General Chemistry Principles and Modern

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GENERAL CHEMISTRY
Principles and Modern Applications TENTH EDITION
PETRUCCI HERRING MADURA BISSONNETTE
Atoms and the

Atomic Theory 2
PHILIP DUTTON
UNIVERSITY OF WINDSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY AND
BIOCHEMISTRY
Slide 1 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

CONTENTS
Atoms and the
2-1 Early Chemical Discoveries and
Atomic Theory the Atomic Theory
2-2 Electrons and Other Discoveries
in Atomic Physics
2-3 The Nuclear Atom
2-4 Chemical Elements
2-5 Atomic Mass
2-6 Introduction to the Periodic Table
2-7 The Concept of the Mole and the
Avogadro Constant
2-8 Using the Mole Concept in
Calculations

2-1 Early Discoveries and the Atomic Theory
Lavoisier 1774 Law of conservation of mass
Proust 1799 Law of constant composition
Dalton 1803-1888 Atomic Theory

2-4 Copyright  2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
K2CrO4 Ag2CrO4
AgNO3
FIGURE 2-2 Mass is conserved during a chemical reaction
Total mass of substance is constant before and after reaction

Copyright  2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 2-6
Law of constant composition:
• All sample of a compound has same

composition- same proportion in masses
of its constituents.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. Each element is composed of indivisible

small particles called atoms. Atoms are
neither created nor destroyed in chemical
reactions.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical

and differ from all other elements
3. Compounds are formed when atoms of

more than one element combine in simple
numerical ratios.
If two elements form more than a single compound, the masses of one
element combined with a fixed mass of the second are in the ratio of
small whole numbers.
Law of multiple proportions:

• In forming carbon
monoxide, 1.0 g of carbon
combines with 1.33 g of
oxygen.
• In forming carbon dioxide,

1.0 g of carbon combines
with 2.66 g of oxygen.
Figure 2-3
Consequences of Dalton’s theory

2-2 Electrons and Other Discoveries
in Atomic Physics

FIGURE 2-5
Effect of a magnetic field on charged particles

Light
emitted
material
FIGURE 2-6
Cathode ray tube

FIGURE 2-7
In 1897 Thomson -Electron m/e = -5.6857 × 10-9 g coulomb-1

Thomson concluded that CRs are negatively charged
fundamental particles of matter found in all atoms.
Cathode rays and their properties
Figure 2-8
 From 1906-1914 Robert Millikan showed ionized oil drops can

be balanced against the pull of gravity by an electric field.
The charge is an integral multiple of the electronic charge, e.
Speculations about how the charged particles incorporated

atoms result atom models
Slide 15 of 27
Millikan’s oil-drop experiment Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
General Chemistry: Chapter 2
Thomson Model
Neutral atom
Ions carry net charge
Copyright  2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 2 - 16

X-Rays and Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission

of radiation from a substance.
• X-rays and g-rays are high-energy light.

• a-particles are a stream of helium nuclei,
He2+.
• b-particles are a stream of high speed
electrons that originate in the nucleus.
2 - 18 Copyright  2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
2-3 The Nuclear Atom
Geiger and Rutherford

1909
Figure 2-11
The scattering of  particles by metal foil

• Most of the mass and all of the positive
charge is concentrated in a small region
called the nucleus .
• There are as many electrons outside the

nucleus as there are units of positive
charge on the nucleus
Figure 2-12
The  -particle experiment

Rutherford Model:
• Most of the mass and all of the positive charge of an atom

centered in very small region called nucleus the rest is just
empty space
• The magnitude of positive charge differ from atom to atom and

the mass is half of the atomic weight of element
• There are same amount of electrons, equally number of nucleus

charge, occupy the outside of the nucleus. The atom as a whole
is electrically neutral.

