Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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IPower System Analysi~ and Stability -, .1-·
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16th Sem EE
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e-Notes by Dr.M.S.Ravillrakasha, Malnad Collge of Engg., Hassan
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CONTENTS(CHAPTER_WISE)
PROGRAMME SCHEDULE:
SYMMETRICAL THREE PHAS5 FAULTS
14 Hrs. (8 + 6 Hrs.) of Class by Dr. MS Raviprakasha,MCE. Hassan:
13 Hrs. (9 + 4 Hrs.) of Class by Dr. GK Purushothama.MCE, Hassan:
B Hrs. of Class by Dr. H Umarao, RNSIT. Bangalore
3 Classes per week: Man (2 pm), Thu (11 am) & Fri (11 am) .• Transients on a Transmission line
Short Circuit of Unloaded Syn. Machine Iv
Plus 3 concluding sessions to discuss on solutions to the recent question papers of VTU.
VIEEE class on the selected subject of PSA&S (EE61). Short Circuit Reactances
Sort Circuit Current Oscillogram
Short Circuit of a Loaded machine
Examples
.
Chapter 3
.'
I
:
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
:
What are SymmetricalComponents?
Resolutionof components, Neutral Shift ,
Phase shift in Y-lJ.Transformer Banks
f Power.in terms of Symmetrical Components
Sequence Imps. & Sequence Networks
.
PS- I ,
Sequence Networks of system elements
Examples
Chapter 4
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UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS
~-""'"
"'' ' ,"'',,. " I , .. ----'1-
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Cha[!ter 5 - SLD/OLD
STABILITY STUDIES
Representation ot Power
1. • Rel;lct.llmp. Diagram
systems
- per unit Systems
Basic Stabilityterms
Swing Equation & Swing Curve
PowerAngle Equation
-
Equal Area Criterion
Determinationof Stability of a System - Generation - Machines
Examples
- Transmission Trans-
2.
Electric Power System
- Distribution formers
.
I - Utilization- Tariffs
I ;KE;!<I!;Q Em!;RN QF QU;§TIQN EAP!:B I
~
One question each on chapter 1 and 2 And Two questions each on chapters 3. 4 and 5. Note:
I Five questions oUiot 8 are to be answered in full. 1
- Sym. Faults
TEXTS/REFERENCES: - Sym. Components
Fault studies
1. WD Stevenson, Elements of Power System Analysis. MH. 3.
- Seq. Imps. I Networks
2. IJ Nagrath and DP Kothari, modern Power System analysis, TMH ..
3. Hadi Sadat: Power System Analysis, TMH - UnsymmetricalFaults
4. GL Kusic: Computer aided PSA, PHI
PREREQUISITE SUBJECTS:
,
Linear Graph Theory
5. (Linear Equations) • Incidence Matrices
""'''''''''!I'lf :I I I I
,---- .s.
r-- . _2
- Framesof Reference
Present Scenario ......
,
- Singularl NS Transformations
- CompensationDevices,
: - Optimality
i
- Load Prediction: Short,
,: 8. Gen. Expansion Planning
Medium and Long Term
Forecasting
.
!
I fI::.
, I
-EMS: EMC, SLDC.RLDC
I
i 9. Operation and Control -ALFC. Voltage Control
-Tie..JinePower Control
,
System
I 10.
- Requirements
Reliability - Methods
~ - Unit Commitment
- Constraints
- _.
- -
i
., I~ ,"'," ,., ' OM' ~"r II I I
4
.
.. " • ,
•
-----------------------------------------------.------,--------------------~----~-----------------------------------------------------------------------,1
_______________________________ _1OL ~ _,
-J'-\01'OR. @ _; &eneyabl ®
',,<a..~10'l)n)e~ " 'Z.-\l'l:Y\6..t~ ~t
- AI. Expert Systems '.~''''\~''~''''1\'t--
Recent Computer 2.o'oNe.'( c.:i'(u..i\:- 'c'lo._,~'1 -G--
- ANN. Genetic Algorithms
20. Applications
- Fuzzy Logic
3~ 'D.J."co.', A } ~-\"a."I,'. 'I
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Figure 1. TABLE OF SYMBOLS FOR USE ON SLDS
Example system
Consider for illustration purpose, a sample example power system and data as under: Generator
1: 30 MVA, 10.5 KV, X"= 1.6 ohms, Generator 2: 15 MVA, 6.6 KV, 'X"= 1.2 ohms, Generator 3:
CHAPTER 1 25 MVA, 6.6 KV, X"= 0.56 ohms, Transformer 1 (3-phase): 15 MVA, 33/11 KV, X=15.2
ohms/phase on HT side, Transformer 2 (3-phase): 15 MVA, 33/6.2 KV, X=16.0 ohms/phase on
REPRESENTATION OF POWER SYSTEMS HT side, Transmission Line: 20.5 ohms per phase, Load A: 15 MW, 11 KV, 0.9 PF (lag); and Load
B: 40 MW, 6.6 KV, 0.85 PF (laq), The corresponding SLD incorporating the standard symbols can
[CONTENTS: One line diagram. impedance diagram, reactance diagram, per unit quantities, per unit be shown as in figure 2.
I..n
impedance diagram, formation of bus admittance & impedancematrices,examples]
In practice. electric power systems are very complex and their size is unwieldy. It is very difficult to
represent all the components of the system on a single frame. The complexities could be in terms
of various types of protective devices, machines (transformers, generators, motors, etc.), their
connections (star, delta, etc.), etc. Hence, for the purpose of power system analysis, a simple
single phase equivalent circuit is developed called, the one line diagram (OLD) or the single line
diagram (SLD). All SLD is thus, the concise form of representing a given power system. It is to be
noted that a given SLD will contain only such data that are relevant to the system analysis/study
under consideration. For example, the details of protective devices need' not be shown for load
flow analysis nor it is necessary to show the details of shunt values for stability studies, '
IMPEDANC~DIAGRAM
It is observed here, that the generators are specified in 3-phase MVA, L-L voltage and per phase Y_,
equivalent impedance, transformers are specified in 3-phase MVA, L-L voltage transformation ratio and per
phase Y-equivalent impedance on anyone side and the loads are specified In 3-phase MW, L-L voltage
and power factor.
The impedance diagram on single-phase basis for use under balanced conditions can be easily
drawn from the SLD. The following assumptions are made in obtaining the impedance diagrams.
Assumptiors: ,
'1. The sindle phase transformer equivalents are shown as ideals with impedances on appropriate side
(LV/HV), .
2, The magnetizing reactancesof transformersare negligible,
3, The generators are representedas constantvoltage sourceswith series resistance or reactance,
4. The transmission lines are approximatedby their equivalent n-Models, ,
5. The loads are assumed to be passive and are represented by a series' branch,of resistance or
reactance and .
6. Since the balanced conditions are assumed, the neutral grounding impedances do not appear in the
impedance diagram.
Example system
As per the list of assumptions as above and with reference to the. system of figure 2, the
impedance diagram can be obtained as shown in figure 3.
•
,------------
1.3 Reactance Diagram Normally the nominal voltage of lines and equipment is known along with the complexpower rating in MVA.
Hence, in practice, the base values are chosen for complex power (MVA) and line voltage (KV). The
chosen base MVA is the same for all the parts of the system. However, the base voltage is chosen with
reference to a particular section of the system and the other base voltages (with reference to the other
With some more additional and simplifying assumptions, the impedance diagram can be simplified
sections of the systems, these sections caused by the presence of the transformers)are then related to the
further to obtain the corresponding reactance diagram. The following are the assumptions made. chosen one by the turns-ratio of the connecting transformer.
Additional assumptions:
If I, is the base current in kilo amperes and Vb, the base voltage in kilovolts, then the base MVA is, S. =
»0 The resistance is often omitted during the fault analysis. This causes a very negligible error since. (V,I.). Then the base values of current & impedance are given by
resistances are negligible
,
»
Loads are Omitted
Transmission line capacitancesare ineffecUve &
Base current (kA), Ib = MVAb/KVb
)0 Magnetizingcurrents of transformersare neglected.
(1.1)
Example system Base Impedance, Zb. (Vol'.)
as per the assumptions given above and with reference to the system of figure 2 and figure 3, the
reactance diagram can be obtained as shown in figure 4. = (KV.2 I MVA.) (1.2) r
Hence the per unit impedanceis given by
In 3-phase systems, KVb is the line-to-line value & MVAb is the 3-phase MVA. [1-phase MVA = (1/3) 3-
phase MVAj. • •
It is observed from equation (3) that the pu value of impedance is proportionaldirectlyto the base MVA and
i~versely to the square of the base KV. If Zpunew is the pu impedance required to be calculatedon a new
Note: These impedance & reactance diagrams are also refered as the Positive SequenceDiagrams!
