History of the Eastern Orthodox Church

According to the Eastern Orthodox tradition the history of the Eastern Orthodox Church is traced back to
Jesus Christ and the Apostles. The Apostles appointed successors, known as bishops, and they in turn
appointed other bishops in a process known as Apostolic succession. Over time, five Patriarchates were
established to organize the Christian world, and four of these ancient Patriarchates remain Orthodox today.
Orthodox Christianity reached its present form in Late Antiquity (in the period from the 3rd to the 8th century),
when the Ecumenical Councils were held, doctrinal disputes were resolved, the Fathers of the Church lived
and wrote, and Orthodox worship practices settled into their permanent form (including the liturgies and the
major holidays of the Church).

In the early medieval period, Orthodox missionaries spread Christianity towards the north, to the Bulgarians,
Serbs, Russians and others. Meanwhile, a gradual process of estrangement took place between the four
Eastern Patriarchates and the Latin Church of Rome, culminating with the Great Schism in the 11th century, in
which Orthodoxy and the Latin Church (later called the Roman Catholic Church) separated from each other.
In the Late Middle Ages, the Fall of Constantinople brought a large part of the world's Orthodox Christians
under Ottoman Turkish rule. Nevertheless, Orthodoxy continued to flourish in Russia, as well as within the
Ottoman Empire among the latter's Christian subject peoples. As the Ottoman Empire declined in the 19th
century and several majority-Orthodox nations regained their independence, they organized a number of new
autocephalous Orthodox churches in Southern and Eastern Europe.

The Eastern Orthodox jurisdictions with the largest number of adherents in modern times are the Russian and
the Romanian Orthodox churches. The most ancient of the Eastern Orthodox communities existing today are
the churches of Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, Constantinople, and Georgia.[1][2][3]

Contents
Early Christianity
Apostolic era
Patristic Age
Divine Liturgy
Bible
Pentarchy
Byzantine period
Ecumenical councils
Confronting Arianism
Iconoclasm
Tensions with the Papacy
Photian schism
Mission to Great Moravia
Conversion of Eastern and Southern Slavs
Great Schism
Hesychast controversy
Eastern monastic or ascetic tradition
Crusades
 Establishment of the Roman Catholic Latin Empire
Ottoman period
Religious rights
Fall of the Ottoman Empire
Persecution by the "Young Turks"
Republic of Turkey
Other Muslim-majority states
Jerusalem
Russia
Under Mongol rule
Synodal period
Soviet Union
Other Orthodox Churches under communist rule
China
Eastern Catholic or "Byzantine Rite" churches
Origins
Conflict between Eastern Catholics and Eastern Orthodox
Modern history
Autocephalous national churches
Eastern Orthodoxy
Oriental Orthodoxy
Minority communities
European minorities
Churches in Asia
See also
References
Sources
External links

Early Christianity

Apostolic era

Christianity first spread in the predominantly Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman Empire. The Apostles
traveled extensively throughout the empire, establishing communities in major cities and regions, with the first
community appearing in Jerusalem, followed by communities in Antioch, Ethiopia and others. Early growth
also occurred in the two political centers of Rome and Greece, as well as in Byzantium (initially a minor centre
under the Metropolitan of Heraclea, but which later became Constantinople). Orthodoxy believes in the
apostolic succession that they believe was established by the Apostles in the New Testament; this played a key
role in the communities' view of itself as the preserver of the original Christian tradition. Historically the word
"church" did not mean a building or housing structure (for which Greek-speakers might have used the word
"basilica") but meant a community or gathering of like peoples (see ekklesia). The earliest Ecclesiology would
posit that the Eucharistic assembly, under the authority and permission of a Bishop, is what constitutes a
Church. As St. Ignatius of Antioch said, "Let no man do anything connected with the Church without the
bishop. Let that be deemed a proper Eucharist, which is [administered] either by the bishop, or by one to
whom he has entrusted it. Wherever the bishop shall appear, there let the multitude [of the people] also be;
even as, wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church. It is not lawful without the bishop either to
baptize or to celebrate a love-feast."[4]

The original church or community of the East before the Great Schism comprised:

the Greek churches founded by Saint Paul

the Antiochian and Asia Minor churches founded by Saint Peter
the Coptic (or Egyptian) churches founded by Saint Mark (including, at the time, the Ethiopians
of Abyssinia)
the Syriac (or Assyrian) churches in Upper Mesopotamia
the Georgian church, traditionally founded by Saint Andrew and Saint Nino
the Armenian church, traditionally founded by Saint Jude and Saint Bartholomew
the church of Jerusalem, founded by Saint James, as well as the churches of Samaria and
Judea, together comprising "the Holy Land".[1]

The church of Rome by tradition was founded by both Saint Peter and Saint Paul.

Systematic persecution of the early Christian church caused it to become an underground movement. The first
above-ground legal churches were built in Armenia (see Echmiadzin). Armenia became the first country to
legalize Christianity (around 301 AD) under King Tiridates III and also embrace it as the state religion in 310
AD. However, illegal churches before "Christian legalization" are mentioned throughout church history; for
example, in the City of Nisibis during the persecutions of Diocletian. Of the underground churches that existed
before legalization, some are recorded to have existed in the catacombs of Europe i.e. Catacombs of Rome and
also in Greece (see Cave of the Apocalypse, The Church of St George and the church at Pergamon) and also
in the underground cities of Anatolia such as Derinkuyu Underground City (also see Cave monastery and Bab
Kisan). Also noteworthy are the Church of St Peter in Antioch and the Cenacle in Jerusalem.

Patristic Age

Much of the official organizing of the ecclesiastical structure, clarifying true from false teachings was done by
the bishops of the church. Their works are referred to as Patristics. This tradition of clarification can be seen as
established in the saints of the Orthodox Church referred to as the Apostolic Fathers, bishops themselves
established by apostolic succession. This also continued into the age when the practice of the religion of
Christianity became legal (see the Ecumenical Councils).

The Biblical canon began with the officially accepted books of the Koine Greek Old Testament (which
predates Christianity). This canon, called the Septuagint or seventy, continues to be the Old Testament of the
Orthodox faith, along with the New Testament's Good news (gospels), Revelations and Letters of the Apostles
(including Acts of the Apostles and the Epistle to the Hebrews). The earliest text of the New Testament was
written in common or Koine Greek. The texts of the Old Testament had previously been translated into a
single language, Koine Greek, in the time of Ptolemy II Philadelphus in 200 BC.[5]

The early Christians had no way to have a copy of the works that later became the canon and other church
works accepted but not canonized. Much of the original church liturgical services functioned as a means of
learning these works. Orthodox Church services today continue to serve this educational function. The issue of
collecting the various works of the eastern churches and compiling them into a canon, each being confirmed as
authentic text was a long protracted process. Much of this process was motivated by a need to address various
heresies. In many instances, heretical groups had themselves begun compiling and disseminating text that they
used to validate their positions, positions that were not consistent with the text, history and traditions of the
Orthodox faith.

Divine Liturgy

Liturgical services, especially the Eucharist service, are based on repeating the actions of Jesus ("do this in
remembrance of me"), using the bread and wine, and saying his words (known as the words of the institution).
The church has the rest of the liturgical ritual being rooted in Jewish Passover, Siddur, Seder, and synagogue
services, including the singing of hymns (especially the Psalms) and reading from the Scriptures (Old and New
Testament). The final uniformity of liturgical services became solidified after the church established a Biblical
canon, being based on the Apostolic Constitutions and Clementine literature.

