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13.1 Introduction
Objectives
From Fig. 13.1, you can see that the reliability function is a non-increasing
function in time (t).
0 t 0
a
f (x)dx a f (x)dx c f (x)dx, a c b
or R(t) f (t) dt ... (10c)
t
Thus, we have
t
F(t) f (t) dt ... (11a)
0
and R(t) f (t) dt ... (11b)
t
If use of t within the integral sign as well as in the limits of the integral creates
confusion for you, then the variable t inside the integral sign can be changed to
any other dummy variable, say u. Then we can write F(t) and R(t) as:
t
F(t) f (u) du ... (11c)
0
and R(t) f (u) du ... (11d)
t
Fig. 13.3: Typical shape of failure density function and geometrical interpretation of F(t) and R(t).
P(A B)
P A B P(B) . If you want to refresh your
memory, you may refer to Unit 3of MST-003.
Using equation (12) and R(t) =P[T >t], weget
R(t) R(t t)
P t T t t T t
R t
Then the conditional probability of failure per unit time is given by
R(t) R(t t)
,
R(t)t
and instantaneous rate of failure at time t (i.e., hazard rate (t) ) is given by
R(t) R(t t) 1 R(t t) R(t)
(t) Lim lim
t 0 R(t)t R(t) t 0 t
1 d on using the definition of derivative;
R(t) refer to Unit 6 of MST-001.
R(t) dt
d d d
Since f (t) F(t) 1 R(t) R(t) ,
dt dt dt
d
R(t) f (t)
t dt ... (13)
R(t) R(t)
d
b dx f (x) b
t
ln R(t) 0 dx ln f (x) a
a f (x)
ln R(t) ln R(0)
ln R(t) ln1 R(0) 1
Reliability Theory
ln(R(t)) 0 ln(1) 0 and R(t) 0 t,
R(t) R(t)
ln R(t)
t
(t)dt ln R(t) … (20a)
0
t
(t )dt
R(t) e 0
ln a m a em
t
or R(t) exp (t)dt … (20b)
0
Note that if t is constant and t , then equation (20b) gives
R(t) e t ... (20c)
We now put together the relations between R(t), F(t), f(t) and (t) in
Table 13.1 as follows:
Table 13.1: Relationship between the Functions R(t), F(t), f(t) and (t)
R(t) F(t) f(t) λ(t)
t
R(t) – 1 – F(t) f (t)dt
exp (t)dt
t 0
t t
F(t) 1 – R(t) –
0
f (t)dt
0
1 exp (t)dt
t
d d
f(t) R(t) F(t) – (t) exp (t)dt
dt dt
0
d f (t)
d F(t)
lnR(t)
t
λ(t) –
f (t)dt
dt
dt 1 F(t)
0
Fig. 13.4: Times for which each of the 10 components operates successfully.
(t)dt
Since R(t) e 0
and lim x n e x 0 for n 1,
x
MTTF R(t)dt … (22)
0
To calculate MTTF, you should use equation (22) instead of equation (21),
because, in general, dealing with equation (22) is easier.
Note 1: If failure rate is constant, i.e., (t) , we have
t
dt
R t e 0
e t
et 1 1
MTTF R(t)dt e t dt
(0 1)
0 0 0
Reliability Theory 1 1
i.e. MTTF or Constant failure rate = … (23)
constant failure rate MTTF
Now, to obtain an expression for median of the random variable T, we have to
recall the definition of median from MST-002 or MST-003. Median is that
value of the variate which divides the distribution of the variate into two equal
parts. Therefore, if tmd denotes the median of the random variable T, then
R(t md ) P T t md 0.5
… (24)
Let us now consider a few examples to apply the concepts discussed in this
section to numerical problems.
Example 1: The failure density function of the random variable T is given by
0.012 e0.012t , t0
f (t)
0, otherwise
Calculate
i) Reliability of the component.
ii) Reliability of the component for a 100 hour mission time.
iii) Mean time to failure (MTTF).
iv) Median of the random variable T.
v) What is the life of the component if a reliability of 0.96 is desired?
Solution: Failure density function of the random variable T is given as
0.012 e0.012t , t0
f (t)
0, otherwise
i) From equation (11b), reliability is given by
R(t) f (t) dt 0.012e0.012t dt
t t
0.012 e0.012t
b ekt
b
e dt
kt
0.012 t a k a
e0.012t … (i)
ii) The reliability of the component for a 100 hour mission time is obtained
by replacing t by 100 in (i):
R(100) e0.012100 e1.2 0.3012
iii) We know from equation (22) that
e0.012t
MTTF R(t)dt e 0.012t
dt
0 0 0.012 0
1 1
0 1 83.3333
0.012 0.012
iv) Let tmd denote the median time to failure. Then from equation (24), we Introduction to
have Reliability
R(t md ) P T t md 0.5
f (t)dt 0.5
t md
t t 0.6 106 t 2 t
R(t) exp (t)dt exp 0.6 10 t dt exp
6
o 0 0
2
exp 0.3 106 t 2 0 exp 0.3 106 t 2
Now reliability of the component for the first two years is given by just
replacing t by 2. Therefore,
6 6
R(2) e0.310 22
e1.210
Example 3: Show that if the hazard rate of a component is constant, say ,
then the failure distribution of the component follows exponential distribution.
Also show that MTTF = 1/ .
Solution: We are given that the hazard rate of a component = constant = .
