be stored in the refrigerator up to
6 months after opening. Cooked cereals, refrigerated and covered, will
keep up to 4 days. To sum it up, the main aims of proper storage and
packaging of cereals are:
• to retain crispness as in ready-to-eat cereals;
• to avoid off-flavors absorbed from surrounding foreign odors;
• to prevent the entrance of rodents, insect infestation, and mold
growth; and
• to avoid moisture absorption.
Principles of Cooking Cereals

1. Enough water should be used in cooking cereals to form a starch
gel. The various cereal grains vary in the amount of water required.
2. A high temperature should be used in cooking cereals to improve
their palatability.
3. Sufficient cooking of cereals is necessary to eliminate the raw starch
flavor.
4. Pastes made with cereal starches, such as corn and wheat, are
cloudy in appearance, whereas those from root starches, such as
potato and tapioca, are more clear.
5. Finely ground cereals tend to lump when they are cooked. To pre-
vent these lumps from forming, the cereal should be combined with
enough cold liquid to form a paste before it is added to the remain-
der of the boiling liquid.
6. The use of excess water for cooking cereals should be avoided be-
cause nutrients may be discarded with the excess cooking water.
7. The water in which cereals are to be cooked should be boiling rap-
idly before cereals are added. This way, complete gelatinization is
obtained.
SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR CEREAL COOKERY

Botse
1 1/3 sweet potato, mashed
4 tbsp. sugar
1/4 cup water
1/2 cup rice flour (galapong)
1 egg, beaten
1/3 cup sugar, brown
1 cup oil
1. Mix sweet potato and 4 tablespoons sugar.
2. Shape into round, flat, cookie sizes and set aside.
3. Combine water, remaining sugar, rice flour, and egg to form batter.
4. Dip the cookies in the batter.
5. Fry in hot oil until golden brown on both sides.
Tahada
1 3/4 cups toasted ground pinipig
3/4 cup grated young coconut
3/4 cup sugar
1/2 cup evaporated milk
1. Toast pinipig and then grind in mortar and pestle.
2. In a bowl, mix 3/4 cups pinipig with grated young coconut and
sugar.
3. Moisten mixture with evaporated milk added gradually in small
amounts.
4. Roll mixture into 1/2 inch thickness between 2 pieces of banana
leaves or wrapper. Cut into serving portions and dust with remain-
ing toasted ground pinipig.
FLOUR
FIour is a finely ground meal or powdery product obtained from
milling cereal grains, root crops, starchy vegetables, and other foods. It
is used principally in making bread, pastry, cakes, cookies, and macaroni
products.
Properties and Characteristics of Flour
Whitish Color. Normally milled flour has a yellow pigment imparted
by the carotenoid pigment, xanthophyll, and carotene. Flour color is im-
portant because it affects the brilliancy of the finished bread. Although
that whiteness in flour means quality, this is not always true. It has been
shown that some baked products can usually be produced from a long
extraction-unbleached flour.
Strength. The strength of flour is determined by the ratio between
the rates of carbon dioxide production and the loss in the fermentation
dough. It is the ability of the flour to produce a large loaf brought about
by the presence of protein of sufficient quantity and quality to retain the
gas and diostatic activity to produce sugar for uniform gas production.
The ability of flour to produce products of large volume of well “pile”
loaves is related to flour strength. “Piling” refers to an even smooth grain
and fine texture. A large volume with a coarse uneven grain indicates
that the flour is not of high quality.
Tolerance of bread flour means its ability to withstand any process-
ing abuse brought about by mixing fermentation, make-up and all other
baking processes and still produce satisfactory results. Tolerance is often
correlated with the quality of loaf of the glutten.
High Absorption is the ability of a flour to carry the maximum amount
of moisture in the dough and still produce quality of loaf bread.
Uniformity. Uniform quality of every flour shipment is a baker’s
dream. It will be too cumbersome for the baker to keep changing his
formulation and process every time a new shipment arrives.
Market Forms of Wheat Flour
Whole Wheat Flour — also called graham or entire wheat flour. This
contains the components of wheat kernel in its original proportion. It is
more nutritious than the refined white flour.
Bread Flour or hard or strong flour — made chiefly from hard wheats
other than durum wheat. It has slightly higher percentage of gluten than
other flours. Off-white in color and granular in texture; it does not lump.
It is most suitable for baking yeast-leavened breads.
All-Purpose Flour — refers to family or general-purpose flour, which is

used for all cooking purposes. It has lower protein content which makes
it desirable for the quick-breads type of flour mixture. All-purpose is
lower in strength and lighter in weight and color than bread flour. It is
made from the blend of wheats with protein content varying from 10-
11%.
Cake Flour — is known as soft flour and made from soft wheat. It is
highly refined, bleached, and finely ground. It feels soft and very silky to
touch. It is excellent for delicate fine-textured cakes.
Pastry Flour — designates flour which contains enrichment ingredi-
ents. Specified levels of nutrients as required by law are added to white
flour. Iron, niacin, riboflavin, and thiamine must be added within the
prescribed amount for flour to qualify as “enriched.” This flour type is
a convenient item for those who often prepare products that use baking
powder.
Instantized or Quick-Mixing Flour — is an instant flour or all-purpose
flour processed by moistening and then readied to form agglomerates
that do not lump or pack. Such flour flows freely, requires no sifting
before use, and blends easily with liquid.
Durum or Macaroni Flour — designates flour milled from durum
wheat. It has high protein content and is used for macaroni products.
Non-Wheat or Composite Flours

Flours made from grinding or milling grain kernel other than
wheat, root crops, and legumes, are collectively referred to as non-wheat
flours. One or more of these flours may partially replace wheat flour for
cooking purposes and the resulting flour mixture is called composite flour.
Market Forms of Non-Wheat Flours

Rye Flour is obtained by sifting rye meal of the non-wheat flours.
It approaches the quality of wheat flour but for bread making it is still
inferior to the latter for lack of the gluten forming protein.
Buck Wheat Flour is a finely ground product obtained from sifting
buck wheat meal. It is used in making and sifting yellow or white corn.
Corn Flour is obtained by milling and sifting yellow or white corn.
Potato Flour is made by cooking white potatoes which are then dried
and ground. This makes good quality doughnuts and fairly acceptable
cookies.
Rice Flour has two kinds: full-fat and low-fat soy flour. The former
is made from shelled soybean, while the latter is prepared from defatted
soybeans. Soybean flour has a strong beany flavor. Although it has high
protein content than most legumes, it does not have the gluten potential
of wheat flour.
Waxy Rice Flour or Sweet Rice Flour is produced from waxy rice or
malagkit.
Other Flours. Coconut, cottonseed, safflower, peanut, sweet potato,
purple yam or “ubi,” monggo bean and other root crops, seed oil or le-
gumes can all be converted to non-wheat flour.
Composition and Nutritive Contribution of Wheat Flour

A wheat grain has about 84% endosperm, 14.5 bran, and 1.5%
germ. When wheat is milled into whole flour, about 75% of the grain is
recovered. The rest goes along with the bran and germ; and the mixture
of which is called shorts and is used for animal feeding.
Table 9. Amount of Nutrients Per 100-Gram Flour
Flour Energy CHO Protein Calcium Iron Thiamine Ribof-

(Call) (Gm) (Gm) (Gm) (Gm) (Gm) lavin
(Gm)
Whole
Wheat 333 71 13.3 713 3.3 0.55 0.12
All-pur-
pose and
enriched 364 76 10.5 16 0.8 0.06 0.05
Self-rising
enriched 52 76 9.3 265 2.9 0.44 0.26
Cake flour,
unenriched 364 79 7.9 17 0.5 0.03 0.03
Bread flour,
enriched 365 74 11.8 16 2.9 0.44 0.26
Reference: USDA Agriculture Research Science, 1963.

When the whole wheat kernel is milled without separating the bran
and germ layers, the resulting flour is called whole wheat or graham flour. It
has the composition of the original wheat kernel and has higher protein,
vitamin and mineral content than refined white flour. Milling removes
much of the nutrients.
Self-rising flour has an added leavener in the form of sodium bi-
carbonate and acid salt, calcium phosphate, which explains its higher
calcium content.
Energy Value. On the average, 100 gm. wheat flour yields 360 calo-
ries, 40 only from protein and the bigger portion comes from starch. The
amount of carbohydrate in 100 gms. of flour ranges from 71-79 gms.
Moisture Content. Most flour contains 12-14% water.
Protein Content. Protein content in flour varies from 7-14% depending
on the type of wheat used; of this, 80-85% is in the form of gluten and
gliadin, the water insoluble fractions that make-up gluten. The water-sol-
uble proteins albumim and globulin constitute 1%-7% of the total protein
respectively.
FLOUR MIXTURES
Flour mixtures are combination of liquid and flour with various
ingredients. They are classified as batters and doughs based on the pro-
portion of flour to liquids.
Batters
Batters are flour mixtures which contain enough liquid to be beaten
or stirred. Batters vary in stiffness and can be subdivided into pour bat-
ters and drop batters.
Doughs
A dough has less liquid in proportion to flour and has a consistency
that can be handled or kneaded. The soft dough and stiff dough are two
kinds commonly used in baking.
Flour Mixture Ingredients
Milk Leavening Agent