Bible

In the Orthodox view, Bible represents those texts approved by the church for the purpose of conveying the
most important parts of what it already believed. The oldest list of books for the canon is the Muratorian
fragment dating to c. 170 (see also Chester Beatty Papyri). The oldest complete canon of the Christian Bible
was found at Saint Catherine's Monastery (see Codex Sinaiticus) and later sold to the British by the Soviets in
1933.[6] Parts of the codex are still considered stolen by the Monastery even today.[6] These texts (as a whole)
were not universally considered canonical until the church reviewed, edited, accepted and ratified them in 368
AD (also see the Council of Laodicea). Salvation or Soteriology (http://orthodoxwiki.org/Soteriology) from
the Orthodox perspective is achieved not by knowledge of scripture but by being a member of the church or
community and cultivating phronema and theosis through participation in the church or community.[7][8]

Pentarchy
By the 5th century, Christian ecclesiology had organized a hierarchical "pentarchy", or system of five sees
(patriarchates), with a settled order of precedence. The first four of the patriarchs were located in the largest
cities of the Roman Empire, while the fifth was in Jerusalem, a city deriving its importance from being the
place where the Christian Church was founded, despite its relatively small size. All five locations also had
Christian communities who traced their lineage back to one or several Apostles.

Thus, in order of precedence, the five patriarchates (and the Apostles claimed as founders by each patriarchate)
were as follows:

Rome (founded by Sts. Peter and Paul), currently in Italy. This was the only Pentarch in the
Western Roman Empire, and is now better known as the Pope of the Roman Catholic Church.
Constantinople (St. Andrew), currently in Turkey
Alexandria (St. Mark), currently in Egypt
Antioch (St. Peter), currently in Syria
Jerusalem (St. James), currently in Israel

Two patriarchates are noted to have been founded by St Peter, the patriarchate of Rome and the patriarchate of
Antioch. The Eastern churches accept Antioch as the church founded by St Peter (see the Greek Orthodox
Church of Antioch and the Syriac Orthodox Church).

Byzantine period
It was in the establishment of the Eastern Roman Empire by Emperor
Constantine the Great that Christianity was legalized (Edict of Milan,
313). It was not until then, that systematic Roman persecution of
Christians stopped, although it did resurface later, though temporarily,
under Roman Paganism (Emperor Julian the Apostate). Christianity as
Orthodox was not established as the State Religion in the Eastern part
of the Roman Empire until Theodosius I convened The First Council
of Constantinople or the (second ecumenical council) in 381. This
council put an end to the Arianism controversy by establishing the
Trinitarian doctrine. Hagia Sophia at night

Legalization included the calling of the Ecumenical Councils to

resolve disputes and establish church dogma on which the entire
church would agree. Thus defining what it means to be a Christian in a universal or broad sense of the word
the Greek word for universal being katholikós or catholic. These councils being also the continuation of the
church council tradition that predated legalization (see Synod). According to Joseph Raya, "Byzantine culture
and Orthodoxy are one and the same.".[9]

In the 530s the second Church of the Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia) was built in Constantinople under emperor
Justinian I, to become the center of the ecclesiastical community for the rulers of the Eastern Roman Empire or
Byzantium. The first church had been destroyed during the Nika riots.

Ecumenical councils

These Pre Ecumenical councils include the Council of Jerusalem c. 50, Council of Rome (155), Second
Council of Rome 193 AD, Council of Ephesus 193 AD, Council of Carthage (251), Council of Iconium 258
AD, Council of Antioch (264), Councils of Arabia 246–247 AD, Council of Elvira 306 AD, Council of
Carthage (311), Synod of Neo-Caesarea c.314 AD Council of Ancyra 314 AD, Council of Arles (314). The
first ecumenical council in part was a continuation of Trinitarian doctrinal issues addressed in pre-legalization
of Christianity councils or synods (for examples see Synods of Antioch between 264–269AD and Synod of
Elvira). As such, they constitute a permanent standard for an Orthodox understanding of the Trinity, the person
or hypostasis of Christ, the incarnation.[10]

The tradition of councils within the church started with the apostolic council of Jerusalem, but this council is
not numbered as an ecumenical council. It was convened to address the Abrahamic tradition of circumcision
and its relation to converted Gentiles (Acts 15). Its decisions are accepted by all Christians,[11] and later
definitions of an ecumenical council to conform to this sole Biblical council.

The First seven Ecumenical Councils were held between 325 (the First Council of Nicaea) and 787 (the
Second Council of Nicaea), which the Orthodox recognize as the definitive interpretation of Christian dogma.

First Council of Nicaea (Nicaea, 325)

convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine, condemning the view of Arius that the Son is
a created being inferior to the Father.
Second Ecumenical Council (Constantinople, 381)
defining the nature of the Holy Spirit against those asserting His inequality with the other
persons of the Trinity. Under Theodosius I this council marks the end of the Arian conflict in
the Eastern Roman Empire..
Third Ecumenical Council (Ephesus 431)
affirmed that Mary is truly "Birth giver" or "Mother" of God (Theotokos), contrary to the
teachings of Nestorius.
Fourth Ecumenical Council (Chalcedon, 451)
 affirmed that Jesus is truly God and truly man, without mixture of the two natures, contrary to
Monophysite teaching.
Fifth Ecumenical Council (Constantinople, 553)
interpreting the decrees of Chalcedon and further explaining the relationship of the two
natures of Jesus; it also condemned the teachings of Origen on the pre-existence of the soul,
and Apocatastasis.
Sixth Ecumenical Council (Constantinople, 681)
declaring that Christ has two wills of his two natures, human and divine, contrary to the
teachings of the Monothelites.
Seventh Ecumenical Council (Nicea, 787)
called under the Empress Regnant Irene, it affirmed the making and veneration of icons,
while also forbidding the worship of icons and the making of three-dimensional statuary. It
reversed the declaration of an earlier council that had called itself the Seventh Ecumenical
Council and also nullified its status (see separate article on Iconoclasm). That earlier council
had been held under the iconoclast Emperor Constantine V. It met with more than 340
bishops at Constantinople and Hieria in 754, declaring the making of icons of Jesus or the
saints an error, mainly for Christological reasons.

The Orthodox Church also recognizes the Fourth Council of Constantinople in 879 as Ecumenical, and
continues to participate in dogmatically binding councils.

Confronting Arianism

The First Ecumenical Council was convened to address the divinity of Christ
once more (see Paul of Samosata and the Synods of Antioch) but this time
through the teachings of Arius, an Egyptian presbyter from Alexandria, who
taught that Jesus Christ was created, albeit divine, and not God in essence: both
the Father and the Son where of "like" essence or being (see homoiousia) but not
of the same essence or being (see homoousia). Much of the controversion was
over the kenotic phrasing that Christ expressed in the New Testament to express
submission to God the Father.[12] This Ecumenical council declared that Jesus
Christ was a distinct from God in existence (hypostasis or persona). Jesus was
God in essence, being and nature (ousia or substantia).
Eusebius of Caesarea
The first council did not end the conflict. When Emperor Constantine I was
baptized, the baptism was performed by an Arian bishop and relative, Eusebius
of Nicomedia. Also the charges of Christian corruption by Constantine (see the Constantinian shift) ignore the
fact that Constantine deposed Athanasius of Alexandria and later restored Arius, who had been branded a
heresiarch by the Nicene Council.[13] After his death, Constantine I was succeeded by two Arian Emperors
Constantius II (son of Constantine I) and Valens. It was not until the co-reigns of Gratian and Theodosius that
Arianism was effectively wiped out among the ruling class and elite of the Eastern Empire. Theodosius' wife
St Flacilla was instrumental in his campaign to end Arianism. This later culminated into the killing of some
300,000 Orthodox Christians at the hands of Arians in Milan in 538AD.[14]

Iconoclasm

The Iconoclasm (730–787 and 813–843) was a movement within the Byzantine church to establish that the
Christian culture of portraits (see icon) of the family of Christ and subsequent Christians and biblical scenes
were not of a Christian origin and therefore heretical.[15] The group destroyed much of the Christian churches'
art history,[16] until it was later defined as heretical itself under the Seventh Ecumenical council. The
iconoclasts considered the tradition of icons as contrary to the ban on 'graven images'[Exodus 20:4], interpretated
in a narrow sense as 'engraved or carved'. This forbade many of the ornaments that Moses was commanded to
create in the passages right after the commandment was given, i.e.,
cherubim.[Exodus 26:1], as well as the Cross and other holy artifacts.
The Orthodox Church understands this in a wider sense as a ban on
no carved images: the people of God are not to create idols and then
worship them.