-- Networks.' . set ofbase values: MVAbnew & KVbnew from the already given per unit impedanceZpuold, specified on
the old set of base values, MVAboid & KVbold , then we have
1.4 Per Unit Quantities Zpunew = Z.:1d (MVA.....'MVA.. "') (KV"""KV,,"")2 (1.4)
during the power system analysis, it is a usual practice to represent current, voltage, impedance,
power, etc., of an electric power system in per ~nit or percentage of the b.as~~r reference value of
the respective quantities. The numerical per Unit (pu) value of any quantity IS.ItSratio to a chosen On the other hand, the change of base can also be done by first converting the given pu
base value of the same dimension. Thus a pu value is a normalized quantity with respect to the: impedance to its ohmic value and then calculating its pu value on the new set of base values.
chosen base value. '.
Merits and Demerits of pu System
Definition: Per Unit value of a given quantity is the retia of the ectusl value in any given'unit to the base:
value in the same unit. The percent value is 100 times the pu value. Both the pu 'and percentage methods Follo"Yingare the advantages and disadvantages of adopting the pu system of computations in electric
are simpler than the use of actual values. Further, the main advantage in ,using the pu system of power systems:
computationsis that the result that comes out of the sum, product,quotient, etc. of two or more pu values is
expressed in per unit itself.
In an electrical power system, the parametersof interest include the current, voltage, complex power (VA), Merits:
impedance and the phase angle. Of these. the phase angle is dimensionless and the other four.quantities.
can be described by knowing any two of them. Thus clearly, an arbitrary choice of any two base values will . l> The pu value is the same for both t-phase and & 3-phase systems
evidently fix the other base values. l> The pu value once expressed on a proper base, will be the same when refereed to either
side of the transformer. Thus the presence of transformer is totally eliminated
)0 The variation of values is in a smaller range 9nearby unity). Hence the errors involved in pu
computationsare very less.
---------------- ~z~ ~------------,
Usuallythe nameplateratingswill be marked in pu on the base of the name plate ratings, etc.
Of the various network matrices refered above, the bus admittance matrix (Yaus) and the bus
impedance matrix (Zeus) are determined for a given power system by the rule of inspection as
Demerits: explained next.
:.. If proper bases are not chosen,then the resulting pu values may be highly absurd (such as 5.8 pu, - i
18.9 pu, etc.). This may cause confusion to the user. However, this problem can be avoided by
1 Rule of Inspection
.selectirlQthe base MVA near the high-ratedequipment and a convenient·base KV in any section of
the system.
Consider the 3-node admittance network as shown In figureS. Using the basic branch relation: I =
(YV), for all the elemental currents and applying Kirchhoff's Current Law principle at the nodal
1.5 pu Impedance {Reactance Diagram points, we get the relations as under:
for a given power system with all its data with regard to the generators, transformers, transmission At node 1: I, =y,v, + Ya (V,-Va) + Ys (V, - V2)
lines, loads, etc., it is possible to obtain the corresponding impedance or reactance diagram as At node 2: 12 =Y2V2 + Ys (V2-Va) + Ye (V2 - VI)
explained above. If the parametric values are shown in pu on the properly selected base values of
At node 3: 0 = Ya (Va-V,) + YN3 + Ys (V3 - V2) •
(1.8)
the system, then the diagram is refered as the per unit impedance orreactance diagram. In
forming a pu diagram, the following are the procedural steps involved: .
1. Obtain the one line diagram based on the given data
2. Choose a common base MVA for the system
3. Choose a base KV in anyone section(Sectionsformed by the presence of transformers)
4. Find the base KV of all the sections present .
5. Find pu values of all the parameters:R,X, Z, E, etc.
6. Draw the pu impedance!reactancediagram.
The performance equations of a given power system can be considered In three different frames' These are the performance equations of the given network in admittance form and they can be
represented in matrix form as:
of reference as discussed below: .
Frames of Reference:
(Y,+Ya +Y6) -Y6
Bus Frame of Reference: There are b independentequations (b = no. of buses) relating the bus vectors of:
-Y6 (Y2+YS +Ys)
currents and voltages through the bus impedancematrix and bus admittance matrix:
-Ya -Ys (1.9)
EBus = ZBUS IBUS
In other words, the relation of equation (9) can be represented in the form
IBUS = YBUS Esus (1.S) laus = Y BUS EBus (1.10)
Branch Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of branches of a selected Tree
W~ere, YBUS Is the bus admittance matrix, leus & EBus are the bus current and bus voltage vectors
sub-graph of the system Graph) relating the branch vectors of currents and voltages through the branch respectively.
impedance matrix and branch admittance matrix: .
EBR = ZeR IBR By observing the elements of the bus admittance matrix, Yaus of equation (9), it is observed that
the matrix elements can as well be obtained by a simple inspection of the given system diagram:
(1.6) Diagonal elements: A diagonal element (YII) of the bus admittance matrix, Yaus. is equal to the
sum total of the admittance values of all the elements Incident at the b,us/node i,
Loop Frame of Reference: There are b independentequations (b = no. of branches of a selected Tree sub-
graph of the system Graph) relating the branch vectors of currents and voltages through the branch Off Diagonal elements: An off-diagonal element (Y;i) of the bus admittance matrix, YBUS, is equal to
impedance matrix and branch admittance matrix: . the negative of the admittance value of the connecting element present between the buses I and j,
if any,
This is the prlnctple of the rule of inspection. Thus the algorithmic equations for the rule of
inspection are obtained as:
(1.7)
Y;;= EY;j (j = 1,2, n)
Y;j = -y;J (j = 1,2, n) (1.11)
'--------------------------------------~--~-------j
.. .. .
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i ='1 .2, ... ~', n = no. of buses of the given system, Y;j is the admittance of-element connected
between buses i and j and y;;is the admittance of element connected between bus i and ground
(reference bus).
In cases where, the bus impedance matrix is also required, then it cannot be formed by direct
inspection of the given system diagram. However, the bus admittance matrix determined by the
rule of inspection following the steps explained above. can be inverted to 'obtain the bus
impodanc~ matrix, since the two matrices are inter-invertible. Note: It is to...be noted that the rule
of inspecti1n can be applied only to those power systems that do not have any mutually coupled
elements. . .
rI
1.7 Examples
Problem #1: Obtain the bus admittance matrix for the admittance network shown aside by the rule of
inspection
(I)
CD'.., 4(f??~
'-,...
. S 4 .
" @> .
Problem #2: Obtain YBUS and Zeus matrices for the Impedance network Sh:o";"naside by the rule of
Inspection.Also. determine Yeusfor the reduced network after eliminatingthe eligltlle unwanted node. Draw
the resulting reduced system diagram.
-9.8 5 4
Y.us = j 5 -16 10
4 10 -14
,
L ~~ ~
I """"''''''II'',r
x, =X" = j 0.1 (100/50) (6.6/6.31)' = j 0.219 pu.
Xllou "j 20 (100/1102) • j 0.1652 pu.
[~.., ......;o._e".~are:
= 1.0LO" = = 1.045'::0°pu
E, pu, Em (6.6/6.31)
I Cetcutetion of ou velues:
Figure P2(b). Per Unit Reactance Diagram .)(" =X" = j 0.1 (30/35)(13.2/13.8)' = j 0.0784 pu.
Xli,. = j SO(30/120.232) = j 0.17 pu.
The one line diagramwith the data is obtained as shown In figure P3(a).
""'-
"", '2.0""'11;
Figure P3(b). Per Unit Reactance Diagram
,
'5 \<\.")