*Improves crumb *Increase volume
and flavor *Contributes to
*Browns crust crumb, textures,
*Adds nutrients flavor
Salt
Sugar *Adds flavor
*Sweetens *Firms dough
*Increases volume *Improves volume
*Adds moistness texture, crumb
*Improve color
*Prolongs shelf life
Fat
Eggs *Tenderizes
*Add structure *Increases volume
*Help leavening *Contributes
*Improve color/flavor structure, flakiness
*Add nutrients *Adds flavor, color
*Increases resis-
tance to staling
Liquid
*Hydrates flour
*Gelatinizes starch
*Serve as a solvent for dry
ingredients
FLOUR MIXTURES
Classes Liquid Consistency Example of Product
Pour 1 part 1 part Pours in a Popovers, Griddle Cakes,
batters steady stream Waffers cream puffs
Drop 1 part 2 parts Breaks into Muffins-Fritters, Drop
batters drop when cookies, Drop biscuits,
poured Cakes
Soft 1 part 3 parts Sticky to touch Rolled biscuits, Yeast
Dough rolls and bread
Stiff 1 part 4 parts Firm to touch Popovers,
Dough Noodles, Rolls, Cookies
Reference: Philippine Home Economics Baking Basics, 1976 Wheat Associates, U.S.A
The kind of flour for each type of mixture and mixing techniques
is important in producing good baked products. Soft wheat flour or cake
flour is used in pour batters because of the low protein content and the
possibility of less gluten development in either.
Pour batters do not need much mixing. Drop batters, on the other
hand, use all-purpose flour. Mixing is not very thorough for these mix-
tures, doughs need strong flours that provide good framework which
can withstand kneading, rolling, and shaping into many types of bread.
A good amount of gluten is necessary for these doughs such as that con-
tained in bread flour and all-purpose flour.
Leavening Agents
A leavening agent is a gas added or produced during the mixing
and/or heating of a batter or dough, making the mixture rise, and there-
fore the product light and porous. Leavening action may be produced by
physical, chemical or biological means. The common leavening agents
are air, steam, and carbon dioxide.
Kinds of Leavening Agents

Air acts as a leavening agent in processes such as beating eggs, fold-
ing, and rolling dough.
Yeast (dry yeast, liquid yeast) is composed chiefly of moist living
cells pressed into cakes with a small amount of starch as binder.
Gas is formed by chemical action of agents like baking powder, bak-

ing soda, baking cream, and ammonium carbonate.
Uses of Leavening Agents in Baked Products

1. Baked products are so light that they can be easily chewed.
2. Baked products made with leavening agents have open or more
porous grain. When these foods are taken into the body, diges-
tive juices come readily in contact with the food; thus digestion is
greatly facilitated.
3. Baked products made with leavening agents are more palatable and
appetizing.
SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR FLOUR

AND FLOUR MIXTURE
Butter Cake
2 cups flour
2 eggs
1/3 cup shortening or butter
1 1/4 cups sugar
1/2 tsp. vanilla
1/4 tsp. salt
1/3 cup evaporated milk with 1/3 cup water
1. Sift the sugar, flour, B.P. at least two times.

2. Cream butter and add sugar gradually.
3. Stir in unbeaten eggs thoroughly and mix.
4. Alternately add flour and milk with water until well blended.
5. Pour into a greased pan (or a pan lined with cut-rite) and bake for
30 minutes at 350°F.
Chiffon Cake
2 1/4 cups cake flour
1 1/2 cups sugar
1/2 tsp. salt
1/2 cup oil
6 egg yolks, unbeaten
3/4 cup cold water or pineapple juice
1/2 tsp. vanilla
6 egg whites
1/2 tsp. cream of tartar
1. Sift together into mixing bowl: flour, B.P., salt and 1/2 cup sugar.
2. Make a well in flour and add the oil, egg yolks, cold water or juice
and vanilla.
3. Beat until smooth and well blended.
4. Beat egg whites and cream of tartar in a separate bowl until stiff
peaks are formed.
5. Add remaining sugar gradually, beating continuously.
6. Pour egg yolk mixture over beaten egg whites gently folding with
rubber scraper until just blended.
7. Pour into ungreased tube pan and bake for about 50 minutes.
8. When cake is done, invert and let hang until cake is cold.
Variations:
1. For orange chiffon cake, use grated orange rind instead of vanilla
and orange juice instead of water.
2. For mocca chiffon, use cold coffee instead of water.
3. For chocolate, use cold chocolate instead of water.
Siopao
Fillings:
1/2 kilo pork, cut into cubes
1 cup water
2 tbsp. cornstarch dissolved in 1/4 C water
1/2 cup sugar
1/2 cup soy sauce
1 small laurel leaf
1/4 tsp. each of salt and pepper
1 tablespoon anise
1. Simmer pork in water until tender.
2. Add all ingredients except cornstarch.
3. When meat is tender stir cornstarch mixture.
4. Continue simmering until cornstarch is cooked and mixture is
thick.
5. Set aside to cool, then place in the refrigerator to chill.
Dough
2 tsp. yeast
1 1/2 cups lukewarm water
2 tbsp. sugar
5 cups A.P. flour
2/3 cup sugar
1 tbsp. baking powder
3 tbsp. oil on pork lard
1. Soften yeast in water and sugar until it appears bubbly.
2. Mix together softened yeast, flour, and oil; stir well until blended.
3. Knead dough until smooth. Let rise for 2 hours.
4. Divide dough into 24 pieces.
5. Form into balls, flatten, apply filling, and seal.
6. Let rise for 30 minutes.
7. Steam for 20-30 minutes. Serve hot.
Make 24 servings.
Pan De Sal
2 tsp. active dry yeast 1 1/2 tsp. salt
2 cups lukewarm water 1/4 cup shortening
1/3 cup sugar 6 cups A.P. or bread flour
1. Soften the yeast in lukewarm water.
2. In a bowl, mix together the sugar, salt, and shortening.
3. Add the softened yeast and half of the flour.
4. Blend well and add the remaining flour.
5. Mix until the dough leaves the sides of the bowl.
6. On a slightly floured surface, knead dough until smooth.
7. Form dough into a ball and put it in a slightly greased bowl. Let it
rise in a warm place for 2 hours until it doubles in bulk.
8. Punch down. Roll into 1 1/2 inches diameter strips.
9. Cover with bread crumbs and let strips stand to rise for 1 1/2 hours.
10. Cut into 1 1/2 inches pieces and arrange on a slightly greased bak-
ing sheet, cut side up.
11. Sprinkle with more breadcrumbs. Let rise for 30 minutes and bake
in a pre-heated oven at 4000F until done.
ONE BOWL CAKE METHOD
1 2
sugar + fat + egg + flavoring
3 4
STARCH AND ALIMENTARY PASTES

Nature of Starch
Starch is a white granular, organic chemical that occurs in all green
plants. Next to cellulose, it is the most abundant substance in the veg-
etable world. Its natural function is to provide a reserved food supply for
the plant, so as to sustain the root or tuber through winter dormancy or
to nurture the new plant during germination.
The starch stored in plants is the basic kind, but only a few yield it
in commercial quantities. Sources are corn, tapioca, potato, sago, wheat,
rice, arrowroot, and sorghum. In corn and wheat, starch is stored in the
seed; in tapioca and potato, it is stored in the root or tuber; and in sago,
it is stored in the stem pith. Extraction is usually carried out by cleaning
the plant material and then grinding, soaking, washing, and filtering the
material to recover the starch.
Table 10. Amount of Starch Present in Common Food Sources

(Percent or gm. per 100 gm. food)
Cereals % Noodles %
Rice, raw 80 Bihon or rice noodles 32
Rice, cooked 30 Miki or wheat noodles 55
Corn grits 78 Miswa or wheat noodles 73
Corn yellow 39 Sotanghon or mungo beans 85
Oatmeal 71-85 Spaghetti 76
Root Crops Legumes

Cassava or Kamoteng kahoy 34 Cowpeas dried or paayap 67
Gao yum or tuge 25 Mungbeans or mungo 65
Potato or patatas 20 Lima beans or patani 23
Taro or gabi 25 Soybeans or Sitaw 32
Purple yum or ubi 25
Functions of Starch
The numerous functions of starch in food preparation are summa-
rized as follows:
1. thickening sauce and gravies, for example, lechon sauce or
fresh lumpia sauce.
2. gelling gumdrops or pudding, e.g. bread pudding, kutsinta.
3. structural framework for baked goods, e.g. pastries and cakes.
4. stabilizing beverages, salad dressings, e.g. chocolate drinks.
5. moisture retaining as in filling and candies.
6. coating or dusting bread and candies, e.g. candies and bis-
cuits.
7. coloring dextrines, e.g. polvoron, kare-kare sauce.
Other uses of starch (processed starch) include the following:
1. Starchy cereals make important feed for poultry and stock
animals.
2. Starch is also used in the paper industry. All types of papers,
except tissue and newsprint, employ starch either as a fiber
binder or surface finish. It is also used in the fabrication of
corrugated paper board.
3. In the textile industry, it is a sizing material for strengthening
the wrap threads during weaving and as thickening agent for
dye printing solutions.
4. Starch products are employed as stiffening agent in laundry,
binders in building, and adjuncts with malt in the brewing
industry.
5. The pharmaceutical industry uses starch as a diluting material
in the manufacture of tablets.
Principles of Starch Cookery

When starch granules are mixed with water at room temperature,
they do not dissolve but scatter or disperse. A non-vicious suspension is
formed and after standing for sometime without stirring, the granules
settle to the bottom.
Dry heat
Dry heat is applied to starch, makes starch more soluble and re-
duces its thickening power when made into a cooked paste. Some starch
molecules are broken down to dextrines in the process called dextriniza-
tion. Color and flavor changes also occur when starchy foods are sub-
jected to high temperature with dry heat.
Effect of Moist Heat
When starches are heated with water, the granules swell and the
dispersion in viscosity intensifies until a peak thickness is reached. The
term gelatinization is used to describe these changes which appear to be
a series of steps that starch undergoes in the presence of moist heat; the
granules absorb water and as heating continues, they swell and thicken.
Within the temperature range of gelatinization, being the characteristic
of food starch, the sol becomes viscous and loses opacity.
Gelation
When a gelatized starchy paste is cooked, it may or may not gel
depending upon various factors. Gelation is the setting of the sol into a
solidified mass. As loose molecules pull together, the gel network shrinks
and water is pushed out of the gel, leaving a spongy mass. This process
is called “weeping.”
1. It must be remembered that the gelation time varies with the spe-
cies of starch.
2. To prevent lumping, other ingredients in the recipe should be
mixed with starch; to separate the granules, water should be added
gradually with stirring, making a smooth paste.
3. Starches must be cooked 5 minutes more after reaching maximum
gelatinization.
4. There must be enough water for the quantity of starch molecules in
suspension.
5. Scorching may be avoided by thorough dispersion of the starch
particles, control of temperature, adequate stirring, and scraping
the sides occasionally.
Alimentary Pastes
Alimentary pastes or pastas in Italian refer to a family of macaroni
in various sizes and shapes. The most popular ones are spaghetti, maca-
roni, vermicelli, egg noodles, and lasagna.
The primary ingredient utilized in making pasta is a coarsely ground

flour from durum wheat called semolina. Macaroni products originated in
the orient many years ago and were brought to Italy by Venetian trad-
ers and explorers of the middle ages. The Italians adopted pasta as their
national dish, and from Italy the popularity of pasta spread throughout
Europe.
Nutritive Value
An 8-ounce (21 lbs.) package of pasta offers 838 calories (about 4
1/2 cups) sufficient for 4 to 6 people depending on how you intend to
serve it. The same amount of enriched pasta cooked before saucing or
other preparation, yields:
protein 28.4 gms. sodium 6.5 mgms.
fat 2.7 gms. potassium 447 mgms.
carbohydates 170.7 gms. thiamin 1.03 mgms.
calcium 61 gms. riboflavin .57 mgms.
phosphorous 368 gms. niacin 8 mgms.
Types of Pastas and Noodles