Tensions with the Papacy

Furthermore, the loss of the Patriarchate of Alexandria following the

schism regarding the Council of Chalcedon (451), which led to the
separation between the Byzantine Church and the Alexandrian Coptic
Church, as well as the fall of the Patriarchates of Antioch and
Jerusalem following the conquest of Palestine and Syria during the
rise of Islam, made the theory of the Pentarchy more of a simple
theory, than a practical reality. These events also led to the Patriarch of Andrei Rublev's Trinity
Constantinople centralizing more power in his office, acting alone as
the sole Patriarch remaining in the East until the fall of the Byzantine
Empire in 1453.

Two basic problems—the primacy of the bishop of Rome and the procession of the Holy Spirit—were
involved. These doctrinal differences were first openly discussed during the patriarchate of Photius I.

Rome began to interpret her primacy among the Pentarchy of five sees in terms of sovereignty, as a God-given
right involving universal jurisdiction in the Church. The churches of the East gave the Roman See primacy but
not supremacy, i.e. the Pope being the first among equals, but not as an absolute authority with the ability to
make infallible statements.[17][18][19][20]

Photian schism

Photius refused to accept the supremacy of the pope in Orthodox matters, or accept the Filioque clause that
had been added to the Nicene Creed by the Latin church, and was later the theological breaking point in the
ultimate Great Schism in the 11th century. The controversy also involved ecclesiastical jurisdictional rights in
the Bulgarian church.

Photios did provide concession on the issue of jurisdictional rights concerning Bulgaria, and the papal legates
made do with his return of Bulgaria to Rome. This concession, however, was purely nominal, as Bulgaria's
return to the Byzantine rite in 870 had already secured for it an autocephalous church. Without the consent of
Boris I of Bulgaria, the papacy was unable to enforce any of its claims.

Mission to Great Moravia

In Great Moravia, the two brothers encountered Frankish missionaries from Germany, who represented the
Latin branch of the Church, more particularly representing the Holy Roman Empire as founded by
Charlemagne, and committing to linguistic and cultural uniformity. They insisted on the use of the Latin
liturgy, and regarded Moravia as their rightful mission field.

Conversion of Eastern and Southern Slavs

In the 9th and 10th centuries, Christianity made great inroads into Eastern
Europe: first in Bulgaria and Serbia, then followed by Kievan Rus'. For a
period of time, there was a real possibility that all of the newly baptized
South Slav nations, Bulgarians, Serbs, and Croats would join the
Western church, but in the end, only the Croats joined.

The Serbs were baptised during the reign of Heraclius (610–641) by

"elders of Rome" according to Constantine Porphyrogenitus in his annals
(r. 913–959).[21] The forming of Christianity as state religion dates to the
time of the Eastern Orthodox missionaries (Saints) Cyril and Methodius
during Basil I (r. 867–886), who baptised the Serbs sometime before
helping Knez Mutimir in the war against the Saracens in 869, after
acknowledging the suzerainty of the Byzantine Empire. Prince Rastislav

A Serbian bishopric (Diocese of Ras) may have been founded in Stari

Ras in 871 by Serbian Knez Mutimir, confirmed by the Council of
Constantinople in 879–80.[22][23] The Serbs and Bulgarians adopt the
Old Slavonic liturgy instead of the Greek.[21][24]

In 863, a mission from the Patriarch of Constantinople converted King

Boris I of Bulgaria to Christianity. Boris realized that the Christianization
of his subjects by the Byzantine mission would facilitate the undesired
spread of Byzantine influence in Bulgaria, as the liturgy was carried out
in the Greek language, and the newly established Bulgarian Church was
Orthodox churches in Vologda,
subordinate to the Church of Constantinople. A popular revolt against the
Russia
new religion prompted the King to request that the Bulgarian Church be
granted independence, which was refused by Constantinople. Boris
turned to the Pope, and the arrival of the Roman clerical mission
concluded the activity of the Byzantine mission, which was ordered by the King to leave Bulgaria.

Constantinople nervously watched the events taking place in their northern neighbour, because a pro-Rome
Bulgaria threatened its immediate interests. A religious council was held in the summer of 867 in the
Byzantine capital, during which the Roman Church's behaviour was harshly condemned. As a personal
culprit, Pope Nicholas I was anathematized. In a letter to Boris, the Byzantine emperor Michael III expressed
his disapproval of Bulgaria's religious reorientation and used offensive language against the Roman Church.
The old rivalry between the two Churches burned with new power.

The Roman mission's efforts were met with success and King Boris asked Pope Nicholas I to appoint Formosa
of Portua as Bulgarian Archbishop. The Pope refused, and his successor Pope Adrian II turned out to be even
more disinclined to comply, so Boris turned again to Constantinople. This resulted in the creation of an
autonomous national (Bulgarian) Archbishopric. In the next 10 years, Pope Adrian II and his successors made
desperate attempts to reclaim their influence in Bulgaria, but their efforts ultimately failed.

The foundations of the Bulgarian national Church had been set. The next stage was the implementation of the
Glagolitic alphabet and the Slavonic language as official language of the Bulgarian Church and State in 893
AD. St. Clement, St. Naum and St. Angelaruis returned to Bulgaria, where they managed to instruct several
thousand future Slavonic clergymen in the rites using the Slavic language and the Glagolitic alphabet. In 893
AD, Bulgaria expelled its Byzantine clergy and proclaimed the Slavonic language as the official language of
the Bulgarian Church and State.

Great Schism
In the 11th century the East–West Schism took place between Rome and Constantinople, resulting in a
separation between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church (with both claiming to represent the sole
legitimate continuation of the original Church). There were doctrinal issues like the filioque clause and the
authority of the Pope involved in the split, but these were exacerbated by cultural and linguistic differences
between Latins and Greeks. Prior to that, the Eastern and Western halves of the Church had frequently been in
conflict, particularly during the periods of iconoclasm and the Photian schism.[25] The Orthodox Byzantine
Greeks perceived the Papacy as taking on monarch type characteristics that were not inline with the Church's
historical tradition as can be seen in the words of Archbishop Niketas of Nicomedia of the 12th century:

My dearest brother, we do not deny to the Roman Church the primacy among the five sister
patriachates and we recognize her right to the most honorable seat at the Ecumenical Council. But
she has separated herself from us by her own deeds when through pride she assumed a monarchy
which does not belong to her office... How shall we accept decrees from her that have been
issued without consulting us and even without our knowledge? If the Roman pontiff seated on the
lofty throne of his glory wished to thunder at us and, so to speak, hurl his mandates at us from on
high and if he wishes to judge us and even to rule us and our churches, not by taking counsel with
us but at his own arbitrary pleasure what kind of brotherhood, or even what kind of parenthood
can this be? We should be the slaves not the sons, of such a church and the Roman see would not
be the pious mother of sons but a hard and imperious mistress of slaves

— Archbishop Nicetas of Nicomedia of the Twelfth Century[26]

Hesychast controversy

Under church tradition the practice of Hesychasm has it beginnings in the

bible, Matthew 6:6 and the Philokalia. It is a form of constant purposeful
prayer or experiential prayer, explicitly referred to as contemplation. The
tradition of contemplation with inner silence or tranquility is shared by all
Eastern asceticism movements, having its roots in the Egyptian traditions
of monasticism exemplified by such Orthodox monastics as St Anthony
of Egypt. The Hesychasts stated that at higher stages of their practice
they reached the actual contemplation-union with the Tabor Light, i.e.,
Uncreated Divine Light or photomos seen by the apostles in the event of
the Transfiguration of Christ and Saint Paul while on the road to
Damascus. It is depicted in icons and theological discourse as tongues of
fire.[27]