Rutherford
protons 1919
James Chadwick
neutrons 1932
Figure 2-13
The nuclear atom – illustrated by the helium atom

Scale of Atoms
The heaviest atom has a mass of only 4.8 x 10-22 g

and a diameter of only 5 x 10-10 m.
Useful units:
• 1 amu (atomic mass unit) = 1.66054 x 10-24 kg

• 1 pm (picometer) = 1 x 10-12 m
• 1 Å (Angstrom) = 1 x 10-10 m = 100 pm = 1 x 10-8 cm
Biggest atom is 240 amu and is 50 Å across.

Typical C-C bond length 154 pm (1.54 Å)

2-4 Chemical Elements
To represent a particular atom we use symbolism:
A= mass number Z = atomic number

isotopes:
Atoms have same atomic number but different
mass number called isotopes.
Ne Z=10 but A=20, 21, 22
Natural Abundance?
Ions?

Determine Atomic Mass of Isotopes
Figure 2-14
A mass spectrometer and a mass spectrum

2-5 Atomic Mass
Weighted Average Equation (2.3)

Atomic Mass of an Element
fractional atomic fractional atomic

= abundance x mass of + abundance x mass of + ……
of isotope 1 isotope 1 of isotope 2 isotope 2
Aave = x1 x A1 + x2 x A2 + …… xn x An
where x1 + x2+ + xn = 1.0

Atomic Mass Unit(amu)
• Mass of 1/12 of 1 12C isotope is called
1amu
• Mass of all atoms are given with respect to
12C isotope.
• All mass number are not whole number
except C-12 isotope.

Alkali Metals The Periodic table Noble Gases
Alkaline Earths Main Group

Halogens
Transition Metals
Main Group Lanthanides and Actinides

2-7 The Concept of the Mole and the
Avogadro Constant
Physically counting atoms is impossible.

We must be able to relate measured mass to
numbers of atoms.
buying nails by the pound or kilogram.

using atoms by the gram

Avogadro constant, NA
• The mole is an amount of substance that

contains the same number of elementary
entities as there are carbon-12 atoms in
exactly 12 g of carbon-12.
NA = 6.02214179 x 1023 mol-1

2 - 34 Copyright  2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
Figure 2-17
One mole of an element

General Chemistry
Principles & Modern Applications
10th Edition
Petrucci/Herring/Madura/Bissonnette
Chapter 2
Atoms and the Atomic Theory
Dr. Wendy Pell

University of Ottawa
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
When a match burns its mass increases.
True or False, the only conclusion to be
drawn here is that the Law of Conservation
of Mass is incorrect?
1. True
2. False
3. Not sure?
Slide 39 of 23
When a match burns its mass increases.
True or False, the only conclusion to be
drawn here is that the Law of Conservation
of Mass is incorrect?
1. True
2. False
3. Not sure?
Slide 40 of 23
After 10 gram sample of lithium
metal is reacted in a closed
container with 44.32 g of chlorine
gas; 1.32 g of lithium remain, the
chlorine is consumed completely.
What mass of lithium chloride is
formed ?
1. 54.32 g
2. 8.68 g
3. 53.00 g
4. 55.64 g
Slide 41 of 23
After 10 gram sample of lithium
metal is reacted in a closed
container with 44.32 g of chlorine
gas; 1.32 g of lithium remain, the
chlorine is consumed completely.
What mass of lithium chloride is
formed ?
1. 54.32 g
2. 8.68 g
3. 53.00 g
4. 55.64 g
Slide 42 of 23
Given the diagram of a to the right,
- +
which of the following diagrams are
incorrect?
+ -
1. 2.
N S N
S
- + - +
- +
3. Both 1 and 2 are incorrect
Slide 43 of 23
which of the following diagrams are
incorrect?
+ -
1. 2.
N S N
S
- + - +
- +
3. Both 1 and 2 are incorrect
Slide 44 of 23
Which of the following statements is
incorrect using only the periodic table
to the right.
1. Argon is the heaviest atom.
2. The heaviest element in group
one is also the lightest element in
period 3.
3. The lightest gaseous element is He.
4. The heaviest gaseous element is Cl2.
5. The heaviest element in group 18 is also the heaviest element in period 1.
Slide 45 of 23
Which of the following statements is
incorrect using only the periodic table
to the right.
1. Argon is the heaviest atom.
2. The heaviest element in group
one is also the lightest element in
period 3.
3. The lightest gaseous element is He.
4. The heaviest gaseous element is Cl2.
5. The heaviest element in group 18 is also the heaviest element in period 1.
Slide 46 of 23
To the right is a portion of the
periodic table. Which of the following
statements is correct?
1. Mg2+, Al+ and Si all have the