Different types of pastas are sold in the market in various sizes and
shapes. Pastas are all made from semolina which is mixed with water to
form a stiff dough. The dough is then forced through appropriate perfo-
rated discs to give the shape desired. The pieces are dried in hot air and
packaged. Other ingredients like monoglyserides, seasoning, vegetables,
eggs, milk, etc., provide variety in flavor.
Noodles made from rice, soft wheat, soybeans, cassava, and other
legumes and root crops do not hold their shapes as well as macaroni.
However, with proper cooking procedures, they give palatable products
with texture, color and flavor distinctively their own. To this group be-
long our locally manufactured noodles which are:
Miki — flat yellowish noodles made from wheat flour, lye, salt, wa-
ter, and fat mixed and formed into a dough.
Sotanghon — long, thin round translucent noodles sometimes called
“nylon” or silk, made from mung beans and cassava starch.
White bihon — thin noodles from rice and corn which are soaked,
ground, drained, and further pulverized in a stone roller.
Fresh bihon — moist, thick, and doesn’t keep long; is used in pancit
palabok or luglog.
Pancit Canton — made from egg noodles, flour, duck’s egg, salt, and
soda.
Proper Cooking of Noodles

For preparing pastas, it is best to follow the methods suggested by
the manufacturers usually found on the package.
If instructions are not available, use 6 cups of water per 8 ounce
pack. Add 1 teaspoon oil to the water. Gently lower pasta into boiling
water, lower heat, and simmer. Cook up to “al dente” stage or the time
when noodles are firm enough when bitten but not too soft to be mushy.
For homemade pasta, lessen cooking time. After “al dente” is reached,
pour into a colander, drain and wash with tap water. Oil may then be
added to avoid sticking.
Principles of cooking pastas are the same as in cooking cereals and
starchy pastas. There should be enough water to gelatinize the starch
completely. Noodles swell twice to their original volume. The time tem-
perature of cooking is carefully regulated to avoid uncooked starch gran-
ules.
Dried bihon is washed to make the pieces limp. After the strands are
drained well, these are separated and added to other ingredients. The
amount of liquids necessary depends on the size of the bihon.
Sotanghon is washed and soaked in water, drained well, cut with
kitchen shears and added to other ingredients. It needs more liquid com-
pared to bihon or miki.
Miswa is added to boiling broth directly, removed immediately from
the heat, stirred gently to distribute the miswa and kept covered for 5
minutes. It needs to be served immediately.
Fresh miki is added to sauted meat and vegetables with just enough
stock to complete the cooking of the noodles. It has high moisture con-
tent so that the amount of liquid (soup stock or broth) needed is less than
that for dried bihon. The mixture should be stirred to retain the shape of
the noodles and should be served immediately. For dried miki, more liq-
uid is necessary.
Canton needs less liquids and shorter time for boiling since it has
been pre-cooked.
Selection and Care of Noodles

In buying noodles, make certain they are in packages, either card-
board boxes or plastic bags, which are intact with no breaks or open
flaps. If the product is needed within a few weeks, store it in its original
package in a cool dark pantry shelf. For good and fresh flavor beyond
that period, store pasta in a tightly closed metal or glass container. Some
of the fancy shapes add to kitchen decor when stored in cork or screw-
tapped glasses, bottles or jars. Cooked pastas can be keep tightly covered
in the refrigerator up to 4 days. For best second-time-around use, cool
the leftover pasta, store it in cold water tightly covered in the refrigerator;
or rinse, then toss it with a little oil before storing to prevent sticking.
TYPES OF NOODLES
Vermicelli (Sotanghon)
Regular Elbow
Linguine Shell Pasta
Spaghetti
Farfalle
Fetuccine (Bowtie/Butterfly Pasta/ Miki
Spinach Bow)
Fusilli Salad Spiral

Pancit Canton
Lasagne Lasagne Bits

SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR STARCH

AND ALIMENTARY PASTES
Macaroni Jumbo Salad
1 small package macaroni (cooked and drained)
1 cup Tuna chunks
1 cup pineapple tidbits (drained)
1/4 cup pickle relish (drained)
1 tsp. onion (finely chopped)
1 piece sweet red pepper (diced)
1. Combine all ingredients and toss together until well-blended.
2. Serve on lettuce leaves.
Lumpia Wrapper
1 cup cornstarch
1 cup water
1 egg
1 tbsp. cooking oil
a pinch of salt
Mix all ingredients until well-blended. Heat carajay after greasing
it evenly. Pour 1/4 C batter and spread evenly when the batter begins to
loosen, the wrapper is done. (Make 15-18 wrappers)
Mike (Local Noodles)

1 1/4 cup A.P. Flour
1/2 cup water
1 tbsp. salt
1 tbsp. lye
yellow food color
Procedure:
1. Combine water, salt, lye, and a few drops of yellow food color in
mixing bowl.
2. Add flour and stir.
3. Turn out dough into a floured board and knead until smooth.
4. Divide dough into 2 equal parts.
5. Roll it out 1/8 inch thick.
6. Fold dough and with a sharp knife cut into strips.
7. Sprinkle cornstarch to avoid sticking.
8. Drop mike in boiling water for 3 minutes. Drain and toss it with 1
tablespoon oil.
FATS AND OIL

The terms fat and oil do not refer to different substances; they indi-
cate different physical states of the same group of substances. Fat that is
liquid at normal room temperature is called oil; however, that, which is
solid or semi-solid is referred to as fat. All oils solidify when sufficiently
cooked and all fats liquefy at elevated temperatures. Solid fats may con-
tain a relatively large portion of liquid oil but may still be classified as
fats because they remain solid at room temperature. The temperature at
which fat changes to oil is called the melting point of the fat; the melting
point varies for different fats (Peckbam, 1969).
Fats are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are
built up by linking together the number of individual fatty acids chemi-
cally combined with glycerin. A fat is formed by the union of one mol-
ecule of glycerol and molecules of fatty acids. In the process, molecules
of water are freed. Chemically, fats may be generally defined as triglyc-
erides — glycerides containing three fatty acid radicals. When the three
fatty acids are of the same kind, the fat is a simple triglyceride. If the fatty
acids are different, the fat is called mixed glyceride. Natural fats in foods
are made up mostly of triglycerides.
Nutritive Value
Fats are concentrated source of energy furnishing two and one
fourth times as much energy as carbohydrates and proteins. Fats give
palatability to meals and a certain amount is desirable in a well-round-
ed diet. Some fats contain vitamins. Vitamin A is present in butter in
varying amounts. Fats are also known as carriers of fat soluble vitamins
namely, Vitamins A, D, E, K.
Classification of Fats and Oils

From the standpoint of physical appearance, fats are classified into
two.
Visible fats are purified fats. Easily seen because they are greasy.
Examples are cooking oil, salad dressings, butter, lard, margarine,
and animal fats like pork fat, and suet.
Invisible fats come from food products that contain fat. They are hid-
den and are not easily recognized as oily or greasy. They are found in
egg-yolks, milk, olives, avocado and well-marbled lean meats.
According to sources, fats and oils are classified into two:
Animal fat exists in bacon, butter, fish oils, poultry fat, suet, and tal-
low.
Vegetable oil is found in coconut, cottonseed, peanut, sunflower, soy-
beans, and safflower.
Forms of Fats and Oils