Around the year 1337, Hesychasm attracted the attention of a learned

member of the Orthodox Church, Barlaam, a Calabrian monk who at that
time held the office of abbot in the Monastery of St Saviour's in
Gregory Palamas
Constantinople and who visited Mount Athos. There, he encountered
Hesychasts and heard descriptions of their practices, also reading the
writings of the teacher in Hesychasm of St Gregory Palamas, himself an
Athonite monk. Trained in Scholastic theology, Barlaam was scandalized by Hesychasm and began to
campaign against it. As a teacher of theology in the Scholastic mode, Barlaam propounded a more intellectual
and propositional approach to the knowledge of God than the Hesychasts taught. In particular, he took
exception to the Hesychasts doctrine to the nature of the uncreated light, the experience of which was said to
be the goal of Hesychast practice. Barlaam held this concept to be polytheistic, inasmuch as it postulated two
eternal substances, a visible (immanent) and an invisible God (transcendent).
On the Hesychast side, the controversy was taken up by Antonite St Gregory Palamas, afterwards Archbishop
of Thessalonica, who was asked by his fellow monks on Mt Athos to defend Hesychasm from Barlaam's
attacks. St Gregory was well-educated in Greek philosophy (dialectical method) and thus able to defend
Hesychasm. In 1341 the dispute came before a synod held at Constantinople and was presided over by the
Emperor Andronicus; the synod, taking into account the regard in which the writings of the pseudo-Dionysius
were held, condemned Barlaam, who recanted and returned to Calabria, becoming a bishop in the Roman
Catholic Church. Three other synods on the subject were held, at the second of which the followers of
Barlaam gained a brief victory. In 1351, at a synod under the presidency of Emperor John VI Cantacuzenus,
Hesychast doctrine and Palamas' Essence-Energies distinction was established as the doctrine of the Orthodox
Church.

One of Barlaam's friends, Gregory Akindynos, who originally was also a friend of Gregory's, later took up the
controversy. Another opponent of Palamism was Manuel Kalekas who sought to reconcile the Eastern and
Western Churches. Following the decision of 1351, there was strong repression against anti-Palamist thinkers,
who ultimately had no choice but to emigrate and convert to Catholicism. This exodus of highly educated
Greek scholars, later reinforced by refugees following the Fall of Constantinople of 1453, had a significant
influence on the first generation (that of Petrarca and Boccaccio) of the incipient Italian Renaissance.

Eastern monastic or ascetic tradition

With the elevation of Christianity to the status of a legal religion

within the Roman Empire by Constantine the Great, with the edict of
Milan (313), many Orthodox felt a new decline in the ethical life of
Christians. In reaction to this decline, many refused to accept any
compromises and fled the world or societies of mankind, to become
monastics. Monasticism thrived, especially in Egypt, with two
important monastic centers, one in the desert of Wadi Natroun, by the
Western Bank of the Nile, with Abba Ammoun (d. 356) as its
founder, and one called Scetis in the desert of Skete, south of Nitria,
with Saint Makarios of Egypt (died c. Egypt 330) as its founder.
These monks were anchorites, following the monastic ideal of St.
Anthony the Great, Paul of Thebes and Saint Pachomius. They lived
by themselves, gathering together for common worship on Saturdays
and Sundays only. This is not to say that Monasticism or Orthodox
Asceticism was created whole cloth at the time of legalization but Icon Depicting Souls Ascent to
rather at the time it blossomed into a mass movement. Charismatics as Heaven
the ascetic movement was considered had no clerical status as such.
Later history developed around the Greek (Mount Athos) and Syrian
(Cappadocia) forms of monastic life, along with the formation of Monastic Orders or monastic organization.
The three main forms of Ascetics' traditions being Skete, Cenobite and Hermit respectively.

Crusades

The final breach between Greeks and Latins is often considered to have arisen after the capture and sacking of
Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Crusades against Orthodox Christians by Roman Catholic
crusaders were not exclusive to this crusade nor the Mediterranean. The sacking of Constantinople and the
Church of Holy Wisdom, the destruction of the Monastery of Stoudios, Library of Constantinople and the
establishment of the Latin Empire in Constantinople and also throughout West Asia Minor and Greece (see the
Kingdom of Thessalonica, Kingdom of Cyprus) are considered definitive though. This is in light of Roman
Catholic atrocities not exclusive to the capital city of Constantinople in 1204 starting the period in Greece
referred to as Frangokratia. The establishment of the Latin Empire in 1204 was intended to supplant the
Orthodox Byzantine Empire. This is symbolized by many Orthodox
churches being converted into Roman Catholic properties and
churches like Hagia Sophia and Church of the Pantokrator, and it is
viewed with some rancor to the present day. Some of the European
Christian community actively endorsed the attacking of Orthodox
Christians.[28]

The Teutonic Order's failed attempts to conquer Orthodox Russia

(particularly the Republics of Pskov and Novgorod), an enterprise Conquest of the Orthodox city of
endorsed by Pope Gregory IX,[29] can also be considered as a part of Constantinople by the crusaders in
the Northern Crusades. One of the major blows for the idea of the 1204
conquest of Russia was the Battle of the Ice in 1242. With or without
the Pope's blessing, Sweden also undertook several crusades against
Orthodox Novgorod. Many Orthodox saw the actions of the
Catholics in the Mediterranean as a prime determining factor in the
weakening of Byzantium which led to the Empire's eventual conquest
and fall to Islam.[30] Some Orthodox see a continuation of Roman
Catholic hostility in the establishment of the Uniate or Eastern
Catholic Churches (see the sainting of Bissarion (http://www.impanto
kratoros.gr/B8D9F008.en.aspx) in 1950).[31]

In 2004, Pope John Paul II extended a formal apology for the sacking Prince Alexander Nevsky defeats the
Teutonic Knights at the Battle of the
of Constantinople in 1204; the apology was formally accepted by
Ice in 1242 (20th century work)
Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople. Many things that were
stolen during this time: holy relics, riches, and many other items, are
still held in various Western European cities, particularly Venice.

Establishment of the Roman Catholic Latin Empire

After the Sack of Constantinople in 1204 AD by Roman Catholic Crusaders as part of the fourth crusade,
much of Asia Minor was brought under Roman Catholic rule and the Latin Empire of the East was
established. As the conquest by the European crusaders was not exclusive to the fourth crusade, many various
kingdoms of European rule were established. After the fall of Constantinople to the Latin West, the Empire of
Nicaea was established, which was later to be the origin of the Greek monarchy that defeated the Latin forces
of Europe and re-established Orthodox Monarchy in Constantinople and Asia Minor.

Ottoman period
In 1453AD, the city of Constantinople the last stronghold of the Byzantine Empire fell to the Ottoman Empire.
By this time, Egypt had been under Muslim control for some seven centuries. Jerusalem had been conquered
by the Umayyad Muslims in 638, won back by Rome in 1099 under the First Crusade and then finally
reconquered by the Ottoman Muslims in 1517.

Under Ottoman rule, the Greek Orthodox Church acquired power as an autonomous millet. The ecumenical
patriarch was the religious and administrative ruler of the entire "Orthodox nation" (Ottoman administrative
unit), which encompassed all the Orthodox subjects of the Empire, but was dominated by ethnic Greeks.

Under the Ottoman Empire, violence against non-Muslims was common. One of the worst such episodes
occurred under Yavuz Sultan Selim I.[32][33] These event include the atrocities against, among others, the
Serbs in AD 1804–1878 the Greeks in AD 1814–1832,[34] and the Bulgarian AD 1876–1877[35] (also see
Phanariote). As well as many individual Christians being made martyrs for stating their faith or speaking
negatively against Islam.[36][37]

Religious rights

The Orthodox Church was an accepted institution

under the Ottomans, in contrast to Catholicism
which was associated with enemy Austria, and
actually grew in size during Ottoman rule.[38][39]
This included the building of churches and
monasteries.[39]

Fall of the Ottoman Empire

The fall of the Ottoman was precipitated by the

Roman Catholic and Orthodox disputed possession Stavronikita monastery, South-East view
of the Church of the Nativity and the Church of the
Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. During the early
1850s, the two sides made demands which the Sultan could not possibly satisfy simultaneously. In 1853, the
Sultan adjudicated in favour of the French, despite the vehement protestations of the local Orthodox monks.

The ruling Ottoman siding with Rome over the Orthodox provoked outright war (see the Eastern Question).
As the Ottoman Empire had been for sometime falling into political, social and economic decay (see the Sick
Man of Europe) this conflict ignited the Crimean War in 1850 between Russia and the Ottoman Empire.