(I'l.:L.D Problem #4:
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\0 ~".\- A 33 MVA. 13.8 KV, 3-phase generator has a sub transient reactance of 0.5%. me generator supplies a
motor through a step-up transformer - transmission line - step-downtransformer arrangement.The motor
has rated input of 25 MVA at 6.6 KV with 25% sub transient reactance. Draw the equivalent per unit
impedance diagram by selecting 25 MVA (34)).6.6 KV (LL) as base values in the motor circuit. given the
transformer and transmission line data as under:
Figure P3(a). OLD of the given system
Step up transformer bank: three single phase units•.connected e,-y. each rated 10 MVA, 13.2/6.6 KV with
7.7 % leakage reactance and 0.5 % leakage resistance;
. Selection of base quantities:
Transmission line: 75 KM long with a positive sequence reactance of 0.8 ohm! KM and a resistance of 0.2
ohm! KM; and
30 MVA. 13.S KV in the generator circuit (Given);
"
1---- - -.- --.---- ----- ..._.. _24___. ... . . --I
I Step down transformer bank: three single phase units, connected 6-Y, each rated 8.33 MYA, 110/3.B8 KV
i with 8% leakage reactance and 0.8 % leakage resistance; ••
I Solution_; . I
The 0119 line diagram with the data is obtained as shown in figure P4(a), 1
. f]_9_l!~~ I?~(~J.:
I Per Unit Reactance Diagram
!
1.8 Exercises for Praclice
problems
1. Determine the reactances of the three generators rated as follows on a common base of 200 MVA, 35
KV: Generator 1: 100 MVA, 33 KV, sub transient reactance of 10%: Generator 2: 150 MVA, 32 KV, sub
T,: 3(10) = 30 MYA, 13.2166.4-./3 KY = 13.2/115 KY, X = 0.077, R = 0.005 pu. transient reactance of 8% and Generator 3: 110 MVA, 30 KY, sub transient{eactance of 12%.
T,: 3(8.33) = 25 MYA, 1101 3.98-./3 KY = 110/6.8936 KY, X = 0.08, R = 0.008 pu, [Answers: XG, = j 0.1778, Xg, = j 0.089, Xg, = j 0.16 all in per unit]
,
Selection of base quantities: 2. A 100 MVA, 33 KV, 3-phase generator has a sub transient reactance Of 15%. The. generator supplies 3
motors through a step-up transformer - transmission line - step-down transformer arrangement. The motors
25 MYA, 6.6 KV in the motor circuit (Given); the voltage bases in other sections are: 6.6 (110/6.8936) =, have rated inputs of 30 MVA, 20 MVA and 50 MVA, at 30 KY with 20% sub transient reactance each. The
105.316 KV in the transmission line circuit and 105.316 (13.21115) = 12.09 KV in the generator circuit.
3-phase transformers are rated at 100 MVA, 32 KV-A /110 KY-Y with 8 % leakage'l'eactance. The line has
a reactance of 50 ohms. By selecting the generator ratings as base values in the generator circuit,
determine the base values in all the other parts of the system. Hence evaluate the corresponding pu values
Calculation of pu values: and draw the equivalent per unit reactance diagram.
Xm ,- j 0.25 pu: Em= 1.0LOo pu. [Answers: XG = j 0.15, Xm, = j 0.551, Xm, = j 0.826, Xm3= j 0.331, E.,=1.0 LOO, Em,= Em' = Em' =
0.91 LOO,X" = X12 = j 0.0775 and X'no = j 0.39 all in per unit)
XG = j 0.005 (25/33) (13.8/12.09)2 = j 0.005 pu: E. = 13.8/12.09 = 1.414LOO pu..
Z" = 0.005 + j 0.077 (25/30) (13.2/12.09), = 0.005 + J 0.0765 pu. (ref. to LV side) I
3. A 80 MVA, 10 KV, 3-phase generator has a sub transient reactance of 10%. The generator supplies a
Z,2 = 0.008 + j 0.08 (25/25) (110/105.316)' = 0.0087 + j 0.0873 pu. (ref. to HV side)
motor through a step-up transformer - transmission line - step-down transformer arrangement. The motor
Z"c.. = 75 (0.2+j 0.8) (25/105.316') = 0.0338 + j 0.1351 pu. has rated Input of 95 MVA, 6.3 KV with 15% sub transient reactance. The $tep-up 3-phase transfonmer is
rated at 90 MYA, 11 KV-Y /110 KV-Y with 10% leakage reactance. The 3~phase step-down transformer
consists of three single phase Y-A connected transformers, each rated at 33.33 MVA, 68/6.6 KY with 10%
leakage reactance. The line has a reactance of 20 ohms. By selecting the 11 KV, 100 MVA as base values
I Thus the p1reactance diagram can be drawn as shown in figure P4(b). in the generator circuit, detenmine the base values in all the other parts of the system. Hence evaluate the
corresponding pu values and draw the equivalent per unit reactance diagram.
L_~ . ----.J
[Answers: XG=j 1.103, x, =j 0.165, Eg,=0.91 LOo, Em= 1.022LOo, X" =jO.ll,
= j 0.17
all in per unit]
X12 =jO.114and Xlin•
-'" , "'rI'lr
r-·---·--_·, . -- 2(;
_
..
I d) All of the above
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4. For the three·phase system shown below, draw an impedance diagram expressing all Impedances in per r 4.
unit on a common base of 20 MVA, 2600 V on the HV side of the transformer. Using this Impedance Which of the following loss In a transformer Is zero even at full load?
diagram, find the HV and LV currents.
a) Eddy current ..
b) Hysteresis
c) Core loss
I
I d) Friction loss
5. The transmission line conductors are transposed to
,
,
2.'0£'-
'Jo-b
~~~'7 .:
(p.lt~~~~
tiiJ ·
LO
($"o~t)
., a)
b)
Balance the current
[Answers:
s, = 20 MVA; Vb=2.6 KV (HV) and 0.2427 KV (LV); VI=1.0LOO,XI = j 0.107, Z~bl. = 0.136
+j 0.204 and Z'o,' = 5.66 + j 2.26,1 = 0.158 all in per unit, I (hv)« 0.7 A and I (Iv) = 7.5 A]
I
I
I
.
Qbjective tYol! 9yestions
~
1. Under
a)
t load conditions the current in a transmission line is due to.
Corona effects
b) Capacitance of the line
a) ". Model
I b) T - Model
I
I
c) Both (a) and (b)
a) I' R loss
b) Shunt admittance
- -
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l c) Series impedance
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;----------------------------------------------------------------------~------------------------------------,
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C-H-A--'P"'TE-R--2------------------1
SYMMETRICAL
THREEPHASEFAULTS
2,1 Preamhle II Thus the line can be modeled by a lumped R-L series circuit. Let the short circuit take place at t=O. The
parameter, a controls the instant of short circuit on the voltage wave. From basic circuit theory, it is
observed that the current after short circuit is composed of the two parts as under: 1=i. +1" Where, i. is the
steadystate current and i, is the transient current. These component currents are determined as follows.
in practice, any disturbance in the normal working conditions is termed as a FAULT. The effect of fault is to
load the device electrically by many times greater than its normal rating and thus damage the equipment Consider, v = Vm sin (cot+a)
involved. Hence all the equipment in the fault line should be protected from being overloaded. In general,
overloading involves the increase of current up to 10-15 times the rated value. In a few cases, like Ihe
= iR + L (dildt)
opening or closing of a circuit breaker, the transienl voltages also may overload the equipment anc damage and i= 1m sin (mt+a-9)
them.
Where
(2'1)
Thus i, = [Vm/Z] sin «(l)t+a-9)
(2.~
In order to protect the ~quipment during faults, fast acting circuit breakers are put in the lines. To design the
rating of these circuit breakers or an auxiliary device, the fault current has to be predicted. By considering Consider the performance equation of the circuit of figure 1 under circuit as:
the equivalent per unit reactance diagrams, the various faults can be analyzed to determine the fault
parameters. This helps In the protection and maintenance of the equipment. - IR + L (dVdt) .. 0
times the rated value equally In all the three phases. For example, a 3-phase fault - a dead short circuit of V.l (2.6)
all the three lines not involving the -ground. On the other hand, the unsymmetricaUaults may have the
connected fault quantities In a random way. However, such unsymmetrical faults can be analyzed by using Where, (= UR) is the time constant and C, is a constant given by the value of steady state current at t = O.
the Symmetrical Components. Further, the neutrals of the machines and equipment mayor may not be Thus we have,
grounded or the fault may occur through fault impedance. The three-phase fault involving ground is the
C, =-is(O)
most severe fault among the various faults encountered in electriC power systems.