Butter, according to federal requirements, must contain 80% pure
fat, the remainder being water, salt and perhaps some milk. It has been
regarded as good source of Vit. A, although it has been shown that the
content of its vitamin varies widely with the feed given to the cow. Butter
from the fatty substances skimmed from full cream milk, churned then
pressed to squeeze out water.
Margarine includes all substances, mixtures and compounds, which
have a consistency similar to that of butter and which contain any edible
oils or fats other than milk fat if made in imitation of butter. Generally
speaking, margarine is the most acceptable alternate for butter as spread
on for seasoning and making cakes and sauces. However, it does not du-
plicate the exact flavor of butter, even though the fats have been churned
with milk to attain that end.
Lard is the rendered fat of the hog; it is one of the oldest of house
fats but it has remained one of the least standardized of them all.
Nuts fat is also introduced into the diet through rich fatty food as
nuts. These are used as component part of prepared dish, such as nut
loaf, nut bread or fruit nut conserved as garnishes for salads and desserts
and as accompaniment to the meal.
Peanut butter is the most popular of the various nut butters. It is rich
in fat, has high content of protein, and is a good source of thiamine and
niacin, as well as a significant amount of riboflavin and some Vitamin A.
Coconut oil is the most important source of lauric acid oil which is a
product of the coconut milk. This is used commonly in a wide variety
of native vegetables dishes and desserts. It is usually prepared in Filipino
homes as part of kitchen preparation by mixing some water to grated
mature coconut.
Sesame oil is the product of the seeds of a sesame plant which is
grown principally in India and warmer regions of China.
Rice bran oil consists of the outer layers of the brown or de-husked
rice grain, which is a valuable by-product of rice. It contains 10-20% oil
and 10-13% protein.
Cottonseed oil is derived as a by-product of the cotton fiber. Obtained

from its seed, this oil is used for cooking.
Soybean oil comes from the legumes of the soybean plant. It is ob-
tained by solvent extraction or mechanical expression.
Peanut oil is derived from the seed of a peanut plant. The plant is
grown to yield whole nuts. The oil is just a by-product coming from low-
grade nuts. It is used for cooking and salad dressing.
Olive oil comes from the olive fruits of an olive tree and is used for
salads and for cooking. The distinctive flavor it imparts to food is what
makes it important in frying.
Beef fat, also known as oleo oil, is used in food preparation at home.
Balm oil and palm kernel oil are extracted from the husk and seed of
an oil palm. The plant is sometimes called African palm. The oil is very
similar to coconut oil in almost every respect but it is more unsaturated.
Corn oil is the by-product of cornstarch and grain alcohol indus-
tries, which derive its products from the kernel of a corn plant. It is also
known as maize oil that is expressed from the germ of a seed separated
from the remainder of the kernel by wet milling process.
Uses in Cookery
Fats and oils have numerous uses in cookery. They add flavor and
nutritive value to a food, prevent particles of food from sticking to one
another or to pans, serve as a cooking medium to fry foods and enhance
flour mixture by imparting a shortened quality to batters and doughs,
thus tenderizing them. In cakes, fats hold air incorporated during the
beating of the mixture. They also serve as chief ingredient in the prepa-
ration of foods which form emulsions. Some fats are suitable for all pur-
poses, but some because of their physical properties may have limited
uses.
Frying. In pan-frying, the fat serves as lubricant and heat transfer
medium. Pan fried food develops a brown crust and absorbs some of the
flavor of the fat. Deep-fat fried foods are golden brown and crisp.
Smoke point. A suitable fat for frying food is one that has fairly high
smoke point, a smoke point of about 4.20°3c1F is considered good for
oil and shortening which do not contain emulsifiers.
Shortening. The shortening effect of fat in flour mixture is brought

about by the formation of fat layers which serve to separate the starch
and gluten particles, thus reducing their tendency to adhere to one an-
other. Lard and vegetable shortening, because they hold in most of the
air that is incorporated during mixing, seem to be preferred for cake
products. Lard, being softer and somewhat superior in shortening value,
is frequently used in making pies, biscuits, and shortcakes.
Salad dressing may be a simple oil and vinegar mixture, French,
cooked, or mayonnaise.
Oils used in salad dressing. The fat used in making salad dressing may
be a vegetable oil — such as corn, cottonseed oil, peanut oil, olive oil or
combination of these. The important factor in the selection of an oil for
salad is a bland or mild flavor.
Mayonnaise. A semi-solid emulsion of vegetable oil, egg-yolk or
whole egg, acid, and seasoning. The emulsifying agent in this mixture
is the egg yolk protein. The vinegar used in making mayonnaise consti-
tutes most of the liquid in the emulsion. The oil used is corn or cotton-
seed oil.
French dressing is a mixture of vinegar and vegetable oil with salt
and spices added. In the commercially prepared condiments, egg, tomato
sauce and other materials are used to aid in emulsification.
Cooked salad dressing is a mixture of egg, vinegar, starch, fat or salad
oil, and seasoning. It may be varied by using fruit juices in place of vin-
egar, milk, or water.
Processing of Fats and Oils

Fats commonly used in food preparation do not occur free in na-
ture. They are separated from other materials or tissues and refined.
Many oils come from seeds or fruits. Lard comes from pork tissue; and
butter comes from cream. The processes by which these fats are removed
may differ from one product to another. Fats are consumed by people
who eats meats, eggs, whole milk, and avocados.
Rendering is the process of extracting fats and oils from animal tis-
sue. The most commonly used method is steam rendering which con-
sists of heating finely chopped fatty tissues in cookers at steam pressure
of 40 to 60 pounds. Oil from plants are extracted either by pressing or
by extraction through a solvent. Protein which may be present in oil is
coagulated by cooking in steam.
Refining. Crude oils and fats extracted from animals and plants also
contain free fatty acids and other miscellaneous materials which give
them undesirable qualities. These free fatty acids are removed by the
addition of alkali to form a water and oil emulsion which is then heated,
broken, and separated. This is repeated several times until a refined fat
of only 0.01 to 0.05 free fatty acid is obtained.
Hydrogenation is the process of adding hydrogen to unsaturated fats
to convert them to solid fat. This is done under controlled condition of
temperature at 100-200°C (212-392°F) for less than 15 atmosphere of
pressure and in the presence of a nickel catalyst. The hydrogenated oil,
now called fat, is then deodorized by treating it with steam under a high
vacuum and at high temperature. The fats produced are neutral in flavor
and they have high smoking temperature, which makes them useful for
frying and shortening.
Winterizing. Some vegetable oils are cooled to 7°C (44.6°F) and then
filtered to remove crystals that has been formed at this reduced tempera-
ture. The product, an oil, can remain clear even at refrigerated tempera-
ture because the fatty acids with the highest melting points have been
removed.
SUGGESTED RECIPES USING FATS AND OILS

Sitsaron
1/2 kilo pork skin
1 1/2 cups oil
Wash pork skin and cut into 1 inch squares. Fry in deep fat until
skin is tender. Soak in the same oil overnight. Fry again until the edges of
the skins blister. Soak in same oil overnight. Fry the third time until skin
puffs or double in size.
Mayonnaise
1 egg yolk
1 1/2 tsp. sugar
1 1/2 tbsp. of calamansi juice or vinegar
1/2 tsp. mustard
1/4 tsp. white pepper
1 cup oil
Combine all ingredients except oil in a bowl. Beat thoroughly. Add
oil one tablespoon at a time, beating well after each addition. After all
the oil is added, beat until mayonnaise is thick enough to hold its shape
when spooned out.
SAJI MA
Dough:
1 1/2 cups A.P. flour
2 whole eggs
oil for frying
Syrup:
1 cup sugar
1 cup water
1 chopped peanuts or cashew
1. Sift flour with baking powder.
2. Mix flour mixture with eggs and blend well.
3. Roll out into 1/8 inch thickness.
4. Cut into strips. Deep fry until golden brown.
5. Drain and dip into prepared syrup. Roll in chopped peanuts.
SUGAR
Sugar consists of sweet, crystalline, soluble organic compounds
that belongs to the important food component collectively called carbo-
hydrates. They are the simplest of the digestible carbohydrates.
Classification of Sugar
Sugar is chemically classified into two forms.
1. Monosaccharides or simple sugar includes glucose, fructose, and galac-
tose.
a. Glucose is the basic unit upon which the higher carbohy-
drates are built. It is found in fruits and plant saps, and is the
main transport form of carbohydrates in the bloodstream of
animals.
b. Fructose is the sugar that gives flavor to many fruits because
it occurs most abundantly in these foods. It is also found in
quantities in honey. It is produced from certain tubers which
contain insulin, a starch-like carbohydrate. Fructose is also
called levulose or fruit sugar.
c. Galactose does not occur free in nature. It is not found in
quantities in any food but milk.
2. Disaccharides means two or more kinds of sugar. It includes sucrose,
maltose, and lactose.
a. Sucrose is commonly called table sugar, and is commercial-
ly prepared from sugarcane or sugar beets. Sucrose consists
of glucose and fructose, and therefore breaks into these two
monosaccharide upon hydrolysis. Sucrose occurs naturally in
many plants and crystallizes easily so it can be separated by
this process from plant juices or tree sap.
b. Maltose is made up of two molecules of glucose with one mol-
ecule of water eliminated. This sugar is found mainly in malt
extract. It is present in small amount in baking to provide
nutritive substances which promote the growth of yeast in the
dough.
c. Lactose, referred to as milk sugar, is composed of one mol-
ecule of glucose and one of galactose. It does not seem to occur
in other sources; and milk seems to contain no other sugar but
lactose. This sugar is not crystallized or used commercially.
Properties and Characteristics of Sugar

All sugars are sources of calories; these supply enough energy but
they are not good sources of a significant amount of protein, vitamins,
and minerals. As the simplest carbohydrates, they are easily digested and
utilized.
Certain physical and chemical characteristics of sugars are perti-
nent to food processing. These processes include crystallization, saturation,
fermentation, caramelization, and hygroscopicity.
Crystallization
A crystal is composed of closely packed molecules arranged in a
pattern. Crystallization occurs only if the solution is supersaturated. The
higher the degree of saturation in a solution, the more rapid the rate of
crystallization. The rate of crystallization is influenced by the nature of
the crystallizing substance, concentration of the solution, temperature,
stirring action and impurities that may be found in it. Generally, small
crystals are produced at high temperatures. Stirring increases the for-
mation of many small crystals and brings the supersaturated solution
in contact with each crystal. Impurities impede growth of crystals. For
instance, fat in a candy mixture interferes with the crystallization of su-
crose by coating the sugar crystals.
Saturation
Fairly large amounts of sugar dissolve easily in water. The higher
the temperature of the water, the greater the amount of sugar dissolves in
it. A saturated solution contains a maximum amount of a solute, which
dissolves at room temperature. When heated alone, granulated sugar
will melt and form a clear mass without any crystals. If permitted to
cool, it will form a hard cake. If heating of sugar continues until it turns
dark brown, the resulting product is known as caramelized sugar. Cara-
melized sugar has a very distinctive flavor and is locally used in native
delicacies such as custard or leche flan and yema.
Fermentation
Any solution, which contains at least 12 to 25 percent sugar, can
undergo fermentation by yeast. Fermentation is a biochemical process
that involves the action of microorganisms. It is the anaerobic oxidation
of carbohydrates by microbial enzymes. Fermentation is completed in 10
to 14 days when all the sugar has been oxidized to alcohol. Wine or ethyl
alcohol is the first product in anaerobic oxidation of a sugary solution.
Caramelization
Granulated Sugar is also known as table sugar or refined sugar, pro-
cessed from sugar cane or sugar beets syrup. This form comes in white
crystals since the more refined the sugar is, the lighter its color.
Hygroscopicity
The property of sugar to absorb moisture from the atmosphere
is called hygroscopicity. Fructose containing substances (e.g. molasses,
honey, and brown sugar) are the most hygroscopic. Hygroscopicity of
sugar is necessary in order that soft candies may remain moist to main-
tain their plasticity. However, hygroscopicity can present problems such
as caking, softening, watering, and molding of candies.
Functions of Sugar In Food Production