Persecution by the "Young Turks"

Systematic massacres took place in 1894–1896 when Sultan Abdul killed 300,000 Armenians throughout the
provinces. In 1909 government troops killed, in the towns of Adana alone, over 20,000 Christian Armenians.
Also, in the first two decades of the 20th century, there were massacres of Greeks, Slavs, and Armenians in the
Ottoman Empire, culminating in the Armenian, Greek and Assyrian genocides. As a result, the 20th century
saw a sharp decline of the number of Orthodox Christians, and of Christians in general, in the Anatolian
peninsula amidst complaints of Turkish governmental repression of various Eastern and Oriental Orthodox
groups.[40][41]

Republic of Turkey

During the Lausanne Conference in 1923, the Turkish and Greek sides after some discussions accepted the
proposal of a population exchange. Muslims in Greece (save the ones in Eastern Thrace) were expelled to
Turkey, and Greek Orthodox people in Turkey (save the ones in Istanbul) were expelled to Greece.

In September 1955, a pogrom was directed primarily at Istanbul's 100,000-strong Greek minority.[42][43] In
1971, the Halki seminary in Istanbul was closed along with other private higher education institutions in
Turkey.[44]

Other Muslim-majority states

Orthodoxy under the Palestinian National Authority (including Gaza). Orthodoxy in Saudi Arabia, Yemen,
Jordan, Syria, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan (see Melkite and
Kurdish Christians).

Jerusalem

The Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem and the ecclesiastics of the

Orthodox church are based in the ancient Church of the Holy
Sepulchre constructed in 335 AD.

Russia
The success of the conversion of the Bulgarians facilitated the
conversion of other East Slavic peoples, most notably the Rus', The Stone of the Anointing, believed
predecessors of Belarusians, Russians, and Ukrainians. By the to be the place where Jesus' body
beginning of the 11th century most of the Slavic world, including, was prepared for burial. It is the 13th
Bulgaria, Serbia, and Russia had converted to Orthodox Christianity. Station of the Cross.
Bulgaria's Church was officially recognized as a Patriarchate by
Constantinople in 927, Serbia's in 1346, and Russia's in 1589.

Through a series of Wars with the World of Islam the church did
indeed establish itself as the protector of Orthodoxy (see the Eastern
Question and the Russo-Turkish wars).

Under Mongol rule

Russia lay under Mongol rule from the 13th through the 15th century.
The Mongol invasion of Rus of 1237–1242AD led to what is called
the Tatar period in Russian history. This period led to great calamity Kizhi Transfiguration church
for the internal structure of Russia. Much of Russia was ruled by
Mongols and Russian Princes (of whom had limited power). The
eventual end of the reign of the Golden Horde is said to have begun with the Battle of Kulikovo 8 September
1380. Which involves the famous Orthodox legend of Monk and Russian champion Alexander Peresvet and
his death that mark the battle's beginning. The final pseudo-battle or face off that ended Mongol rule in Russia
was the Great stand on the Ugra river in 1480AD. The death toll (by battle, massacre, flooding, and famine) of
the Mongol wars of conquest is placed at about 40 million according to some sources.[45]

Synodal period

The Russian Orthodox Church held a privileged position in the Russian Empire, expressed in the motto,
Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality, of the late Russian Empire. It obtained immunity from taxation in
1270, and was allowed to impose taxes on the peasants. At the same time, it was placed under the control of
the Tsar by the Church reform of Peter I in the 1721, who replaced the Russian patriarchate by the Most Holy
Synod, which was run by an official, titled Ober-Procurator, appointed by the Tsar himself.

The church was involved in various campaigns of russification,[46] and, as a consequence, it was accused of
participating in anti-Jewish pogroms.[47][48] In the case of anti-semitism and the anti-Jewish pogroms, no
evidence is given of the direct participation of the church; it is important to remember that many Russian
Orthodox clerics, including senior hierarchs, openly defended persecuted Jews, at least starting with the
second half of the 19th century.[49] Also, the Church has
no official position on Judaism as such.[49][50][51] In
modern times, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn has been accused
of antisemitism for his book Two Hundred Years
Together, where he alleges Jewish participation in the
political repression of the Soviet regime (see also Hebrew
and Byzantine relations).[52][53] Solzhenitsyn's book Two
Hundred Years Together is a historical study of the
relationship between Russian Orthodox Christians and Churches of the Moscow Kremlin, as seen from
Jews in Russia from 1772 to modern times.[53][54][55] the Balchug

The Church, like the Tsarist state was seen as an enemy

of the people by the Bolsheviks and other Russian revolutionaries.

Soviet Union

The Russian Orthodox Church collaborated with the White Army in the Russian Civil War (see White
movement) after the October Revolution. This may have further strengthened the Bolshevik animus against the
church.

Before and after the October Revolution of 7 November 1917 (October 25 Old Calendar) there was a
movement within the Soviet Union to unite all of the people of the world under Communist rule (see
Communist International). This included the Eastern European bloc countries as well as the Balkan States.
Since some of these Slavic states tied their ethnic heritage to their ethnic churches, both the peoples and their
church were targeted by the Soviet and its form of State atheism.[56][57] The Soviets' official religious stance
was one of "religious freedom or tolerance", though the state established atheism as the only scientific
truth.[58][59][60] Criticism of atheism was strictly forbidden and sometimes resulted in imprisonment.[61]

It is estimated that some 20 million Christians (17 million Orthodox and 3 million Roman Catholic) died or
were interned in gulags.[62] Some actions against Orthodox priests and believers along with execution
included torture being sent to prison camps, labour camps or mental hospitals.[63][64] The result of state
sponsored atheism was to transform the Church into a persecuted and martyred Church. In the first five years
after the Bolshevik revolution, 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed.[65]

In the period between 1927 and 1940, the number of Orthodox Churches in the Russian Republic fell from
29,584 to less than 500. Between 1917 and 1940, 130,000 Orthodox priests were arrested. The widespread
persecution and internecine disputes within the church hierarchy led to the seat of the Patriarch of Moscow
being vacant from 1925 to 1943. Some 20,000 people were executed just outside Butovo, a good percentage
of which were Orthodox clergy, ascetics, and laymen.[66]

In the Soviet Union, in addition to the methodical closing and destruction of churches, the charitable and social
work formerly done by ecclesiastical authorities was taken over by the state. As with all private property,
Church owned property was confiscated into public use. This persecution continued, even after the death of
Stalin until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.[63] Since the fall of the Soviet Union, the Russian
Orthodox Church has recognized a number of New Martyrs as saints.

Other Orthodox Churches under communist rule

Albania was the first state to have declared itself officially fully atheist.[67] In some other communist states
such as Romania, the Orthodox Church as an organisation enjoyed relative freedom and even prospered, albeit
under strict secret police control. That, however, did not rule out demolishing churches and monasteries as part
of broader systematization (urban planning), state persecution of
individual believers, and Romania stands out as a country which ran a
specialised institution where many Orthodox (along with peoples of
other faiths) were subjected to psychological punishment or torture
and mind control experimentation in order to force them give up their
religious convictions (see Pitești Prison). However, this was only
supported by one faction within the regime. The Communist
authorities closed down the prison in 1952, and punished many of
those responsible for abuses (twenty of them were sentenced to
death).[68][69]

China

Eastern Catholic or "Byzantine Rite" Christ the Savior Cathedral Moscow

churches after reconstruction

The Eastern Catholic

Churches make up 2% of the
membership of the Roman
Catholic Church and less than
10% of all Eastern Christians.
Most Eastern Catholic churches
have counterparts in other
Eastern churches, whether
Assyrian or Oriental Orthodox,
from whom they are separated
by a number of theological
differences, or the Eastern
Orthodox churches, from whom
they are separated primarily by
differences in understanding of
the role of the Bishop of Rome Enei Church, central Bucharest,
Domes of a Ukrainian Catholic parish within the College of Bishops. Romania. It was purposely
in Simpson, Pennsylvania demolished by the Communist
The Eastern Catholic churches authorities at 10 March 1977 after
were located historically in the Vrancea earthquake.
Eastern Europe, the Asian Middle East, Northern Africa and India, but
are now, because of migration, found also in Western Europe, the
Americas and Oceania.