same number of electrons.
2. H and He2+ have the same mass.
3. Li+, Be2+ and B3+ all have the same number of electrons.
4. Li+, Be2+ and B3+ all have the same number of protons.
5. H, Li and Na all have the same number of electrons.
Slide 47 of 23
To the right is a portion of the
periodic table. Which of the following
statements is correct?
1. Mg2+, Al+ and Si all have the

same number of electrons.
2. H and He2+ have the same mass.
3. Li+, Be2+ and B3+ all have the same number of electrons.
4. Li+, Be2+ and B3+ all have the same number of protons.
5. H, Li and Na all have the same number of electrons.
Slide 48 of 23
Bromine has two naturally occurring isotopes, bromine-79 and
bromine-81. Bromine exists as a diatomic compound, ie. Br2.
How many different Br2 molecules are possible and what are
their masses?
1. 2 different molecules: 158 and 162 u.
2. 3 different molecules: 158, 160, and 162 u.
4. 4 different molecules: 158, 159, 160 and 161 u.
5. 4 different molecules: 158, 160, 161, and 162 u.
Slide 49 of 23
Bromine has two naturally occurring isotopes, bromine-79 and
bromine-81. Bromine exists as a diatomic compound, ie. Br2.
How many different Br2 molecules are possible and what are
their masses?
1. 2 different molecules: 158 and 162 u.
4. 4 different molecules: 158, 159, 160 and 161 u.
5. 4 different molecules: 158, 160, 161, and 162 u.
Slide 50 of 23
Given the diagram below, which of the following statements is
incorrect?
1. The ion marked A

corresponds to m/z
204.
2. The ion marked A is
lighter than the ion
marked B.
3. The ion marked B B
corresponds to m/z 198. A
4. The ion marked A is the

lightest isotope of Hg.
Given the diagram below, which of the following statements is incorrect?
1. The ion marked A

corresponds to m/z 204.
2. The ion marked A is lighter

than the ion marked B. B
A
3. The ion marked B
corresponds to m/z 198.
4. The ion marked A is the

lightest isotope of Hg.
Slide 52 of 23
Without doing detailed calculations and using the periodic table to the
right, which of the following contains the greatest number of atoms?
1. 1.0 kg of hydrogen gas (ie. H2).

2. 1.0 kg of helium gas (ie. He).
3. 1.0 kg of water vapor (ie. H2O).
4. 1.0 kg of liquid water (ie. H2O).
5. 1.0 kg of nitrogen (ie. N2).
6. 1 kg of Aluminium metal (i.e Al)
Without doing detailed
calculations and using the
periodic table to the right, which
of the following contains the
greatest number of atoms?
1. 1.0 kg of hydrogen gas (ie. H2).
2. 1.0 kg of helium gas (ie. He).
3. 1.0 kg of water vapor (ie. H2O).
4. 1.0 kg of liquid water (ie. H2O).
5. 1.0 kg of nitrogen (ie. N2).
Without doing detailed calculations
and using the periodic table to the
right, which of the following samples
contain the least number of atoms?
1. 1.0 g of oxygen gas (ie. O2).

2. 1.0 g of sulphur (ie. S8).
3. 1.0 g of water vapor (ie. H2O).
4. 1.0 g of liquid water (ie. H2O).
Slide 55 of 23
Without doing detailed calculations
and using the periodic table to the
right, which of the following samples
contain the least number of atoms?
1. 1.0 g of oxygen gas (ie. O2).