1. Sugar is an important ingredient in the preparation of candy. Can-
dies are classified according to their sugar content and crystallinity.
Examples of crystalline candies are fondant and fudge; and non-
crystalline or amorphous candies are hard candies, brittles, cara-
mels, butterscotch, gum drops, and lollipops.
2. The most obvious role of sugar is being a sweetening agent but it is
universally used to add flavor to foods.
3. In jellies, jams, and canned fruits, sugar is used as a preserving
agent. Sugar has a dehydrating effect on microorganisms that cause
spoilage.
4. Sugar is the main ingredient in products like icings, candies, fruit
preserves, and jellies.
5. As dietetic food, sugar is important because it is readily digested
and absorbed for quick energy. Special sugars are used for infant
feeding.
Forms of Sugar
Sugar is available in a variety of forms. A description of each form
will help make clear their importance.
Granulated Sugar is also known as table sugar or refined sugar, pro-
cessed from sugar cane or sugar beets syrup. This form comes in white
crystals since the more refined the sugar is, the lighter its color.
Brown Sugar is light, medium, or dark brown. Dark brown sugar

consists of coarse sticky crystals locally known as muscovado. When the
sugar cane extract is in its early stages, it is allowed to dry up in small
halved coconut shells forming a solid brown mass locally known as pa-
nutsa. Brown sugar is a partially purified product. Its natural liquor (mo-
lasses) is not removed from the brown sugar and imparts their character-
istic flavor.
Powdered Sugar or Confectioner’s Sugar is obtained from granulated sug-
ar by pulverization. It is the finest, smoothest, and whitest form of sugar
to which cornstarch is added to prevent caking. It is used for frostings,
candies, and dusting for baked products.
Syrups are liquids containing large amounts of sugar. They have
unusual flavors which make them useful in adding flavor to other foods.
Syrups are classified according to source. Thus, we have corn, honey,
molasses, and maple syrup.
Stages in Sugar Cookery

A. Thread is reached at a temperature of 230-235°F or 118-113°C. The
mixture will spin a 2-inch thread when dropped from a fork or
spoon.
B. Softball is attained at 235-240°F or 113-116°C. The mixture dipped
in cold water will form a softball, but lose its shape when removed
from the cold water. There is no exact concentration at which a
softball becomes firm. In making the cold water test, it is best to use
a shallow bowl rather than a cup. It is easier to see how the syrup
acts in the cold water and also easier to pick up the ball.
C. Firmball is reached at 246-258°F or 119-121°C. The mixture will
form a firmball in cold water.
D. Hardball is reached at a temperature of 121-129°C or 258-265°F.
The mixture will form a hard ball in cold water.
E. Soft crack is reached at 132-142°C or 270-290°F. The mixture will
crack or break when crushed between the fingers.
F. Hard crack is reached at 149-154°C to 388-310°F. This stage is char-
acterized by a brittle mixture which will not stick to the teeth.
G. Caramel is reached at about 177°C or 350°F. By this stage, the mix-
ture will have passed the hard crack and will begin to brown.
Principles of Sugar Cookery

1. Sugar is used in the preparation of candy. Candies made from sug-
ar solution and cooked to high temperature are hard and brittle.
When sugar is melted slowly and other ingredients like cream or
butter are added to it, caramel or non-crystalline candies are ob-
tained. Examples of these are butterscotch and taffy.
2. When candy syrup of sugar with water starts to boil, it should not
be stirred.
3. It is best to use a heavy saucepan and a wooden spoon for stirring.
4. Milk cream of chocolate, contained in syrup, easily coagulates or
settles down; therefore constant mixing and stirring of the syrup is
needed.
5. In caramelizing sugar, the solution should be stirred only when
liquid has formed to prevent crystallization.
6. Fairly large amount of sugar dissolves easily in water; the higher
the temperature of the water, the greater the amount of sugar dis-
solves in it.
7. Sugar is used for sweetening in making preserves, jams, jellies, and
candies.
SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR SUGAR COOKERY

Peanut Brittle
Ingredients:
1 cup sugar
1/4 tsp. salt
3/4 cup peanuts
2 tbsp. shortening
1 tsp. baking soda
Caramelize sugar. When done, remove from fire and add baking
soda, shortening and nuts. Stir and mix. Pour on a greased chopping
board and cut into desired sizes. Cool and wrap.
Molido
Ingredients:
1 kilo sugar
1 grated coconut
1/4 kilo cooked camote
1 tsp. lemon extract
Mash camote and mix with sugar and coconut. Cook in carajay till
done. Flavor with lemon extract. Stir continuously until mixture is thick
and does not stick to the pan. Roll in greased board and cut into desired
sizes. Cool and wrap.
Candied Tamarind
Select about 100 ripe fruits; peel whole and arrange well in a deep
enamel basin. Prepare syrup as follows:
1 part sugar
1 part water
Pour syrup while hot to cover tamarind. Allow to soak for one day.
Drain off the syrup and cover with freshly prepared syrup using:
2 parts sugar
1 part water
Soak for 2 to 3 days. Repeat changing the syrup until the tamarind
becomes sweet enough. Carefully arrange the sweetened tamarind in
bamboo racks and dry under the sun. Cover this with a wire screen to
keep off flies. Finish the drying in an oven at a low temperature. Cool
and wrap in cellophane.
HERBS AND SPICES

Since time immemorial, herbs and spices have been used in food.
The main purpose of herbs and spices is to heighten or improve the
flavor of meat, fish, vegetables, rice, and fruits. Herbs are sold fresh or
dried. Dried herbs have a stronger flavor than fresh, and should be used
sparingly. Fresh herbs should be picked just before using it. Most herbs
can be grown successfully outdoors in your own garden.
Spices are the dried parts of aromatic plants and may be fruit, bark,
seed, root or flower bud. Most spices come from hot countries and are
sold dried, either whole or ground. For the strongest flavor, grind the
spices immediately before use.
The following list of herbs and spices are the common ones (with
local names), generally used in food preparation and preservation:
Selected Herbs (English and Common Names)

1. Bay Leaf (Laurel) — taken from the berries of the Bay Tree, has a
strong spicy flavor and can be used fresh or dried. Always remove
from the dish before serving.
2. Chives (Sibuyas na Mura) — members of the Onion Family with an
edible narrow green leaves. Best used raw to flavor salads and used
as a garnish for soup and savory dishes; usually snipped into short
lengths before use.
3. Coriander (Cilantro) — mainly grown for its seeds; good for soups
and salads.
4. Curry Plant — green, spikey leaves of a shrub; used fresh or dried.
5. Lemon Grass (Tanglad) — a thick grass-like leaves which smell and
taste strongly of lemon.
6. Mint (Yerba Buena or Dahong Maria) — has different flavors and scents
such as peppermint, spearmint, applemint; used as flavoring and
garnish in wine and fruit cups.
7. Parsley — flat, curly leaves which makes an attractive garnish; fla-
vor is in its stalk.
8. Rosemary — strong, pungent herb with spikey leaves. Excellent for
use with barbecued meats.
9. Sage — a large-leaved herb with a strong, slightly bitter taste. Use in
stuffings, casseroles, salads and others.
10. Thyme — has a strong aromatic flavor. Use by rubbing before roast-
ing meat, stuffing and in dishes cooked with wine.
Common Spices (English and Local Names)

1. Chilli Pepper (Siling Labuyo) — a very hot spice; a fruit pod of the
Capucum plant.
2. Cinnamon (Kanela) — grown in stalks or bark; has a sweet, pungent
flavor used for baking or flavoring.
3. Cloves (Clavo de Comer) — look like small nails when whole; are also
sold ground. Have a distinctive pungent flavor; used mainly to fla-
vor ham.
4. Coriander (Colantro or Cilantro) — also known as Chinese parsley.
Seeds with a mild and sweet orangy flavor. Sold whole or ground,
used as ingredient in Curry Powder.
5. Ginger (Luya) — root with hot sweetish taste. Available fresh or
dried. Root ginger needs to be cooked to release true flavor.
6. Mustard — made from black, brown and white seeds of a mustard
plant. Mustard is used as a condiment like salt and pepper.
7. Paprika — a sweet mild spice which ground to red powder. Good
for adding color to dishes.
8. Pepper (Paminta) — the berry of a climbing vine can be found in
several forms: black, green or white. Sometimes lightly crushed or
used as whole. Has a strong, pungent, and hot flavor. Best when
freshly ground to season dishes.
9. Saffron (Casubha) — most expensive of the spices. Dried stigmas of
the saffron crocus flower; has a slightly bitter taste and aromatic.
10. Sesame Seeds (Linga) — small seeds with a rich, sweet slightly burnt
flavor which is enhanced by toasting or frying.
11. Tamarind (Sampalok) — a large pod that grows on a tree. Seeded,
peeled and pressed into a dark-brown pulp. Sour flavor.
12. Turmeric (Luyang Dilaw) — dried root of a plant from the Ginger
family. Looks like fresh ginger, but bright orange inside the peel.
Most commonly sold ground.
SUGGESTED RECIPES
Homemade Curry Powder
2 level tbsp. Cumin Seeds
1 1/2 level tsp. mustard seeds
1 level tbsp. black peppercorn
8 level tbsp. Coriander seeds
1 level tbsp. ground peppercorn
1 level tsp. hot chilli powder
4 level tbsp. ground turmeric
Combine all the ingredients in a blender or coffee grinder and
blend to a fine powder. Store in an outright container for 3 months.
Drying and Storing Herbs