Origins

The Maronite Church and the Syro-Malabar Church are Eastern Catholic churches that never broke
communion with the Church of Rome. Within the Antiochian church the Eastern Catholic movement started
after the Ottoman Turks' conquest of Antioch in the early 15th century, under whose control it remained until
the breakup of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I. During this period, in 1724, the Church of
Antioch was again weakened by schism, as a major portion of its faithful came into communion with the See
of Rome. The resultant body is known as the Melkite Greek Catholic Church, which maintains close ties with
the Orthodox and is holding ongoing talks about healing the schism.
The movement to reestablish communion with the See of Rome within East-Central Europe was started with
the 1598–1599 Union of Brest, by which the "Metropolia of Kiev-Halych and all Rus'" entered into
relationship with the Roman Catholic Church.

A century later, a similar movement occurred in Romania, as described on the website of Delia Despina
Dumitrica.[70]

Conflict between Eastern Catholics and Eastern Orthodox

Since the beginnings of the Uniate movement, there have been periodic conflicts between the Orthodox and
Uniate in Poland and Western Russia.[71] During the Time of Troubles there was a plan (by the conquering
Polish monarchy) to convert all of Russia to Roman Catholicism. Patriarch Hermogenes was martyred by the
Roman Catholics during this period (see also Polish–Lithuanian–Muscovite Commonwealth).

The Eastern Catholic churches consider themselves to have reconciled the East and West Schism by keeping
their prayers and rituals similar to those of Eastern Orthodoxy, while also accepting the primacy of the Bishop
of Rome.

Some Orthodox charge that joining in this unity comes at the expense of ignoring critical doctrinal differences
and past atrocities. From the perspective of many Eastern Orthodox, Eastern Catholicism is a ploy by Roman
Catholicism to undermine and ultimately destroy their church by undermining its legitimacy and absorbing it
into the Roman Catholic Church. It is feared that this ploy would diminish the power to the original eastern
Patriarchs of the church and would require the acceptance of rejected doctrines and Scholasticism over faith.
[72][73]

In the 20th century, there have been conflicts which involved forced conversions both by the Roman Catholics
and the Orthodox. In Croatia, the Ustaše forced the conversion of Orthodox to Roman Catholicism. Other
forced conversions included the Roman Catholics inside the USSR and Eastern Bloc after the October
Revolution.[74]

Modern history

The various autocephalous and autonomous churches of the Orthodox

Church are distinct in terms of administration and local culture, but for
the most part exist in full communion with one another, with
exceptions such as lack of relations between the Russian Orthodox
Church Outside Russia (ROCOR) and the Moscow Patriarchate (the
Orthodox Church of Russia) dating from the 1920s and due to the
subjection of the latter to the hostile Soviet regime. However, attempts
at reconciliation were made between the ROCOR and the Moscow
Patriarchate with the ultimate purpose of reunification being reached
on 17 May 2007.[75] Further tensions exist between the New All Saints Belmore, New South
Calendarists and the Old Calendarists. Wales, Australia

Autocephalous national churches

Eastern Orthodoxy
 Greek Orthodoxy
Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch. The community and seat of the patriarchate according
to Orthodox tradition was founded by St Peter and then given to St Ignatius, in what is now
Turkey. However, in the 15th century, it was moved to Damascus in response to the
Ottoman invasion of Antioch. Its traditional territory includes Syria, Lebanon, Iran, Iraq,
Kuwait and parts of Turkey, while there is a large autonomous diaspora diocese in North
America. The current Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch and All the East which is
considered by the other bishops of the Orthodox Church to be the sole legitimate heir to the
See of Antioch.
Church of Greece.
Church of Cyprus. Since the fall of the Ottoman Empire, the Church of Cyprus has been
engaged in a struggle between rejoining the mainland Church of Greece, being reunited
with the Turkish state and independence.
Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria claims succession from the Apostle Mark the
Evangelist who founded the Church in the 1st century, and therefore the beginning of
Christianity in Africa. It is one of the five ancient patriarchates of the early Church, called the
Pentarchy. Sometimes called the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria to distinguish
it from the Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria. In Egypt, members of the Greek
Orthodox Patriarchate were also called Melkite, because the favorable orientation of the
Byzantine Emperor towards the Council of Chalcedon. The term Melkite is currently used to
describe the Melkite Greek Catholic Church members. Since the schism occurring as a
result of the political and Christological controversies at the Council of Chalcedon (451), the
Greek Orthodox have liturgically been Greek-speaking. After the Arab conquest of North
Africa in the 7th century the Orthodox were a minority even among Christians, and
remained small for centuries. Today, the Patriarchate of Alexandria in Egypt comprises
some 300,000 Orthodox Christians, the highest number since the Roman Empire.
Georgian Orthodox Church. The first Eparchy was founded in Georgia, traditionally by the
Apostle Andrew. In 327, Christianity was adopted as the state religion by the rulers of Iberia
(Eastern Georgia). From the 320s, the Georgian Orthodox Church was under the jurisdiction of
the Apostolic See of Antioch. The Georgian Orthodox Church become autocephalous
(independent) in 466 when the Patriarchate of Antioch elevated the Bishop of Mtskheta to the
rank of "Catholicos of Kartli". On March 3, 1990, the Patriarch of Constantinople re-approved
the autocephaly of the Georgian Orthodox Church (which had in practice been exercised or at
least claimed since the 5th century) as well as the Patriarchal honour of the Catholicos. Today
the Georgian Orthodox Church has around 5 million members around the world (of whom about
3,670,000 live within Georgia) and administers, as of 2007, 35 eparchies (dioceses).
The Bulgarian Orthodox Church lost its autocephalous status after the fall of Bulgaria to the
Ottoman Empire. Bulgarian autocephaly was restored in 1953.
Serbian Orthodox Church gained autocephaly in 1219,
patriarchate status in 1345, while it was abolished in long
periods during the Ottoman period. The Patriarchate was
reunited in 1919–22.
Romanian Orthodox Church. Today the largest self-
governing Church after Russia, it was declared
autocephalous in 1885 and became a patriarchate in 1925.

Oriental Orthodoxy Saint Sava Cathedral with the

monument of Saint Sava
Oriental Orthodox Churches. The Orthodox Church is often
referred to as Eastern Orthodox Church in order to
distinguish it from the Oriental Orthodoxy (despite the fact that eastern and oriental are
 synonyms). The (Eastern) Orthodox Church strives to keep
the faith of the seven Ecumenical Councils. In contrast, the
term "Oriental Orthodoxy" refers to the churches of Eastern
Christian traditions that keep the faith of only the first three
ecumenical councils. Both the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental
Orthodox churches formally believe themselves to be the
continuation of the true church and the other to have fallen
into schism, although in the past 20 years much work has
been done toward ecumenism or reconciliation between the
Oriental and Eastern Orthodox churches. There has been an
attempt to achieve ecumenism (Russian: sobornost) between
the Antiochian and Oriental Orthodox churches. At
Chambesy in Switzerland, plenary talks were held resulting The Coptic Cross
in agreements in 1989, 1990 and 1993.[76] All official
representatives of the Eastern Orthodox and the Oriental
Orthodox reached agreement in these dialogues that the Christological differences between
the two communions are more a matter of emphasis than of substance. Although elements in a
number of the Eastern Orthodox Churches have criticized the apparent consensus reached by
the representatives at Chambesy, the patriarch and holy synod of the Antiochian Orthodox
Church welcomed the agreements as positive moves towards a sharing in the Love of God,
and a rejection of the hatred of insubstantial division.