=- [Vm/Z] sin (o.-El)
i, ; -is(O) e(-v'l
Now, let us Consider a transmission line of resistance R and inductance L supplied by an ac source of
voltage v, such that v = Vm sin (mt+«) as shown in figure 1'. Consider the short circuit transient on this ; [V..,IZI sin (9-0.) e(·RILI' (2.8)
transmission line. In order to analyze this symmetrical 3-phase fault, the following assumptions are made:
Thus the total current under short circuit is given by the solution of equation (1) as [combining equations (4)
I l>
l>
The supply is a constant voltage source,
The short circuit occurs when the line is unloaded and and (8)),
l> The line capacitance is negligible.
i ;i, +1,
I I
l
= [v2V/Z] sin (et+c-a) ,+ [v2V/Z) sin (0-0.) e(-RlL~ (2.9)
"""" '''''''Wlr II I
., I
I Thus, ~-the sinus:dal steady state curre~:':::
x, = X. +X, (2.13)
Where Xd is called as the direct axis synchronof,lS reactance of the synchrondus machine. Consider now a
sudden Ihree-phase short circuit of the synchronous generator on nO-load.IJhe machine experiences a
transient in all the 3 phases, finally ending up in steady state conditions.
i",,,, = 2 [V2V/Zj
(2.12)
Thus it is observed that the maximum momentary current is twice the maximum value of symmetrical short
circuit current. This is refered as the doubling effect of the short circuit current du'ring the symmetrical fault
on a transrnjssion line. .
f ~e~ words, X.Wgets open circuited from the model of Figure 5 to yield the model as shown in figure 4.-l
us the equivalent reactance is given by:
In the analysis of section 2.3 above, it has been assumed that the machine o~eratesat no load prior to the
occurrenceof the faull. On similar lines, the analysis of the fault occurring on a loadedmachinecan also be
considered.
Figure 5. Model during transient Period of Short Circuit
Figure 7 gives the circuit model of a synchronous generator operating under steady state conditions
supplying a load current I, to the bus at a terminal voltage V,. E, is the induced emf under the loaded
conditions and X, is the direct axis synchronousreactance of the generator.
Thus the machine offers a time varying reactance during short circuit and this value of reactance varies
from initial stage to final one such that: Xd > Xd' > Xd'
Also shown in figure 7, are the circuit models to be used for short circuit current calculationswhen a fault
occurs at the terminals of the generator, for sub-transientcurrent and transient cutrent values. The induced
emf values used in these models are given by the expressions as under:
. '.s. <l\l
t<.J.£. .
. vlLL..u.,
The synchronousmotors will also have the terminal emf values and reactances. However,then the current
direction is reversed. During short circuit studies, they can be replaced by circuit models similar to those
shown in figure 7 above, except that the voltages are given by the relations as under:
"'"''''''''''11'''
Em = V, - j 'LX. = Voltage behind syn. reactance
Z = R + jeol = 5 + j (1001<)(0.1) = 5 + j 31.416 ohms.
Em'= V, - j ILX.'= Voltage behind translant reactance
I
Thus we have: Zmag=31.8113Ohms; 9=80.957° and 't=LlR=0.1/5=0.02 seconds.
Em"= V, - j 'LXd'= Voltage behind subtr. Reactance (2.18) The short circuit current is given by:
i(t) = [V",/Z] sin (Olt+a-9) + [Vm/Z] sin (8-a) e.(RlL)1
The circuit models shown above for the synchronousmachines are also very useful while dealing with the = [100/31.8113] [sin (1001tt+150-80.9570) + sin(80.9570-150) e~vo.021
short circuit of an interconnectedsystem.
= 3.1435 sin(314.16 t - 65.96) +2.871 e-501
Thus we have:
where t is the time instant of maximum of symmetrical short circuit current. This instant occurs at
For selection of circuit breakers, the maximum momentary current is considered.corresponding to its (314.16 te - 65.96°) = 90°; Solving we get, t = 0.00867 seconds so that imm= 5 Amps.
maximum possible value. Later, the current to be interrupted is usually taken as symmetrical short circuit
current multiplied by an empirical factor in order to account for the DC off-set current. A value of 1.6 is
usually selected as the multiplyingfactor.
Normally, both the generator and motor reactances are used to determine the momentary current flowing
ii) imm= 2Vm/Z = 6.287 A; for a=O, and 8=90°
iii) DC offset current = [Vm/Z] sin (tl-a) eJR/L)1
= zero, if (8-a) = zero, i.e., 8 = a,
(Also, imm= 2 (3.1435)
or a
t
= 6.287 A)
= 80.9 70
on occurrence of a short circuit. The interrupting capacity of a circuit breaker is declded by x." for the = maximum if (8-a) = 90°, i.e., a = 8 - 90°, or a = _ 9.0 30.
generators and Xi for the motors. .
Problem #2: A 25 MVA, 11 KV, 20% generator is connected through a step-up transformer- T, (25 MVA,
11/66 KV, 10%), transmission line (15% reactance on a base of 25 MVA, 66 KV) and step-down
2.S Example~ transformer-To(25 MVA. 66/S.6 KV, 10%) to a bus that supplies 3 Identicalmotors in parallel (all motors
rated: 5 MVA, 6.6 KV, 25%). A circuit breaker-A is used near the primaryof the transformer T, and breaker-
B is used near the motor M,. Find the symmetrical currents to be interruptedby circuit breakersA and B for
a fault at a point P, near the circuit breaker B.
Problem #1: A transmissionline of inductance 0.1 H and resistance 5 Q Is suddenly short circuited at t "
0, at the far end of a transmission line and is supplied by an ac source of voltage v = 100 sin (100rrt+1So),
Write the expression for the short circuit current, itt). Find the approximate value of the first current Solution:
maximum for the given values of a and A. What is this value for o=O, and 9=90°7 Wtiat should be the
instant of short circuit so that the DC offset current is (i)zero and (ii)maximum7 Consider the SLD with the data given in the problem statement. The base values are selected as
under:
Solution:
6MvA
'.6 \<.~
2.-; oj,
Figure P1.
Selection of bases:
I Consider the expression for voltage applied to the transmission system given by Sb = 25 MVA (common); Vb = 11 KV (Gen. circult)- chosen. so that the~
and Vb = 6.6 KV (Motor circuit). '1 v, = 66 KV (line circuit)
'~·"'··""!I'lr
Since the system is operating at no load. all the voltages before fault are 1 pu. Considering t=l
reactanced;"om W< th thetaultsat P, we have: ' I Thus the prefault voltage at the motor bus; V, = 0.4/0.44 = 0.909LOo.
Short circuit current fed to the fault at motor bus (Ir = YV);
I'
!
I, "[0.125 + 0.258],' + 2.0 }B.909 = [20.55 pu] [1000/("./3(0.4))]
. ,
Problem #4: A generator·transformer unit Is connected to a line through a circuit breaker. The unit ratings
= =
are: Gen.: 10 MVA, 6.6 KV, '><4" 0.1 pu, '><4'.= 0.2 pu and Xd 0.8 pu; and Transformer: 10 MVA, 6.9/33
KV, X, = 0.08 pu; The system Is operating on no-load at a line voltage of 30 KV, when a three-phase fault
occurs on the line just beyond the circuit breaker. Determine the following:
(iv) Current to be interrupted by the breaker and the interrupting KVA and
Current to be interrupted by circuit breaker A = 1.0 1j[0.2 >0.1+0.15+0.1]
(v) Sustained short circuit current In the breaker.
~ - j 1.818 pu = - j 1.818 (25/[-./3(11)]) =. j 1.818 (1.312) KA = 2.386 KA
Solution:
And Current to be interrupted by breaker B = 1/j1.25 = - j 0.8 pu
Consider the base values selected as 10 MVA, 6.6 KV (in the generator circuit) and 6.6(33/6.9) =
,,- jO.8 (25/[-.13(6.6)])= - jO.8 (2.187) KA" 1.75 KA .• 31.56 IW(in {he transformer circuit). Thus the base current is:
Problem #3: Two synchronous motors are connected to a large system bus through a short line. The Ib = 10 I [,13(31.56)] = 0.183 KA
ratings of the various components are: Motors(each)= 1 MVA. 440 volts. 0..1·pu reactance; line of 0.05 ohm The pu values are: Xc/' = 0.1 pu, Xd' = 0.2 pu and Xd = 0.8 pu; and XT, = 0.08 (6.9/6.6)2 = 0.0874
reactance and the short circuit MVA at the bus of the large system is 8.at 440 volts. Calculate the pu: V, = (30/31.6) = 0.95LOo pu.
symmetrical short circuit current fed into a three-phase fault at the motor 'bus when the motors are Initial symmetrical RMS current = 0.95LOo 1 [0.1 + 0.0874J = 5.069 pu = 0.9277 KA;
operating at 400 volts.