From equation (20b), we have
t t
(t)dt
dt
R(t) e 0
e 0
t constant
t 0
t
0 0 0 a k a
1
0 1 as t ,et 0
1
1 1
Hence MTTF
constant hazard rate
Note 2: Thus we see that if hazard rate = constant = = then
1 1
MTTF or .
MTTF
Now, you may like to solve the following numerical problems to obtain MTTF.
E3) Calculate MTTF using the information given in Example 2.
E4) If hazard rate of a component is 0.2 104 , then obtain MTTF.
Ns (10) 1000 167 833 167 components have failed within the
first10 hours of their operational life.
The other entries of this column are calculated in the same way.
Reliability Theory Calculations of Column 5
Entries in column 5 represent values of reliabilities at different points in time.
If R(t) denotes the reliability at time t, then by definition [equation (1)]
Ns (20) 717
R(20) 0.717
N0 1000
N f (20) 283
F(20) 0.283
N0 1000
In fact, entries of this column can simply be calculated by dividing the
corresponding entries of column 3 by 1000 (the total number of components in
the beginning).
Calculations of Column 7
Entries of this column represent values of failure density function at different
points of time. If f(t) denotes the value of failure density function at time t, then
from equation (16b), we have
d
N f (t)
f (t) dt
N0
N f (t t) N f (t)
Lim [by definition of derivative]
t N 0 t
Thus, approximate values of f(t) can be obtained from the expression
Nf (t t) Nf (t) Introduction to
f (t) , where t 10in this example Reliability
N0 t
N f (t 10) N f (t)
, where t 0,10, 20,30,..., and N 0 1000
10 1000
The first three entries of this column are calculated as follows:
In fact, entries of this column can simply be calculated by dividing the entries
of column 2 by 10000.
Calculations of Column 8
Entries of this column represent values of failure rate or hazard rate at different
points in time. If (t) denotes the value of failure rate at time t, then from
equation (17), we have
d
(N f (t))
(t) dt
N s (t)
N f (t t) N f (t)
Lim [by definition of derivative]
t 0 N s (t) t
N f (t t) N f (t)
(t) , where t 10 in this example
N s (t) t
N f (t 10) N f (t)
, where t = 0, 10, 20, 30, …,
10N s (t)
N f (30) N f (20) 98 98
(20) 0.0137
10 N s (20) 10 717 7170
13.6 SUMMARY
1. Definition of Reliability: Reliability of a component/device/equipment/
unit/system is the probability that it performs its intended function
adequately for a specified period of time under the given operating
conditions.
2. Reliability of a component/system when expressed in terms of time t is
known as reliability function and is generally denoted by R(t).
3. In reliability terminology, distribution function of the random variable,
time to failure (T), is known as cumulative failure distribution function.
4. In reliability terminology, probability density function of the random
variable, time to failure (T), is known as failure density function.
5. Instantaneous rate of failure at time t is known as the hazard rate function
at time t and is generally denoted by (t).
6. Some commonly used relations between R(t), F(t), f(t) and (t) are given
as follows:
t
R(t) 1 F(t) f (t) dt exp (t) dt
t 0
t
t
F(t) 1 R(t) f (t) dt 1 exp (t) dt
0 0
d d t
f (t) R(t) F(t) (t) exp (t) dt
dt dt 0
d
d F(t) f (t)
(t) lnR(t) dt
dt 1 F(t) t
f (t)dt
0
7. The bathtub curve has three phases known as Early Failure, Normal Life
and Wear out Failure.
13.7 SOLUTIONS/ANSWERS
E1) The definition of reliability is:
Reliability of a component/device/equipment/unit/system/ is the
probability that it performs its intended function adequately for a
specified period of time under the given operating conditions.
From the above definition, it is clear that the correct option is D.
E2) Reliability of a component/device/equipment/unit/system is the
probability that it performs its intended function. Being a probability, its
value will vary from 0 to 1. Hence, A is the correct option.
E3) In Example 2, we have calculated
6 2
R(t) e0.310 t
Introduction to
MTTF R(t) dt e0.310
6 2
t
dt Reliability
0 0
x
t
0.3 103
103 1
or dt dx
0.3 2 x
Also, when t 0, x 0
and when t , x
103 103
MTTF e x
x 1/ 2
dx x1/ 21 e x dx
0 2 0.3 2 0.3 0
103 1
1.0954 2
n
0
x n 1e x dx, n 0
107 1
10954 2
1
MTTF .
1 104 105
MTTF 50000
0.2 104 0.2 2
E5) When a population of identical components is put to test, the failure rate
of the components starts increasing due to ageing of the components. In
the bathtub curve, this phase is known as wear out. Hence the correct
option is (C).
E6) We know that in the phase of the useful life of a population of identical
components, hazard rate = constant and constant hazard rate implies that
the distribution of failures follows the exponential distribution. Hence,
(A) is the correct alternative.
E7) Here the number of components under test is small in size. So we can
record the failure time of each component easily, which is given in Table
13.5. Calculations of the entries of different columns have already been
explained in Example 4 with necessary clarifications. You can follow
similar steps and calculate the entries of different columns of Table 13.5.
It is a small exercise given to you for practice.
Reliability Theory Table 13.5: Estimation of R(t), F(t), f(t) and λ (t)
Time Reliability Cumulative Failure Density Hazard Rate
Cumulative
Number of
Number of
Survivors
Failure Function
Failures
Failures
Distribution
E8) This statement is false because we know that if we have failure data of
each component of the sample under test then data thus obtained are
known as complete failure data, while failure data set is said to be
censored if the test is not allowed to run until all n components fail due to
one reason or another.