1. Dry homegrown herbs in a slow oven or microwave oven, dry in
the sun by hanging them in a cool airy place, covered with muslin
to keep the dust off.
2. When dry, strip the leaves carefully from the stems and leave them
whole. This will preserve more flavor than crumbling them.
3. Dried herbs keep best in straight jars away from the light. Choose
wood, earthenware or dark-colored glass.
4. In a cool place, dried herbs keep their flavor for 6-8 months.
SELECTED HERBS
(English and Common Names)
Bay Leaf (Laurel) Chives (Sibuyas na Mura) Coriander (Cilantro)
Curry Plant Lemon Grass (Tanglad) Mint (Yerba Buena or

Dahong Maria)
Parsley Rosemay
Sage Thyme
Appendices 185
Appendix A
LIST OF PHILIPPINE FRUITS AND THEIR LOCAL NAMES

PILIPINO ENGLISH BIKOL BISAYA ILOKO PAMPANGO SEASON
Atis Sugar apple Atis Atis Atis Anatis Sep.-Dec.
Abokado Avocado Abokado Abokado Abokado Avocado Feb.-July
Kaimito Star Apple Kaimito Kaimito Kaimito Kaimito June-May
Saging Banana Batag Saging Saba Sain Year round
Kasuy Cashew Kasuy Kasoy Balogo Baluliad April-May
Dalanghita Ludy orange Naranghita Kahil Sibuyas Dalanghita Oct.-Feb.
Bayabas Guava Bayabas Bayabas Bayabas Biyabas June-Nov.
Guyabano Soursap Guyabano Rabana Gayabano Guabano Aug.-Nov.
Melon Honey dew Melon Almon Itimon Melon April-July
melon
Langka Jackfruit Langka Langka Langka Yangka March-April
Kalamansi Philippine Agridulce March-Aug.
lemon
June-Oct.
Appendix B
LIST OF PHILIPPINE VEGETABLES

PILIPINO ENGLISH BIKOL BISAYA ILOKO PAMPANGO
Alugbati Alugbati
Ampalaya Asparagus Paliya Parya Ampalaya
Karot Carrot
Sitaw Cow pea Hantok Balatong Otong Bule
Kadyos Pigeon pea Tabios Kadios Kaldis Kadyos
Kamote Sweet Potato Kamote Kamote Kamoti Kamoti
Kangkong Swamp cabbage Gaway Kangkong Kankong
Katuray Sesban flower Gawaygaway Katodai Kature
Malunggay Horse radish tree
Meran pea
Munggo Mung beans Monggo Monggo Balatong Monggo
Mustasa Mustard Mustasa Mustasa Mustasa Mustasa
Okra Okra
Petsay Chinese cabbage Pechay
Saluyot Jute Kabog Tagabag Saluyot Saluyot
Sitaw Yardlong bean Hanitak Balatong Otong Kamanyang
Utao Soybean New Zealand Balatong Balatong
Ispinaka Spinach Espinaka Espinaka Spinaka Spinaka
Kalabasa Squash Kalabasa Kalabasa Kalabasa Kalabasa
Tapilan Rice bean Lukha Bayas Abias
Kamatis Tomatoes Kamatis Kamatis Kamatis Kamatis
Appendices 187
Appendix C
A GUIDE TO DAILY FOOD CHOICES
Key
Fat (naturally occuring and added)
• Sugars added
These symbols show fats, oils, and added sugars in foods.
Fats, Oils, & Sweets

USE SPARINGLY
Milk, Yogurt, & Meat, Poultry, Fish

Cheese Group Dry Beans, Eggs,
2-3 SERVINGS & Nuts Group
2-3 SERVINGS
Vegetable Group Fruit Group

3-5 SERVINGS 2-4 SERVINGS
Bread, Cereal,
Rice, & Pasta
Group
6-11 SERV-
INGS
THE FOOD PYRAMID

The Food Pyramid is a diagram developed by nutrition experts
all over the world to illustrate the balance of foods needed for a healthy
lifestyle. It serves as a nutritional guideline in the wise choice of food to
obtain the best balance of nutrients in the diet. The three major food
groups are placed in the Food Pyramid with indicators to healthy eat-
ing habits. The food groups are classified as Eat Least Foods – which
are high in fat, sugar, salt, and alcohol. This food group is on top of the
pyramid; Eat Moderately Foods – foods with high protein content but
may have high fat level. This food group is in the middle part of the
pyramid; Eat Most Foods – which are high in fibre and low in fat and
sugar. These are the foods which make up the base of the pyramid and
should be the biggest part of the diet. Foods need to be chosen from all
three levels in the proportion shown above to make sure there is a good
balance of nutrients and variety of foods in the diet.
Appendix D
COMMON NAMES OF PHILIPPINE FISHES
BLUE-LINED STURGEON FISH GROUPER

(LABAHITA) “LAPU-LAPU”
TUNA RED SNAPPER

(TULINGAN) (MAYA-MAYA)
SPANISH MACKEREL BLACK BASS

(TANGINGI) (APAHAP)
LONG-TAILED GOBY ANCHOVY

(TALIMUSAK) (DILIS)
ROUND SCAD INDIAN SARDINE

(GALUNGGONG) (TAMBAN)
Appendices 189
SHORT-BODIED MACKEREL SLIPMOUTH

(HASA-HASA) (SAPSAP)
BLACK-TAILED CAESIO SEA CATFISH

(DALAGANG-BUKID) (KANDULI)
TILAPIA GREY MULLET

(TILAPIA) (BANAK)
FRESH WATER CATFISH MILK FISH

(HITO) (BANGUS)
References
Alejandro, Reynaldo G., 2005. The Food of the Philippines. Singapore:
Periplus Editions.
Arroyo, Patricia, 1974. The Science of Philippine Foods. Quezon City: Aban-
iko Enterprises.
BPI, 1983. Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables. Manila: Laboratory Services
Division.
BPI, 2006. Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables. Manila: Laboratory Services
Division.
Borgstorm, George, 1968. A Complete Course In Canning. Baltimore, Mary-
land: The Press of Canning Trade.
Brown, Amy, 2005. Understanding Food: Principles and Preparation: Singa-
pore: Thomson Wadsworth Asia Pie Ltd.
Claudio, V. S. de Leon, M. de Guzman, 1986. Basic Foods for Filipinos.
Manila: Merriam Websters Bookstore.
Claudio, V. S. de Leon, P. Arroyo, 1977. Basic Foods For Filipinos. Manila:
Merriam School Supplies Corp.
Desrosier, Norman, 1970. The Technology of Food Preservation. Connecticut:
Air Publishing Company.
DOST, FNRI, 1997. The Philippines Food Composition Table.
FNRI, 1980. Food Composition Table.
Ferrari, Linda, 1991. Canning and Preserving: Techniques, Recipes, Uses and
More. New York, U.S.A.: American Country Living.
Frazier, William C., 1967. Food Microbiology. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc.
Guzman, Matilde P., 1973. Principles of Cooking. Quezon City: GES Pub-
lishing Corp.
Hughes and Benion, 1970. Introductory Foods. New York: MacMillan Pub-
lishing Company.
Keville, Kathy, 1996. Herbs for Health and Healing. Emmaus, Pennsylvania
USA: Rodale Press Inc.
Kotchevar, L., 1975. Quantity Food Production. U.S.A.: Maple Press.
Lagua, R.C. Cruel, V. Claudio, 1977. Food Preservation For Filipinos. Que-
zon City: G.M.S. Publishing Corp.
References 191
Leon de Sonia, 1971. Preservation of Philippine Foods. Quezon City: Ale-

mars-Phoenix Publishing Company.
Mendoza, Jose, 1962. Philippine Foods: Their Processing and Manufacturing.
Manila: Philippine Education Co.
Methven, Barbara, 2005. Basic Microwaving. Minnesota, USA: De Cross
Inc.
Mok, Joyce, et al., 2005. Home Economics and You. Jurong East, Singapore:
SNA Pampac Pte. Ltd.
Palacio, June Payne and Monica Theis, 2000. West and Wood Introduction To
Food Service. Singapore: Pearson Education Asia.
Peckham, Gladys, 1968. Foundation of Food Preparation. Canada: The Mac-
Millan Co.
Robles, Cynthia and A. Palmes, 1977. Philippine Home Economics Baking
Basics. Makati: Wheat Associates U.S.A.
Soriano Narvaez, Nora, 2004. A Guide To Food Selection, Preparation and
Preservation. Manila: Rex Book Store.
Stanley and Clime, 1965. Foods: Their Selection and Preparation. New York:
Ginn and Company.
Still, Jean, 1981. Food Selection and Preparation. New York: MacMillan Co.
Sunset Editors, 1982. Easy Basics For Good Cooking. California: Lane Pub-
lishing Company.
Townsend, D. M., 1978, The Cooks Companion. New York: Crown
Publishers.
Wong Ping et al., 2004. Teen Life. Singapore: Times Publishing Limited.
Yeager, Selene, 1998. Food Remedies. Emmaus, Pennsylvania. USA: Ro-
dale Press.
Online Sources:
Food Preparation Encyclopedia
www.allrecipes.com/encyc
Virtual Link to the Food Processing Industry
www.foodonline.com
FNRI DOST
www.fnri.dost.gov.ph
The following LIST OF TABLES have been updated:

Source: The Philippine Food Composition Table, FNRI, 1997
1. Proximate Composition of Selected Fruits
2. Proximate Composition of Some Common Vegetables
3. Proximate Composition of Lean Meat from Pork, Beef, and Cara-
beef
4. Proximate Composition of Dark Meat of Chicken, Turkey, Duck
and Pigeon
5. Classification of Philippine Shellfish
6. Proximate Composition of Local Clams, Snails, Mussels, and
Oysters
7. Proximate Composition of Local Types of Fresh Crabs
8. Approximate Composition of Whole Cereal Grain
9. Amount of Nutrients
10. Amount of Starch Present in Common Food Sources
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
RELATED TO FOOD PRESERVATION
Additives — materials added to food to help manufacture and preserve
it and to improve its nutritive value, palatability and eye appeal.
Amounts used in food are regulated by law.
Aging — changes in tenderness that take place in meats after slaughter.
Aerobes — microorganisms that need oxygen for growth.
Anaerobes — microorganisms that grow in the absence of oxygen.
Antibiotics — substances produced by living organisms that inhibit the
growth of the other organisms; used in some countries as food
preservatives.
Antioxidants — substances that retard the oxidative rancidity of fats.
Botulism — rare form of food poisoning caused by the toxin produced by
clostridum botulinum.
Buffers — substances that resist change of acidity or alkalinity.
Colllagen — insoluble proteins in the bone, tendons, skin, and connective
tissues of animals and fish; can be converted to soluble gelatin by
moist heat.
Deodorization — the removal of flavor or odor from fats during refining.
Emulsifying agents — substances that aid the uniform dispersion of oil in
water.
Enzymes — catalysts produced by living cells, which are responsible for
most of the reactions carried out in plants and animals.
Ester — chemical name of the compound of acid and alcohol.
Fermentation — transformation of metabolism of compound without the
use of oxygen.
Ferming agents — calcium salts, such as calcium chloride or carbonate, that
may be added to fruit or vegetables to keep them firm.
Freeze drying — a method of drying in which the material is frozen and high
vacuum is applied. The cooking effect of the evaporation keeps the
material frozen while distills off as a vapor.
Gel — a sol or colloidal suspension that has set to a jelly.
193
Gluten — the protein fraction of wheat or flour which gives it the elastic
properties essential for making bread.
Homogenization — process which reduces fat globules to a smaller and ap-
proximately equal size.
Humectant — substance that absorbs moisture; used to maintain strength
of materials such as baking powder and other baking products.
Irradiation (ionizing) — ionizing radiation which destroys various microor-
ganisms.
Maillard Reaction — also known as the browning reaction or non-enzy-
matic browning; reaction between amino acids and sugars which
brings about a brown color.
Nitrates — substances that occur naturally in many foods; added to meat
in curing.
Osmosis — the transfer of materials that takes place through a semi perme-
able membrane separating two solutions, or between a solvent and
a solution that tends to equalize their concentration.
Oxidation — gain in oxygen or loss of hydrogen or in general terms, loss
of electrons.
Pasteurization — mild heat treatment that destroys many vegetative forms
of bacteria.
Salinometer — hydrometer used to measure concentration of salt solutions.
Smoke point — temperature at which the decomposition products of fat
become visible.
Stabilizers — substances that keep emulsions of fat and water in equili-
brum.
INDEX
A Crabs 131, 133
Acids 46 Crustaceans 131
Additives 61 Crystallization 175
Alimentary pastes 159 Cutting Techniques 35
Antioxidants 2 Cutting Tools 28
B D
Bacteria 48 Dehydration 58
Bakeware 27 Digestibility of food 8
Baking 57 Disaccharides 174
Base 46 Dough 157
Batter 151
Barley 142 E
Beef cuts 99 Electronic cooking 114
Boiling points 9 Emulsifiers 64
Embryo 143
Bran 143
Endosperm 143
Broiling 9
Equipment, kitchen 16
Browning reaction 45
Evisceration 114
Buckwheat 142
Enzyme 42
C
F
Canning 56
Fahrenheit Scale 5
Carbonations 58
Fats 167
Caramelization 176 Fermentation 58
Cereals 141 Fish 121
Chemicals 59 Fish sauce 128
Chicken 108 Fillet 125
Clams 132 Flavor 71
Coagulation 45 Flour Mixtures 151
Conduction 4 Food borne illness 51
Connective tissue 93 Food Poisoning 54
Convection 4 Food preparation Terms 37
Cooking 3 Food preservation 41
Cooking Methods 3 Food Safety Thermometer 55
Corn 141 Food Spoilage 47
195
196 Index
Freezing point 43 Maltose 174

Fruits 69 Marmalade 80
Measuring technique 33
G Meat Cuts 97,99
Galactose 174 Melting point 43
Gelation 161 Microbial Decomposition 41,42
Germ 143 Microorganism 47,56
Grading of meat 92 Microwave oven 18
Molds 49
H Mollusks 132
Heating 56 Monosaccharide 174
Heat, Method of Transfer 4
Herbs 181 N
Humectants 62, 64
Noodles 162
Hydrogenation 45,171
Nutritive value 8
Hygroscopicity 176
Nuts 69
I
O
Infections 51
Oats 142
Intoxicants 51
Oil 167
Irradiation 59
Organ Meats 98
J Ovens 17
Jam 78 Oxidation 46
Jelly 76
P
K Packaging 65
Kitchen equipment 24,25,26 Parasites 51
Kitchen Work Triangle 14 Pasta, types of 162
Kitchen Structure 14 Pasteurization 56
Pastry tools 31
L Pectin 44
Lactose 174 Perishable foods 41
Lard 168 Pork Cuts 100
Leavening Agents 152 Pots and Pans 21
Poultry 107
M Preservatives 61
Macaroni products 162 Preservation methods 56
Mad Cow Disease 52
Index 197
R Surface active agents 63

Radiation 4 Sweeteners 64
Ranges 16
Recipes, standardized 12 T
Refining 171 Temperature in cooking 6
Refrigerator 18 Tender cuts 97
Refrigeration 57
Rice 141 V
Rodents 50 Vacuum drying 57
Rye 142 Variety cuts 98
Vegetables 83,84
S
Saturation 175 W
Sealants 64 Winterizing 171
Shellfish 131 Wheat 142
Specific Gravity 43 Work triangle 14
Spices 181,182
Sequestrants 62 Y
Stabilizers 63 Yeast 49
Starch 159
Sugar 174
-
Author
MARIA NORA SORIANO

Illustrator
Philippine Copyright 2010
by Rex Book Store, Inc.
and
Nora Narvaez-Soriano
RBS
A Guide to Food Selecon, Preparaon and Preservaon
Second Edion
ISBN 978-971-23-5645-2
Classificaon: Textbook (04-HE-00015)
Published, copyrighted 2010, and distributed by Rex Book Store, Inc. (RBSI) with main office at 856 Nicanor Reyes
Sr. St., Sampaloc, Manila / Tel. Nos.: 735-1364, 736-0567
RBSI Branches:
LUZON
•MORAYTA: 856 N. Reyes Sr. St., Sampaloc, Manila / Tel. Nos.: 736-0567, 735-1364; Telefax: 736-4191 •RECTO:
1977 C.M. Recto Ave., Sampaloc, Manila / Tel. Nos.: 735-5527, 736-3063; Telefax: 735-5534 •MAKATI: Unit UG-
2, Star Centrum Bldg., Sen. Gil Puyat Ave., Maka City / Tel. No.: 818-5363; Telefax: 893-3744 •ROCKWELL: 1st
Floor, Ateneo Professional School, Rockwell Center, Bel-Air, Maka City / Tel. No.: 729-2015 •CUBAO: 36 Shopwise
Arcade, Araneta Center, Cubao, Quezon City / Telefax: 911-1070 •SHAW: 548 Facilies Center Bldg., Shaw Blvd.,
Mandaluyong City / Tel. No.: 531-1306; Telefax: 531-1339 •CAVITE: Block 4, Lot 20 Don Gregorio Heights 2, Zone 1-A
Aguinaldo Hi-way, Dasmariñas, Cavite / Telefax: (046) 416-1824 •NAGA: Rodson Bldg. I-II, J. Hernandez Ave., Naga
City, Camarines Sur / Telefax: (054) 811-6878 •LEGAZPI: 3rd Floor Bichara Mall, Magallanes cor. Alonzo St., Legazpi
City, Albay / Telefax: (052) 480-2244 •CALAPAN: Brgy. Salong, Naonal Hi-way, Calapan City, Oriental Mindoro /
Telefax: (043) 288-1650 •BATANES: L. Lopez St., Kaywalungan, Basco, Batanes •TUGUEGARAO: 10 Arellano St., Brgy.
Ugac Sur, Tuguegarao, Cagayan / Telefax: (078) 844-8072 •CABANATUAN: Fontelera Building, 1271 Del Pilar Ext.,
Sangitan East, Cabanatuan City, Nueva Ecija / Tel. No.: (044) 464-2151; Telefax: (044) 600-5684 •URDANETA: Zone
6, Pinmaludpod, Urdaneta City, Pangasinan / Telefax: (075) 568-3975 •ANGELES: 259 (Stall B) Sto. Rosario St., San
Jose, Angeles City, Pampanga / Telefax: (045) 887-5371
VISAYAS
•TACLOBAN: Brgy. 74 Marasbaras, Tacloban City, Leyte / Tel. No.: (053) 323-8976; Telefax: (053) 523-1784 •ILOILO:
75 Lopez Jaena St., Brgy. San Isidro, Jaro, Iloilo City, Iloilo / Tel. No.: (033) 329-0332; Telefax: (033) 329-0336
•BACOLOD: 28 Brgy. 36, Purok Immaculada, Quezon Ave., Bacolod City, Negros Occidental •CEBU: 11 Sanciangko
St., Cebu City / Tel. Nos.: (032) 416-9684, 254-6773; Telefax: (032) 254-6466
MINDANAO
•CAGAYAN DE ORO: J. Seriña St. cor. Vamenta Blvd., Carmen, Cagayan de Oro City, Misamis Oriental / Telefax: (088)
858-6775 •DAVAO: 156 C.M. Recto St., Davao City, Davao / Tel. Nos.: (082) 225-3167, 221-7840; Telefax: (082) 221-
0272 •GENERAL SANTOS: Aparante St., Dadiangas Heights, General Santos City, South Cotabato / Telefax: (083)
554-7102
www.rexpublishing.com.ph
No poron of this book may be copied or reproduced in books,

pamphlets, outlines, or notes—whether printed, mimeographed,
typewrien, photocopied, or in any form—for distribuon or sale,
without the wrien permission of the Publisher and Author/s. The
infringer shall be prosecuted in compliance with copyright, trademark,
patent, and other pernent laws.
RBSI’s Book Associaon Memberships: Philippine Booksellers Associaon, Inc. (PBAI); Book Development
Associaon of the Philippines (BDAP); Philippine Educaonal Publishers Associaon (PEPA); Book Exporters
Associaon of the Philippines (BEAP); Academic Booksellers Associaon of the Philippines (ABAP); Children’s
Literature Associaon of the Philippines, Inc. (CLAPI); Asian Publishers Resources Center (APRC)
PEPA’s Internaonal Book Associaon Memberships: Internaonal Publishers Associaon (IPA); Asia Pacific
Publishers Associaon (APPA); ASEAN Book Publishers Associaon (ABPA); Philippine Book Publishing Development
Federaon (Philbook)
Printed by rex printing company, inc.