Maximum possible DC off-set current = 2 (0.9277) = 1.312 KA;
Solution:
Momentary current rating = 1.6(0.9277) = 1.4843 KA; (assuming 60% allowance)
Consider the SLD with the data given in the problem statement. The base, values are selected as
unde~ . ~urrent to be interrupted by the breaker (5 Cycles) = 1.1(0.9277) = 1.0205 KA;
Interrupting MVA = 3(30) (1.0205) = 53.03 MVA;
Sustained short circuit current In the breaker = 0.95LOo (0.183) 1 [0.8 + 0.0874]
.1No.. V'-",e = 0.1959 KA .
44(9V
. ~:OA.\.~
M 2.7 Exercises for Practice
( e\,,'-l~\'\-c.(\;•
4~r::)"l)
PROBLEMS
running from the bus C up to the point of fault, F is 3 KM. Determine the current and line voltage at 11 kV
bus A under fault conditions, when a fault occurs at the paint F, given that Za."e = 0.135 + J 0.08 ohml kM a)
Zn2
and ZoH.~".= O.<y + j 0.36 ohm/kM. [Answer: 9.62 kV at the 11 kV bus]
b) Zn
2. A generator (rated: 25MVA, 12. KV, 10%) supplies power to a motor (rated: 20. MVA, 3.8 KV, 10%)
c) 3Zn
through a step-up transformer (rated:25 MVA, 11/33 KV, 8%), transmission line (of reactance 20 ohms) and
a step-down transformer (rated:20 MVA, 33/3.3 KV, 10%). Write the pu reactance diagram. The system is An ineffective value
d)
loaded such that the motor is drawing 15 MW at 0.9 leading power factor, the motor terminal voltage being
3.1 KV. Find the sub-transient current in the generator and motor for a fault at the generator bus. 4. An infinite bus-bar should maintain
[Answer: I," = 9.337 KA; 1m" = 6.9 KAJ
a) Constant frequency and Constant voltage
3. A synchronous generator feeds bus 1 and a power network feed bus 2 of a system. Buses ·1and 2 are
b) Infinite frequency and Infinite voltage
connected through a transformer and a line. Per unit reactances of the components are: Generatortbus-
1):0.25; Transformer:O.12 and Line:O.28. The power network is represented, by a generator with an
c) Constant frequency and Variable voltage
unknown reactance in series. With the generator on no-load and with 1.0 pu voliage at each bus. a three
phase fault occurring on bus-t causes a current of 5 pu to flow into the fault. Determine the equivalent
Variable frequency and Variable voltage
reactance of the power network. [Answer: X = 0.6 pu] d)
4, A synchronous generateor, rated 500 KVA, 440 Volts, 0.1 pu sub-transient reactance is supplying a 5. Voltages under extra high voltage are
passive load of 400 KW, at 0.8 power factor (lag). Calculate the initial symmetrical RMS current for a three-
phase fault at the generator terminals. 1KV & above
a)
[Answer: S.=0.5 MVA; V.=0.44 KV; load=O.8L-36.9°; 1.=0.656 KA; Ir=6.97 KA] :
11KV & above
b)
c) Pulsating in nature
s.i INTRODUCTION
d) Rotating in nature
l~-----------------------------------~~-------------
models as The method of symmetrical components developed by C.L. Fortescue in 1918 is a powerful technique for analyzing
unbalanced three phase systems. Fortescue defined a linear transformation from phase components to a new set of
components called symmetrical components. This transformation represents an unbalanced three-phase system by-
I
____ . ~1n1 ~---------------,
102
I
a set of three balanced three-phase systems. The symmetrical component method is:a modeling technique that
permits systematic analysis and design of three-phase systems. Decoupling a complex three-phase network into
three simpler networks reveals complicated phenomena in more simplistic terms. 1'..
Positive-sequence components, consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude; displaced from each other by
120° in phase, and having the same phase sequence as the original phasors, designated as Vol, VbI, and Vol
I: Negative-sequence components, consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude,·<jisplaced from each other by
120° in phase, and having the phase sequence opposite to that of the original phasors, designated as V." V", and
I Vc~
I 3. Zerosequence components, consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude, and with zero phase displacement-
from each other, designated as V.o,VbO, and V,.
i Since each of the original unbalanced phasors is the sum of its components, the orlgina] phasors expressed in.
Figure 3.1 Graphical addition of symmetrical components
terns of their components are
I To obtain unbalanced phasors.
I
I
3.2 THE OPERATOR
I 'a'
I
I
(3.1)
The relation between the symmetrical components reveals that the phase disPlacemtnt among them is either 120°
or (l.Using this relationship, only three independent components is sufficient to dete mine all the nine components.
The svnthesis of a set odthr~e unbalanced phasors from the three sets of syrnmetrica] components is shown in ~or this purpose an operator which rotates a given phasor by 120° in the positive dire Ion (counterclockwise) is very
t=igurel, ~seful. The letter 'a' is used to designate such a complex operator of unit magnitude with an angle of 1200• It is
defined by
,..
:..•...
,\.,:
v..,..r
:...•...y•·..
~ .• _, J
v" ~ -<v., a = I LI20' = -0,5 + ) 0.866 (3,2)
Vl'~
V"
If the operator 'a' Is applied to a phasor twice In succession, the phasor Is rotated through 2400• Similarlv, three
:-. ~;iv..~e"". NI.'t:~I,...e·-=nQ,JGI\c.e
.:::cmpQ!'(nh
lIl1'O":~eqlMll\Ct'·': successive applications of 'a' rotate the phasor through 360°. •
-.': 'tGm~'Oll':lntt c.DirlpOrajl"" ':~::
v; and V, can be expressed as product of some function of the operator a and a component of V•.Thus,
V",,=V,o
.'
I
·----------------. ~~03~ . ~ __ ~ __
1M
I ".'_'" ..'""
1 Vb:;; V.a + a 2Vtl + a V,l
f
Since the sum of three balanced voltages Is zero, the zero-sequence component voltaae In a balanced three-phase
system is always zero, Further, the sum of Une voltages of even an unbalanced three-phase system Is zero and hence
the corresponding zero-sequence component of line voltages,
I
.t
11 II!' lI
/
Solution:
, laO = 1/3(la + Ib + Ie) = 27,29 < 4.7° A
I
II aJ ll'' ' ,.
,,0
I [I Example 2: The sequence component voltages of phase voltages of a 3-ph system are:
[ v'""1J';
VaO =
I Let Vp =
rV"flj
Vs = lv", ; A = 1 a' (3:5)
100<00 V; Val = 223.6 < -26.60 V; Va2 = 100 <1800 V. Determine the phase voltages.
Solution:
Ve V,,2 1 a
The Inverse of A matrix is Vb " VaO+ a2Val + a Va2 "213 < -99.90 V
A-' = +[:1 a (3.6) Example J: The two seq. components and the corresponding phase voltage ofa 3-ph system are VaO=1<-
60° V; VaI=2<0° V; & Va = 3 <0° V. Determine the other phase voltages.
a'
Solution:
(3,8)
laO = 1/3(la + Ib + Ic) =0A
la1 = 1/3(la + a Ib + a2lc) = 10<60· A
..
• . .. llJ!>_10~ •__ ___;_------ _. __
Observation: If the phasors are balanced, two sequence components will be zero.'
-The powe;ln a three-phase system can be expressed In terms of symmetrical components of the associated voltages
and currents. The power flowing into a three-phase system through three lines a, band c is
Example 5: Determine the sequence components if Va = 100 <300 V; 100
<_90" V.
i : s = P + j Q = V. I; + VbI; + V, I, • (3.9)
I Solution: I
'
VaO = 1/3(Va + Vb + Vc) =0 V
where V. , Vb and V, are voltages to neutral at the terminals and I,. lb. and I, are the currents flowing into the
system in the three lines. In matrix form
Val = 1/3(Va + a Vb + a2Vc) = 0V
Va2 = 1/3(Va + a2 Vb + a Vc) = 100<30° V
Observation: If the phasors are balanced, two sequence components will be zero.
Example 6: The llrre b of a 3-ph line feeding a balanced Y-Ioad with neutral grounded Is:op~n resulting In line
currents: la • 10<0° A & Ic = 10<120° A. Determine the sequence current components.' .
S-[,_ '. ,tJ-mm:J
Solution: Thus
Ib =0 A. 5 = [A VI' [AI]'
lal = 1I3(la + a Ib + a2lc) = 6.66<0° A Using the reversal rule of the matrix algebra
Example 7: One conductor of a 3-ph line feeding a balanced delta-load is open. Assuming that line c Is open, if
current in line a is 10<00 A, determine the sequence components of the line currents.