As recommended in the Second Chambesy Agreement of 1990, the Antiochian (Eastern) Orthodox Patriarch
Ignatius IV formally met with the Syriac (Oriental) Orthodox Patriarch, Ignatius Zakka I, on 22 July 1991.[77]
At that meeting, the two patriarchs signed a pastoral agreement which called for "complete and mutual respect
between the two churches. ""Antiochian Orthodox Archidioces of Australia & New Zealand" (http://www.ant
iochian.org.au/content/view/143/21). It also prohibited the passing of faithful from one church to the other,
envisaged joint meetings of the two holy synods when appropriate, and provided for future guidelines for
inter-communion of the faithful and Eucharistic concelebration by the clergy of the two churches. The Church
of Antioch expects these guidelines to be issued when the faithful of both churches are ready, but not before.
Patriarch Ignatius has also overseen participation in a bilateral commission with the Melkite Greek Catholic
Church, which is exploring ways of healing the 18th century schism between the Melkite Catholics and the
Antiochian Orthodox. In an unprecedented event, Melkite Patriarch Maximos V addressed a meeting of the
Orthodox holy synod in October 1996. The members of the holy synod of Antioch continue to explore greater
communication and more friendly meetings with their Syriac, Melkite, and Maronite brothers and sisters, who
all share a common heritage.[78]

Minority communities

European minorities

The Orthodox Churches in Czechoslovakia, East

Germany, Hungary, and Poland have seen drastic
changes since the fall of Communism. The Czech
Church has recognized contemporary New Martyrs, such
as Gorazd (Pavlik) of Prague. The Albanian Orthodox
Distribution of Eastern Orthodoxy in the world by
Church split from the Greek Orthodox Church and
country
declared its independence (autocephaly) in 1922. The
Dominant religion
recognition of the primate by Constantinople came in
Important minority religion (over 10%)
1937.
Churches in Asia

Judging from the New Testament account of the rise and expansion of the early church, during the first few
centuries of Christianity, the most extensive dissemination of the gospel was not in the West but in the East. In
fact, conditions in the Parthian empire (250 BC – AD 226), which stretched from the Euphrates to the Indus
rivers and the Caspian to the Arabian seas, were in some ways more favourable for the growth of the church
than in the Roman world. And though opposition to Christianity increasingly mounted under successive
Persian and Islamic rulers, Christian communities were eventually established in the vast territory which
stretches from the Near to the Far East possibly as early as the first century of the church.

Chinese Orthodox Church

Japanese Orthodox Church
Korean Orthodox Church
Philippine Orthodox Church

See also
Christian Church
Church Fathers
Eastern Orthodox Christian theology
History of Arab Christians
History of Christianity
History of Eastern Christianity
Pentarchy
Seven Ecumenical Councils
Eastern Orthodoxy in Greece
Western Rite Orthodoxy
Eastern Orthodoxy in North America
Timeline of Eastern Orthodoxy in North America

Other Eastern apostolic churches:

Oriental Orthodoxy
History of Oriental Orthodoxy
Church of the East
Eastern Rite Roman Catholicism

Historical writers:

Metropolitan Hilarion (Alfeyev)

James H. Billington
Jaroslav Pelikan
Sergey Solovyov
Metropolitan Kallistos (Ware)