2. 1.0 g of sulphur (ie. S8).
3. 1.0 g of water vapor (ie. H2O).
4. 1.0 g of liquid water (ie. H2O).
Slide 56 of 23
Hg gas has a density of roughly 14 g mL-1.
Without using a calculator, estimate the number
of Hg atoms in a 100 mL sample. NA = ~6x1023
mol-1 and the molar mass of Hg is ~200 g mol-1.
1. 1022 atoms 1023 atoms

Slide 57 of 23
Hg gas has a density of roughly 14 g mL-1.
Without using a calculator, estimate the number
of Hg atoms in a 100 mL sample. NA = ~6x1023
mol-1 and the molar mass of Hg is ~200 g mol-1.

Slide 58 of 23
The Snap Lake diamond mine in the North West
Territories, Canada, is expected to produce 1.5
million carats of diamond per year. Given that
naturally occurring diamond has density 0f 3.15 g
cm-3 to 3.53 g cm-3 and 1 carat = 200mg,
estimate, without using a calculator, the number
of C atoms mined in the form of diamond per
year. NA = ~6x1023 mol-1 and the molar mass of
C is ~12 g mol-1.

2. 1028atoms 1029 atoms

Slide 59 of 23
The Snap Lake diamond mine in the North West
Territories, Canada, is expected to produce 1.5
million carats of diamond per year. Given that
naturally occurring diamond has density 0f 3.15 g
cm-3 to 3.53 g cm-3 and 1 carat = 200 mg,
estimate, without using a calculator, the number
of C atoms mined in the form of diamond per
year. NA = ~6x1023 mol-1 and the molar mass of
C is ~12 g mol-1.

2. 1028atoms 1029 atoms

Slide 60 of 23

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PETRUCCI HERRING MADURA BISSONNETTE

Atoms and the

Slide 1 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Slide 2 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Lavoisier 1774 Law of conservation of mass

Proust 1799 Law of constant composition

Dalton 1803-1888 Atomic Theory

Slide 3 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

FIGURE 2-2 Mass is conserved during a chemical reaction

Total mass of substance is constant before and after reaction

Slide 5 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

• All sample of a compound has same

Copyright  2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 2-7

1. Each element is composed of indivisible

2. All atoms of a given element are identical

3. Compounds are formed when atoms of

Law of multiple proportions:

• In forming carbon dioxide,

Slide 10 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Slide 11 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Slide 12 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Slide 13 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

In 1897 Thomson -Electron m/e = -5.6857 × 10-9 g coulomb-1

 From 1906-1914 Robert Millikan showed ionized oil drops can

Speculations about how the charged particles incorporated

Ions carry net charge

Copyright  2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 2 - 16

Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission

• X-rays and g-rays are high-energy light.

Geiger and Rutherford

Slide 19 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

• There are as many electrons outside the

Slide 20 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

• Most of the mass and all of the positive charge of an atom

• The magnitude of positive charge differ from atom to atom and

• There are same amount of electrons, equally number of nucleus

Slide 21 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Slide 22 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

The heaviest atom has a mass of only 4.8 x 10-22 g

• 1 amu (atomic mass unit) = 1.66054 x 10-24 kg

Biggest atom is 240 amu and is 50 Å across.

Slide 24 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

To represent a particular atom we use symbolism:

A= mass number Z = atomic number

Slide 25 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Ne Z=10 but A=20, 21, 22

Slide 26 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Slide 27 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Weighted Average Equation (2.3)

fractional atomic fractional atomic

where x1 + x2+ + xn = 1.0

Slide 28 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Slide 29 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Alkaline Earths Main Group

Main Group Lanthanides and Actinides

Physically counting atoms is impossible.

buying nails by the pound or kilogram.

Slide 32 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

• The mole is an amount of substance that

NA = 6.02214179 x 1023 mol-1

Slide 33 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Slide 35 of 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Dr. Wendy Pell