Noting that A' = A and a and a' are conjugates,
Solution:
f
Ic = 0 A; la = 10<0° A.
= 0A
= 5.78<-30° A
= 5.78< 30° A
S::::: [v"o ",,1 ,,,{: a
I
a'
:.][: a
I
a'
Note: The zero-sequence components of line currents of a delta load (3-ph 3-wire) system arezero.
L ~ ~ ~
Thus the complex three-phase power Is given by
x
R _=".R"',,","·,rll1fO'---(
(3.10) T;;
C __ :::.::-H" ~
. i-;;*' ..,...,.
I.
Here, 3V,ul'Q, ~V"I., and 3V.,I" correspond to the three-phase power 'delivered to the zero-sequence system,
(a) Wiring diagram
Pos.tive-s~querIC~system, and negative-sequence system, respectively. Thus, t_he -totai three-phase power in the
unbalanced system Is equal to the sum of the power delivered to the three sequence systems representing the ill C2
three-phase system.
Al 042
3.4 PHASESHiFTOF COMPONENTSIN Y-Il TRANSFORMERBANKS
Cl 01 lJ2
Positive sequence Negativesequence
ib J Voltas. COmpOl\~nts
The dot convention Is used to designate the terminals of transformers. The dots are placed at one end of each of the.
winding on the same iron core of a transformer to indicate that the currents flowing from the dotted terminal to the
unmarked terminal of each winding produces an mmf acting in the same direction in the magnetic ctrcuit, In that:
case, the voltage drops from dotted terminal to unmarked terminal in each side of the windings are in phase. Figure 3,2 Wiring diagram and voltage phasors of a Y-I!. trarJformer
The HT terminals of three-phase transformers are marked as Hl, H2 and H3 and the correspcnolng LT side terminals
are marked Xl~X2 and X3. In Y-Y or I!.-I!. transformers, the markings are such that voltages to neutral from terminals
H1, H2, and H are In phase with the voltages to neutral from terminals Xl, X2, and X3,:respectively, But, there will Consider a Y- fl transformer as shown in Figure a. The HT side terminals H1, H2, and H3 are connected to phases A, B,
be a phase shlf (of 30') between the corresponding quantities of the primary and secon(lary sides 01 a star-delta (or an~ C, respectively and the phase sequence Is ABC. The windings that are drawn In parallel directions are those
delta-star) transformer. The standard for connection and designatjon of transformer banks Is as follows: linked magnetically (by being wound on the same core). In Figure a winding AN is the phase on the Y-side which Is
linked magnetically with the phase winding bc on the I!. side. For the location of the dots on the windings VA. is In
'1. The HT side tenmlnals are marked as H1, H2 and H3 and the corresponding LT side terminals are marked
and X3.
xi. X2 ~hase with Vb,. Following the standards for the phase shift, the phasor diagrams for the sequence components of
~oltages are shown In Figure b. The sequence component of V.", is represented as VA' (leaving subscript 'N for
2. The phases in the HT Side are marked in uppercase letters as A, B, and C.. Thus ior the sequence abc, A is
connected to Hl, B to H2 and eta H3. Similarly, the phases in the LT side are mark.ed:in lowercase letters as a, b convenience and all other voltages to neutral are similarly represented. The phasor diagram reveals that VA' leads
and c. V" by 30°. This will enable to designate the terminal to which b is connected as Xl. Inspection of the positive-
3. The standard for designating the terminals Hl and Xl on transformer banks requires that the positive-sequence sequence and negative-sequence phasor diagrams revels that Vol leads VA' by 90' and Vol lags VA'by 90'.
voltage drop from H1 to neutral lead the positive sequence voltage drop from Xl to Deutral by 30' regardless of
the type of connection in the HT and l T sides. Similarly, the voltage drops from H2 to neutral and H3 to neutral
lead their corresponding values, X2 to neutral and X3 to neutral by 3rt.
From the dot convention and the current directions assumed in Figure a, the phasor diagram for the sequence
components of currents can be drawn as shown in Figure c. Since the direction spectfled for I. in Figure a is away
from the dot in the winding and the direction of I" is also away from the dot in its winding, I.and I" are lSrt out of
phase. Hence the phase relation between the Y and I!. currents is as shown in Figure'c. From this diagram, it can be
seen that I" leads IAI by 90° and I" lags I., by 90°. Summarizing these relations between the symmetrical
components on the two Sidesof the transformer gives:
L.__ . ~~ __ ...,....--------_
"~'I"'"'Wlr
I
,
r------ -------------------~~Q----------~~ r'b>. 'I'
•
I
(vab +a ,""'. "ai-""""",' ,
Where each volt,e and current is expressed in per unit. Although, these relations are obtained for Y- A transformer
with Y connection in the HT side, they are valid even when the HT side Is connected in A a.ndthe LTside in Y. ~he directions are tve for currents from supply toward the delta primary and away from the Y-slde toward the load.
1he HT side line to neutral voltages are
NUMERICALEXAMPLES
VAl = - j Val = 0.9'85<-46,4°
Vab = 0.8<82.8° pu
T~e HT side line voltages are
Vbc = 1.2<-41.4° pu
Vca = 1.0<180° pu
VAB = VA-VB = 2.06<-22.6° pu. (L-N base)
,
f---F-ig-U-re-3,-s-Se-q-u-e-nc-e-i-m-p-eJ.d~an.:1.c-e-s-o-f-a-Y--c-o-n-n-ect-ed--Io-a'-d-·. ~---. ---.------
Solution:
VaO= 15.91<62.110V
Val = 277.1<-1.70V
Va2= 9.22<216.70 V
Zline = 1<850O.
+
Zneutral = 0
Vn
z. - ~+ il00
laO= 0<00 A
la = 25.15<-46.80A
Ib = 25.71<196.40A
1, • 1', - 7.454~ n
Ic = 26.62<73.80 A
currents that are flowing are determined. Since In a balanced system, the components' currents of one sequence
cause voltage drops of like sequence only and are independent of currents of O\he.r·seq~ences,currents O.fanyone
In the
1 The negative- and zero-sequence networks are composed of only the respective sequence impedances as there is no
corresponding sequence emf. The reference bus for the positlve- and neaative-Seqtence networks Is the neutral of
the generator.
,
sequence may be considered to flow in an independent network composed of the generated voltages, if any. and
impedances to the current of that sequence only. . , .
The cu;rent flowing in the Impedance Zn between neutral and ground Is 31'0as sho~n I~ Fig.Thus the zero-sequence
voltage drop from point a to ground, is (-I",Zoo - 31.oZn)where Z,o Is the z~ro-sequence Impedance of the
generator. Thus the zero-sequence network, which Is single-phase equivalent circuit assumed to carry only one
The singl.e-p:fhse.equivalent circuit consisting of the impedances to currents of any on.:e Sequence only is called the phase, must have an zero-sequence impedance of Zo = (z.o
+3Zn).
sequence ne ark of that particular sequence. Thus, the sequence network corresporiding to positive-sequence
current IS led the positive-sequence network. Similarly,· the sequence network corresponding to negative-
sequence current is called negative-sequence network, and that corresponding to zero-sequence current is called
from the sequence networks, the voltage drops from point a to reference bus (or ground) are given by
zero-sequence network. The sequence networks are interconnected in a particular way to represent various
unsymmetrical fault conditions. Therefore, to calculate the effect of a fault by: the method of symmetrical
components, it is required to determine the sequence networks.
Consider an unloaded generator which is grounded through a reactor as shown in :Figure. When a fault occurs.
"\!\~l~-";
..t.'C.'t\~'i>
unbalanced currents depending on the type of fault will flow through the lines. Thes~ currents can be resolved irto
their symmetrical components. To draw the sequence networks of this generator, the 'component voltages/currents,
component Impedances are to be determined. The generated voltages are of positive-sequence only as the fo.IT'+-
1:,
1.
V..1
generators are designed to supply balanced three-phase voltages. Hence, positive-sequence network is composed of ,
an emf In series with the positive-sequence Impedance. The generated emf In this network Is the no-load terminal ~1;''''' «
voltage to neutral. which Is also equal to the transient and subtranslent voltages as the generator is not loaded. The
reactance in this network is the subtransient, transient, or synchronous reactance, depending on the condition of (b) PQsiti\fe~,,(!qut!ne~Jei\lj\)rk
study.