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33. History of the Copts of Egypt (http://www.copts.net/history.asp#arab)
34. History of THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE (http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.as
p?groupid=283&HistoryID=ab37)
35. History of BULGARIA (http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=aa
96)
36. Paroulakis, Peter H. The Greek War of Independence Hellenic International Press 1984
37. Altruistic Suicide or Altruistic Martyrdom? Christian Greek orthodox Neomartyrs: A Case Study
(http://www.myriobiblos.gr/texts/english/constantelos_altrouistic_4.html)
38. Tim Clancy (2007). Bosnia and Herzegovina: The Bradt Travel Guide (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=-WIEYZ-SMHEC&pg=PA23). Bradt Travel Guides. pp. 23–. ISBN 978-1-84162-
161-6.
39. Richard C. Frucht (2005). Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=lVBB1a0rC70C&pg=PA630). ABC-CLIO. pp. 630–.
ISBN 978-1-57607-800-6.
40. Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: Muslim-Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia during
World War I, by David Gaunt, 2006
41. The Forgotten Genocide: Eastern Christians, the Last Arameans, p.195, by Sébastien de
Courtois
42. Speros Vryonis, The Mechanism of Catastrophe: The Turkish Pogrom of September 6–7, 1955,
and the Destruction of the Greek Community of Istanbul, New York: Greekworks.com 2005,
ISBN 0-9747660-3-8
43. The pogrom greatly accelerated emigration of ethnic Greeks from the Istanbul region (the
former Constantinople), reducing the 200,000-strong Greek minority in 1924 to just over 5,000
in 2005. According to figures presented by Prof. Vyron Kotzamanis to a conference of unions
and federations representing the ethnic Greeks of Istanbul."Ethnic Greeks of Istanbul convene"
(http://www.hri.org/news/greek/apeen/2006/06-07-02.apeen.html#03), Athens News Agency, 2
July 2006.
44. Turkish parliament tries to avoid reopening Orthodox seminary|agency=Associated
Press|work=International Herald Tribune|date=20 September 2006 [2] (http://www.iht.com/articl
es/ap/2006/09/21/europe/EU_GEN_Turkey_Orthodox_School.php)
45. Twentieth Century Atlas – Historical Body Count (http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat0.htm
#Mongol)
46. Natalia Shlikhta (2004) "'Greek Catholic'-'Orthodox'-'Soviet': a symbiosis or a conflict of
identities?" in Religion, State & Society, Volume 32, Number 3 (Routledge)
47. It is no coincidence that in the entry on 'Orthodoxy' in the seventh volume of the Kratkaya
Evreiskaya Entsyklopedia, devoted to the Russian Orthodox Church (pp. 733–743), where
numerous examples are given of persecution of the Jews in Russia, including religious
persecution, no evidence is given of the direct participation of the church, either in legislative
terms or in the conduct of policy. Although the authors of the article state that the active role of
the Church in inciting the government to conduct anti-Jewish acts (for example in the case of
Ivan the Terrible's policy in the defeated territories) is 'obvious', no facts are given in their article
to support this. http://www.jcrelations.net/en/?id=787
48. Shlomo Lambroza, John D. Klier (2003) Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian
History, Cambridge University Press
49. "Jewish-Christian Relations" (http://www.jcrelations.net/en/?id=787), by the International
Council of Christians and Jews
50. It is no coincidence that in the entry on 'Orthodoxy' in the seventh volume of the Kratkaya
Evreiskaya Entsyklopedia, devoted to the Russian Orthodox Church (pp. 733–743), where
numerous examples are given of persecution of the Jews in Russia, including religious
persecution, no evidence is given of the direct participation of the church, either in legislative
terms or in the conduct of policy. Although the authors of the article state that the active role of
the Church in inciting the government to conduct anti-Jewish acts (for example in the case of
Ivan the Terrible's policy in the defeated territories) is 'obvious', no facts are given in their article
to support this. http://www.jcrelations.net/en/?id=787
51. Undoubtedly the Russian church can be criticised for its total submission to the State in the
Synodical period (after the abolition of the Patriarchage in the early eighteenth century), for its
inability to express an independent opinion and for its failure to demonstrate love for one's
neighbour and defence of the persecuted in accordance with the basic teachings of the Gospel:
unlike the Western church, the Russian Orthodox Church took no steps to protect the Jews. But
once again we must emphasise that unlike the Western churches, 'antisemitic policies were
not conducted in the name of the Russian Orthodox Church'.
http://www.jcrelations.net/en/?id=787
52. Solzhenitsyn breaks last taboo of the revolution Russia |Guardian Unlimited (https://www.thegu
ardian.com/russia/article/0,2763,881984,00.html)
53. Russian Jews charge Solzhenitsyn with altering history (http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/162
89/russian-jews-charge-solzhenitsyn-with-altering-history/)
54. Solzhenitsyn New Book, Soviet Repression, Jews – Johnson's Russia List 1-25-03 (http://www.
cdi.org/russia/johnson/7033-1.cfm)
55. Lydia Chukovskaya – Interview with Solzhentisyn about "200 Years Together" (http://www.ortho
doxytoday.org/articles/ChukovskayaSolzhenitsyn.htm)
56. President of Lithuania: Prisoner of the Gulag a Biography of Aleksandras Stulginskis by
Afonsas Eidintas Genocide and Research Center of Lithuania ISBN 9986-757-41-X /
9789986757412 / 9986-757-41-X pg 23 "As early as August 1920 Lenin wrote to E. M.
Skliansky, President of the Revolutionary War Soviet: "We are surrounded by the greens (we
pack it to them), we will move only about 10–20 versty and we will choke by hand the
bourgeoisie, the clergy and the landowners. There will be an award of 100,000 rubles for each
one hanged." He was speaking about the future actions in the countries neighboring Russia.
57. Christ Is Calling You: A Course in Catacomb Pastorship by Father Gheorghe Calciu-
Dumitreasa Published by Saint Hermans Press April 1997 ISBN 978-1-887904-52-0
58. History of the Orthodox Church in the History of Russia Dimitry Pospielovsky 1998 St
Vladimir's Press ISBN 0-88141-179-5 pg 291
59. A History of Marxist–Leninist Atheism and Soviet Antireligious Policies, Dimitry Pospielovsky
Palgrave Macmillan (December, 1987) ISBN 0-312-38132-8
60. Daniel Peris Storming the Heavens: The Soviet League of the Militant Godless Cornell
University Press 1998 ISBN 978-0-8014-3485-3
61. "Sermons to young people by Father Gheorghe Calciu-Dumitreasa. Given at the Chapel of the
Romanian Orthodox Church Seminary" (http://www.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/resources/ser
mons/calciu_christ_calling.htm). The Word online. Bucharest.
62. Twentieth Century Atlas – Historical Body Count p.2 (http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstatv.
htm#Martyrs)
63. Father Arseny 1893–1973 Priest, Prisoner, Spiritual Father. Introduction pg. vi – 1. St Vladimir's
Seminary Press ISBN 0-88141-180-9
64. The Washington Post "Anti-Communist Priest Gheorghe Calciu-Dumitreasa" by Patricia
Sullivan Washington Post Staff Writer Sunday, 26 November 2006; Page C09
https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/11/25/AR2006112500783.html
65. Ostling, Richard (24 June 2001). "Cross meets Kremlin" (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/ar
ticle/0,9171,150718,00.html). TIME Magazine. Retrieved 2007-07-03.
66. New York Times article on Shrine to Stalins killing fields (https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/08/
world/europe/08butovo.html?_r=2)
67. Van Christo. Albania and the Albanians. (https://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geo
cities.com/murati_kled/albanians.htm&date=2009-10-26+02:21:33)
68. Dumitru Bacu, The Anti-Humans. Student Re-Education in Romanian Prisons (http://litek.ws/k0
nsl/detox/anti-humans.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070927051409/http://litek.
ws/k0nsl/detox/anti-humans.htm) 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine, Soldiers of the Cross,
Englewood, Colorado, 1971. Originally written in Romanian as Pitești, Centru de Reeducare
Studențească, Madrid, 1963
69. Adrian Cioroianu, Pe umerii lui Marx. O introducere în istoria comunismului românesc ("On the
Shoulders of Marx. An Incursion into the History of Romanian Communism"), Editura Curtea
Veche, Bucharest, 2005
70. Dumitrica, Delia Despina. "Uniate vs. Orthodox: What Lays [sic] behind the Conflict?" (http://ww
w.jsri.ro/old/html%20version/index/no_3/delia_dumitrica-articol.htm).
71. Pg. 97 (https://books.google.com/books?id=2cP0wc_E6yEC&pg=PA96&lpg=PA96&dq=unia+a
nd+orthodox&source=web&ots=v4DV6M65pw&sig=dT2IG3shA3rePTXlY1ls1hSEklI#PPA97,
M1)
72. We are Orthodox from Czechoslovakia. God permitted for us to be greatly tested. We feel, He is
burning and testing us like gold in a crucible. We also feel, we are not like gold to survive this
fire without the help of God and support of our brothers throughout the world. We beg you
therefore to pray for us to the Lord and the Most Holy Theotokos, that Orthodoxy in
Czechoslovakia recover her freedom and equal rights with all the other Christian communities
and overcome her enemies. The Orthodox Faith was taught to us by the holy brothers Cyril and
Methodius in 863. After the repose of Saint Methodius, in 885, the latins expelled the Orthodox
priests from Great Moravia and destroyed all their works. Orthodoxy survived only in Carpathia,
in the east of our country. The Pope of Rome, unhappy of the fact that the Church (Orthodox)
continued to exist, instituted the Unia of Uzgorontzcy in 1649, in which of the 1,200 priests, they
allowed only 63.<!-not clear, can this be explained?--> For 300 years the Uniates worked
tirelessly to uproot Orthodoxy. Following World War II, people began to return en-masse to the
Orthodox Church, which became free again and powerful. But the years of happiness and
peace did not last. In 1968 God allowed the first test. The Country recognized the Unia (which
called itself "Greek Catholic Church"), which with the forbearance of the State started to torment
the Orthodox followers. They confiscated by force our churches and threw the priests with their
families to the street. And nobody came to our support. For a while we thought that everything
was finished.... However, our Lord and the Most Holy Theotokos had mercy on us and we did
not perish completely. The Uniates "allowed" us to continue our worship in our churches, which
however we had to share with them. Since then we continuously drink daily from the bitter cup
of hatred and malice. The devil however cannot rest, seeing that Orthodoxy still survived in
Czechoslovakia. He then unleashed the Uniates against us. They now demanded that we
hand over all our churches to them with all their wealth and heritage. If this happens then we
will have to worship on the street. What would then happen? The happenings of 885, 1649 and
1968? From past history we have bitter experience of the hardships that Rome visited upon us
through its Unia. Brothers we seek your help. Terminate all discussions with the Roman
Catholics as long as the Unia problem remains unresolved. Come to us and give us courage.
You and we are one body, the body of Christ. Let the world know about our suffering brought on
by the Uniates. They say they are Christians but are not. Christians have love for their fellow
man. Let the papists sent their church letters to the idolaters, not to the Orthodox of
Czechoslovakia and the Ukraine. Here live Christians and not idolaters. (Signed by Orthodox
dignitaries of Czechoslovakia). "Orthodox Kypseli" Publications – Thessalonika, Greece –
http://www.impantokratoros.gr/170832DE.en.aspx
73. Atrocities of the Uniate or Unia (http://www.impantokratoros.gr/B8D9F008.en.aspx)
74. "Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Belarus" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070622180859/http://mf
a.gov.by/eng/index.php?d=belarus&id=24). Archived from the original (http://www.mfa.gov.by/e
ng/index.php?d=belarus&id=24) on 2007-06-22. Retrieved 2007-06-13.
75. Interfax-Religion (http://www.interfax-religion.com/?act=news&div=3056)
76. "Orthodox Church Relations" (http://www.antiochian.org.au/content/category/7/30/21/).
77. "Second Chambesy Agreement of 1990" (http://orthodoxwiki.org/Agreed_Official_Statements_
on_Christology_with_the_Catholic_and_Eastern_Orthodox_Churches).
78. Agreed Official Statements on Christology with the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches –
OrthodoxWiki

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External links
OrthodoxWiki
Timeline of Church History
Orthodox Research Institute (http://www.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/)
List of most patriarchates (https://web.archive.org/web/20070701103901/http://www.hostkingdo
m.net/orthodox.html)
The Orthodox Tradition (https://web.archive.org/web/20090213224022/http://home.att.net/~serg
ei592/East.html)
Orthodox Tradition and the Liturgy (https://web.archive.org/web/20110119105305/http://www.sa
intsconstantineandelena.org/Liturgy/liturgy1.htm)
Eastern Orthodox Christianity (http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/denominations/orthodox
y.htm)
Directory of Orthodox Internet Resources (http://www.orthodoxlinks.info/)
Orthodox Library: History, Doctrine, Practices, Saints (http://www.lasvegasorthodox.com/orthod
ox-history.php)
Background information on the Orthodox Church (https://web.archive.org/web/2010110911442
9/http://www.slocc.com/orthodoxy/)
Orthodox Life Info Portal: catalog of resources (https://web.archive.org/web/20141218042648/ht
tp://orthodoxlife.info/)

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