84-86 P. Florenno St., Sta. Mesa Heights, Quezon City / Tel. Nos.: 712-4101, 712-4106, 712-4108;
Fax No.: 711-5412
Since the publication of the first edition of this book, new develop-
ments have evolved such as new methods of processing foods, new food
products and new cooking equipment. These new developments are dis-
cussed in this new edition and all needed materials are updated; new
recipes are added and new concepts and ideas are discussed in details.
In response to the present changes in Information Technology, websites
are listed for those who wish to avail of the latest information and data
regarding food preparation and preservation. The scope and plan of the
original book remain the same however.
This Guide to Food Selection, Preparation and Food Preser-
vation is written as answer to the need for a simplified reference for
students majoring in Food Technology, Home Economics or Technol-
ogy and Livelihood Education, Hotel and Restaurant Management, and
Culinary Arts. Homemakers, teachers of Food Courses and Food Pro-
cessing, and other individuals may also use this book as a guide to their
experimental attempts at food preservation.
Part I of this book introduces the readers to Kitchen Efficiency.
The basic foundation for cooking and food preservation starts with the
orientation to the principles, techniques and methods of cooking, equip-
ment, tools and utensils to be used, and the terms and symbols used in
following the recipe effectively.
Part II deals with the conceptual framework in food preservation,
namely, food spoilage, techniques of food preservation and more impor-
tantly, the role that food packaging and additives play in food processing.
Proper selection of a particular food material for processing is nec-
essary to obtain quality product. The nature, nutritive value and the
principles of selection and cooking of selected food groups are compre-
hensively discussed in Part III. For laboratory purposes, more recipes
are added after each food group. Focus is on the use of Filipino food
resources with an eye for future entrepreneurship in food processing.
The author recognizes that the level of treatment of this book is
centered on individuals who have had no previous extensive background
in Chemistry. The technical aspects of food preservation are discussed
simply with emphasis on the more practical aspects, and on the simpli-
fications of scientific concepts to a more understandable form related to
everyday living. It is hoped that the users of this book will find valuable
information in it.
Nora Narvaez-Soriano
iii
iv
PART I – INTRODUCTION TO FOOD PREPARATION ...... 1
Methods of Cooking Food .................................................. 3
Use of Heat in Cooking ...................................................... 3
Purpose of Cooking ............................................................. 7
Cooking Mediums ............................................................... 9
The Standardized Recipe ..................................................... 12
The Kitchen, Its Structure, Use, and Care ......................... 14
The Kitchen Equipment ...................................................... 16
Suggested Basic Kitchen Utensils and Tools....................... 21
Small Equipment for Food Preparation .............................. 23
Measuring Food Materials ................................................... 33
Measurements and Conversions ......................................... 34
Cooking Terms .................................................................... 36
Food Preparation Terms ..................................................... 37
PART II – FOOD PRESERVATION .............................................. 39

Value of Food Preservation ................................................. 41
Principles of Food Preservation .......................................... 41
Physical and Chemical Properties of Food ......................... 43
Causes of Food Spoilage ...................................................... 47
Food-Borne Illnesses ............................................................ 51
Tips to Avoid Food Poisoning ............................................. 54
Methods of Food Preservation ............................................ 56
Food Additives ..................................................................... 61
Food Packaging .................................................................... 65
v
PART III – SELECTION, PREPARATION AND
PRESERVATION OF SELECTED FOOD
GROUPS ..................................................................... 67
Fruits ................................................................................... 69
Vegetables ........................................................................... 83
Meat and Meat Products ................................................... 92
Poultry ................................................................................ 107
Fish ..................................................................................... 121
Shellfish .............................................................................. 131
Cereals ................................................................................ 141
Flour ................................................................................... 147
Starch and Alimentary Pastes ............................................ 159
Fats and Oils ...................................................................... 167
Sugar................................................................................... 174
Herbs and spices ................................................................ 181
APPENDICES
A. List of Philippine Fruits and their Local Names ............... 185
B. List of Philippine Vegetables ............................................. 186
C. A Guide to Daily Food Choices (The Food Pyramid) ..... 187
D. Common Names of Philippine Fishes ............................... 188
REFERENCES ................................................................................. 190

GLOSSARY OF TERMS................................................................ 193
INDEX ............................................................................................... 195
vi
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Important Temperature in Preparing Foods ..................... 6
Bubble Size and Movement differ during Poaching,
Simmering, and Boiling ............................................... 10
The Kitchen Structure ....................................................... 14
Useful Kitchen Equipment ................................................ 24
Bake Ware .......................................................................... 27
Knives: The Basic Cutting Tools ...................................... 28
Pots and Pans ..................................................................... 29
Bakeware Accessories ........................................................ 30
Pastry Tools ........................................................................ 31
Measuring Techniques ....................................................... 32
Cutting Techniques ............................................................ 35
Food Safety Thermometer................................................. 55
Types of Food Packaging Materials .................................. 66
Kinds of Fruits ................................................................... 70
Fruit Cutting ...................................................................... 72
Classification of Vegetables................................................ 84
Meat Cuts of Beef and Carabeef ....................................... 99
Pork Cuts ........................................................................... 100
Classification of Poultry ..................................................... 107
How to Bone the Chicken ................................................. 111
Poultry Cuts ....................................................................... 113
Nutritive Value of Fish....................................................... 123
Market Forms of Fish ........................................................ 125
Fishery Products and By-Products .................................... 128
Types of Shellfish ............................................................... 134
Physical Structure of Cereal Grain .................................... 143
Flour Mixture Ingredients ................................................. 151
One Bowl-Cake Method ................................................... 158
Type of Noodles ................................................................. 164
Selected Herbs .................................................................... 184
The Food Pyramid ............................................................. 187
Common Names of Philippine Fishes ............................... 188
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Proximate Composition of Selected Fruits ...... 73
2. Proximate Composition of Some Common
Vegetables ......................................................... 85
3. Proximate Composition of Lean Meat
from Pork, Beef and Carabeef ......................... 94
4. Proximate Composition of the Dark Meat
of Chicken, Turkey, Duck, and Pigeon ........... 110
5. Classification of Philippine Shellfish ................ 133
6. Proximate Composition of Local Clams,
Snails, Mussels, and Oysters ........................... 135
7. Proximate Composition of Local Types of
Fresh Crabs ...................................................... 135
8. Approximate Composition of Whole Cereal
Grain in Percentage .......................................... 144
9. Amount of Nutrients per 100 Grams
Flour ................................................................. 149
10. Amount of Starch Present in Common
Food Sources .................................................... 159
viii

A Guide To Food Selection Preparation and Preservation

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Guide To Food Selection Preparation and Preservation

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PART I

INTRODUCTION TO FOOD PREPARATION

METHODS OF COOKING FOOD

Using Moist Heat Using Dry Heat

USE OF HEAT IN COOKING

Method of Heat Transfer

Measurement of Heat or Temperature

The degree of hotness or intensity of heat is expressed as the tem-

°F =(°C x 9)/5 + 32.

IMPORTANT TEMPERATURES IN PREPARING FOODS

Natural Flavor and Palatability

Pathogenic Organisms and Injurious Substances on Food

Illness may be caused by foods that naturally contain poisonous

Maximum Nutritive Value

Air and Heat as Cooking Mediums

Water as a Cooking Medium

Simmering is cooking in a bath of water somewhat below the boiling

a. Poach b. Simmer c. Boil

Poaching – Water is heated to a temperature of 160° to 180°F (71°

Fat as a Cooking Medium

Combination of Cooking Mediums

THE STANDARDIZED RECIPE

7. Use the generic names of the ingredients rather than brand

THE KITCHEN: ITS STRUCTURE,

2. The L-shaped Kitchen

3. The Island Kitchen

4. The Corridor Kitchen

THE KITCHEN EQUIPMENT

Use and Care of the Range

• Avoid putting anything hot on porcelain enameled surfaces

Proper Use and Care of Microwave Oven

Care of the Refrigerator

Defrosting the Refrigerator

Proper Use of the Refrigerator

5. Put leftovers in small dishes and use them as soon as possible to

Care of the Sink

Equipment and Tools

SUGGESTED BASIC KITCHEN

SMALL EQUIPMENT FOR FOOD PREPARATION

Cutting and chopping equipment

USEFUL KITCHEN EQUIPMENT

Mallet Vegetable peeler

USEFUL KITCHEN EQUIPMENT

Metal spatula Wooden spoons

Kitchen scissors Tongs

USEFUL KITCHEN EQUIPMENT

Metal spatula Sifter

Tube pan Loaf pan

Pie pan Spring-form pan

Jelly roll pan

Tart pans Bundt pan

KNIVES: THE BASIC CUTTING TOOLS

Paring knife Utility knife

Knife Sharpening Steel

POTS AND PANS

Frying pan with lid

Cast-iron frying pan Dutch oven

MEASURING FOOD MATERIALS

MEASUREMENTS AND CONVERSIONS

Slicing Diagonal Slicing

Julienne Strips Dicing

FOOD PREPARATION TERMS

VALUE OF FOOD PRESERVATION