~
Ie) Nea.Uv.-,oquente current paths
a ~
Reference bus
3Z.} Zn \'",,0
Z..,
Since all the neutral paints of a symmetrical three-phase system are at the same potential when balanced currents
are flowing, the neutral of a symmetrical three-phase system is the logical reference point. It is therefore taken as
3,8 S"QUENCEIMPEDANCEOFCIRCUITELEMENTS the reference bus for the positive- and negative-sequence networks. Impedances connected between the neutral of
the machine and ground is not a part of either the positive- or negative- sequence networks because neither
positive- nor negative-sequence currents can flow In such Impedances.
For obtaining the sequence networks, the component voltages/ currents and the component impedances of all the
elements of the network are to be determined. The usual elemehts of a power system are: passive loads, rotating
machines (generators/ motors), transmission lines and transformers: The posltlve- and negative-sequence Zero-Sequence Networks: The zero-sequence components are the same both in mafitude and in phase. Thus, It Is
impedances of linear, symmetrical, static circuits are identical (because the impedance of such circuits is equivalent to a single-phase system and hence, zero-sequence currents will flow a Iy if a return path exists. The
independent of phase orier provided the applied voltages are balanced). reference paint for thls network is the ground (Since zero-sequence currents a e flowing, the ground Is not
necessarily at the same point at all points and the reference bus of zero-sequence networle does not represent a
ground of uniform potential. The return path is conductor of zero Impedance, which is the reference bus of the zero-
sequence network.).
The sequence impedances of rotating machines will generally differ from one another. This.is due to the different
conditions that exists when the sequence currents flows. The flux due to negative-sequence currents rotates at
double the speed of rotor while that the positive-sequence currents Is stationary with respect to the rotor. The
resurtant flux due to zero-sequence currents is ideally zero as these flux components adds up.to zero, and hence the If a circuit is Y-connected, with no connection from the neutral to ground or to another neutral paint in the clrcult,
zero-sequence reactance is only due to the leakage flux. Thus, the zero-sequence impedance of these machines is no zero-sequence currents can flow, and hence the impedance to zero-sequence current is infinite. This is
smaller than positive- and negative-sequence impedances. represented by an open circuit between the neutral of the Y-connected circuit and the reference bus, as shown in
Fig. 3.6a. If the neutral of the V-connected circuit is grounded through zero impedance, a zero-impedance path
(short circuit) is connected between the neutral paint and the reference bus, as shown in Fig. 3.6b. If an impedance
The positive- and negative-sequence impedances of a transmission line are identical, while the zero-sequence Zn is connected between the neutral and the ground of a Y-connected Circuit, an Impedance of 3Zn must be
impedance differs from these. The posltive- and negative-sequence impedances are identical as the transposed • connected between the neutral and the reference bus (because, all the three zero-sequence currents (31.. ) flows
through this impedance to cause a voltage drop of 31ec10), as shown in Fig. 3.6c.
transmission lines are balanced linear circuits. The zero-sequence impedance is higher due to magnetic field set up
by the zero-sequence currents Is very different from that of the positive- or negative-sequence currents ( because of
no phase difference). The zero-sequence reactance .is generally 2 to 3.5 times greater than the positive- sequence
reactance. It Is Customary to take all the sequence Impedances of a transformer to be Identical, although the zero- A II-connected circuit can provide no return path; its impedance to zero.... quence line curr8~ts Is therefore Infinite.
sequence impedance slightly differs with respect to the other two. Thus, the zero-sequence network is open at the II-connected circuit, as shown in Fig.3.7 i-lbwever zero-sequence
currents can circulate inside the II-connected circuit.
In the method ad symmetrical components, to calculate the effect of a fault on a power! system, the sequence
networks are developed corresponding to the fault condition. These networks are then interconnected depending
on the type of fault. The resulting network is then analyzed to find the fault current and other. parameters.
Positlve- and Negative-Sequence Networks: The positive-sequence network is obtained by determining all the
positive-sequence voltages and positive-sequence impedances of individual elements, and connecting them
..
~ ~1.1.~q ~ ~ __ ,
I ~
I
A-efeN-nce..:b'-O':;::'"'- __ ;""' __ ~~
.
the other). An open circuit exists for zero-sequence current between two parts of the system connected by
the transformer bank.
I
I 2. Case 1: Y-Y Bank with both neutral grounded: In this case, a path through transformer exists for the zero-
I sequence current. Hence zero-sequence current can flow In both sides of the transformer provided there is
~~N complete outside closed path for it to flow. Hence the points on the two sides of the transformer are connected
~ Z.
by the zerO-sequence impedance of the transformer.
(<&)
I 3. Case 3: Y- ~ Bank wIth grounded Y: In this case, there Is path for zero-sequence current to ground through the Y
I
I
.. . I as the corresponding Induced current can Circulate in the A. The equivalent circuit must provide for a path from
i-~
Rof.r"nee b'~~._
..
·[ lines on the V side through zerd-sequence Impedance of the transformer to the reference bus. However, an open
I
i
I
.
. .'
:.
,.
I
'1
circuit must exist between line and the reference bus on the A side. If there is an impedance Zn between neutral
and ground, then the zero-sequence impedance must Include 3Zn along with zero-sequence Impedance of the
I , . transformer.
I '":;.."
! z""-S.. 1-'----'VVYV\r---:--:-. 'N
l. ...._..3 I
I
Z 4. Case 4: Y- ~ Bank with ungrounded Y: In this case, there Is no path for zero-sequence current. The zero-
sequence Impedance is infinite and is shown by an open circuit.
(b) 5. , Case 5: ~-~ Bank: In this case, there is no return path for zero-sequence current. The zero-sequence current
cannot flow in lines although it can circulate in the t!. windings.
6. The zero-sequence equivalent circuits determined for the Individual parts separately are connected according to
the SLD to form the complete zero-sequence network.
Procedure to draw the sequence networks
The sequence networks are thre1! separate networks which are the Single-phase equivalent of the corresponding
(0) symmetrical sequence systems. These networks can be drawn as follows:
Figure 3.8 Zero-sequence equivalent networks of Y-connected load 1. For the given condition (steady state, transient, or subtransient), draw the re,\ctance diagram (selecting proper
base values and converting all the per unit values to the selected base, If nece~sary).This will correspond to the
positive-sequence network.
~eJJrenc'ebUS: '
I '.'
I
:
'••...::....•........•....
,.:
~
.:
~'."
I
f .. '
: : .'
~. '_'
- ' ..
,
I , Z
The zero-sequence equivalent circuits of three-phase transformers deserve special attention. The different possible
combinations of the primary and the secondary windings in Y and t; alter the zero-sequence network. The five
possible connections of two-winding transformers and their equivalent zero-sequence networks are shown in
Fig.3.8, The nfworks are drawn remembering that there will be no primary current when there is no secondary
current, negle ing the no-load component. The arrows on the connection diagram show the possible paths for the
zero-sequenc current. Absence of an arrow indicates that the connection is such that zero-sequence currents
cannot flow, The letters P and Q identify the corresponding points on the connection dlagram.and equivalent CIrcuit.
1. Case 1: Y-Y Bank with one neutral grounded:1f either one of the neutrals of a Y-Y bank is ungrounded, zero-
sequence current cannot flow in either winding ( as the absence of a path through one winding prevents current
I
I .
-::?(
100 MVA
138 !N
~'
'--"-'-'d·
100 MVA
Line.
X, u,X, '" 20
Xa=60n
n .::,r
4-1
T.,
~~
t~l~
100 MVA
2 M
..,.
X-' Co· tl.ll) 138,kVA/138··kVY 13S-kVY/13.S-kV A
100 MVlI.
X, = 0.17 X = O,lO per unit x "'" 0.10 par unit
13.8 kV
XI) =-". 0.06 per unit X· ~ 0.20
'x,= 0.21
Xu = 0.10
X,,1:&. 0.05 por.\.
r
~.
f• ·1.0..'
~
fi4 ~~
R.I.,.nc~
1.0 ",
.
~~J2 ibi
_.
;0,105'
P05i1lve'S(lQuer,CQ
/"., .. ,
-
.
I\OIWlJj1: .
....._
.
J",_..,,,,,,
JO.20
+
'__ F.~,... 1.0 !.!X
2. Determine the per unit negative-sequence impedances of all elements (if the values 9f negative sequence is not
given to any element, it can approximately be taken as equal to the positive-sequence Impedance). Draw the
negative-sequence network by replacing all emf sources by short circuit and all Impedances by corresponding
negative-sequence impedances In the positive-sequence network. : .
3. Determine the per unit zero-sequence impedances of all the elements and draw the zero-sequence network
corresponding to the grounding conditions of different elements.
NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
ham pie 10: For the power system shown in the SLD,draw the sequence networks. EXERCISE PROBLEM: For the power system shown in the SLD, draw the sequence networks.
I
L____ ~------ ~
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This equation is used along with the equations i.e., conditions under fault (c.u.f.), derived to describe the fault under
consideration, to determine the sequence current '" and hence the fault current I" In terrlll of E, and the sequence
I impedances, Z" 2, and Zo. Thus during unsymmetrical fault analysis of any given type of fault, two sets of equations
as follows are considered for solving them simultaneously to get the required fault parameters:
4.1 PREAMBLE
Further the neutrals of various equipment may be Irounded or Isolated, the faults can occur at any general point F
of the given system, the faults can be through a fault Impedance, etc. Of the various typ~s of faults as above, the 3-$
fault involving the ground Is the most severe one. Here the analysis Is considered in two:stages as under: (i) Fault at
the terminals of a Conventional (Unloaded) Generator and (ii) Faults at any point F, of a given Electric Power System
(EPS). .
Consider now the symmetrical component relational equations derived from. the 'three sequence networks
corresponding to a given unsymmetrical system as a function of sequence Impedance~ and the. positive sequence
voltage source in the form as under:
(4.1)
A conventional generator is one that produces only the balanced voltages. Let Ea, nd Ec be the internally
generated voltages and Zn be the neutral impedance. The fault is assumed to be on the phase'a' as shown in
These equations are refered as the sequence equations. In matrix Form the sequence equations can be considered:
figure 4.1. Consider now the conditions under fault as under:
as;
c.u.f.:
(4.3)
Now consider the symmetrical components of the current I, with 1.=1,=0, given by:
'''wlr
..
1.
1 I"
0 I 11
~ (1/3) ~ a .'
/'0 I I I I~-- 6. Fault phase voltage V. = 0,
7. Sound phase voltages Vb= a'Vn+aV,,+V.o; V, = aV,,+a'V.,+v.o
89'. Fault phase power: V.I; = 0, Sound pahse powers: Vbl; = 0, and V,I,' = 0,
If Z, = 0, then Zo= ZoO'
I., a' a 0 (4.4)
I, 10. If Z, = <1J, then Zo= <1J, i.e., the zero sequence network is open so that then, 1.=1.=0.
Solving (4.4) we get,
I~:J1j ;r : :
tV" 0 ° 0 z, I" (4.6)
Or in other words,
"""""'wlr I'
1----
Solving (4.4) we get,
Vol = l'
Further, consider the symmetrical components of current I, with 1,=-1" and 1,=0; given by:
(4.10)
4.
6.
V" = V" = E,Z,/(Z,+Z,)
S. V,o=D,
Fault phase voltages;V" • Vc z aVu+a2V'2+V,O = (a+a1)V'1 I:: _ V'I
7. Sound phase voltage; Va = V"+V,,tV .. = 2V,,;
8. Fault phase powers are V,I; and V,I:,
j I"1"1 1/
= (1/3) ~ a' r, j I 9. Sound phase power: V,I: cO,
10. Since 1,0=0,the presence of absence of neutral Impedance does not make any difference In the analysis.
I" a' a (4.11)
Solving (4.11) we get,
Or in other words,
COhsider a double-line to ground fault at the terminals of a conventional unloaded generator, whose neutral is
.gr6unded through a reactance, between. phase 'b' and phase 'c' as shown in figure 4.5, Consider now the conditions
under fault as under:
q.u.f.:
Figure 4.4 Connectionof sequence networks for LL Fault on phases" & c of
a Conventional Generator (4.15)
Now consider the symmetrical components of the voltage with V,=V,=O, given by:
The equation (4.14) derived as above implies that the three sequence networks 'are connected such that the zero
sequence network is absent and only the positive and negative sequence networks are connected in series- IV,ol
V., = (1/3)
1J 1a a'
ro'l
II I'
opposition to simulate the LL fault, as shown in figure 4.4. Further we have the following relations satisfied under the
fault conditions: . VOl a' a o (4.16)
1. I" = -I" = lE,/(z, • Z,)] and 1'0= 0, Solving (4) we get,
=
2. Fault current I, = I, -I, = ["3E,/(Z, • Z,J] (since I, = (a'-a)l" = "31,,)
3.. Vol ~ E, -I"Z, = E,Z'/(Z,.Z,) (4.17)
..
,,,
~~sweha~------------------------~~-------~---------~-----~--------------'
I
Figure 4.9 Unsymmetrical faults in Power Systems
Thus, ior all the cases of unsvmrnetrtcal fault analysis conslderad above, the sequence equations are to be changed
as under so as to account for these changes:
Figure 4.8 Connection of sequence networks for 3.phase ground Fault 00 phases band
c of a Conventional Generator o 0
The equation (4.26) derived as above implies that, to simulate the 3-phase groundJautt, the three sequence o 0 Z, I" (4.29)
networks are connected such that the negative and zero sequence networks are absent and only the positive
sequence network Is present, as shown in figure 4.8. Further the fault current, I, in case Of a 3-phase ground fault is
given by (i) LG Fault at any point F of a glrl~n Power system
I, = 1,,= I, = (EJZ,)
Let phase 'a' be on fault at F so that then, the c.uJ. would be:
It is to be noted that the presence of a neutral connection without or with a neutral" impedance, z., will not alter the I. = 0; I, = 0; and V. = o.
simulated conditions in case of a three phase to ground fault.
Hence the derived conditions under fault would be:
I for the case of a fault at the terminals of a generator. Here, instead of the sequence impedances of the generator,
each and every element is to be replaced by their corresponding sequence impedances and the fault is analyzed by
(Ii) LLFault at any paint F of a given Power system
Let phases 'b' and 'c' be on fault at F so that then, the c.u.I, would be:
SUitably connecting them together to arrive at tne Thevenln equivalent Impedance If that given sequence. Also, the
internal voltage of the generators of the equivalent circuit for the positive sequence network is now V, (and not E,), I, = 0; I, = - I,; and V, a V,
the pre-fault voltage to neutral at the point of fault (PoF) (ref. Figure 4.9). .
Hence the derived conditions under fault would be:
. "~:'lr :1 1 I 1
(ii) LLGFault at any paint F of a given Power system
Let phases 'b' and 'c' be on fault at F so that then, the c.u.f. would be:
4.7 OPEN CONDUCTOR FAULTS
I, = 0 and V. = V, = 0
VOl= V" = V.o = (V,/3) Various types of power system faults occur In power systems such as the shunt type foults (lG, ll, LlG, lLlG faults)
and series type faults (open conductor and cross country faults). While the symmetrical fault analysis is useful in
determination of the rupturing capacity of a given protective circuit breaker, the unsymmetrical fauit analysis is
useful in the determination of relay setting, single phase switching and system stability studies.
1,,= -I"W(Z, + Z,); I., = -I,,2,/(z, + 2,) and
(4.32)
When one or two of a three-phase circuit is open due to accidents, storms, etc., then unbaiance is created and the
,symmetrical currents flow. Such types of faults that come in series with the lines are refered as the open conductor
(ii) Three Phase Fault at any paint Fof a given Power system faults. The, open conductor faults can be analyzed by using the sequence networks drawn for the system under
consideration as seen from the potnt of fault, F. These networks are then suitablYICOnnectedto simulate the given
Let all the 3 phases a, band c be on fault at F so that then, the c.u.f. would be: . type of fault. The following are the cases required to be analyzed (ref. fig.4.1O).
I
b )lj,'
, V<tt' 8
I., = [V,/2,] and I, = 1.,=1,
[4.33) cl
:-
(i) Single Conductor Open Fault: consider the phase 'a' conductor open so that then the conditions under fault are:
These relations suggest a parallel combination of the three sequence networks as shown In fig. 4.11.
""''''''';...;..''
.....p
Zo t~<l4
~
I
L--.--- -'---------J
•
______________________ ----2~'h ~ .~ _
I
impedance in the fault is found out by deriving equations similar to those for faults through zero valued neutral
Impedance. The connections of the hypothetical stubs for consideration of faults through fault Impedance Z, are as
It is observed that a single conductor fault is similar to a LLGfault at the fault point F of the system considered. shown in figure 4.13.
I
(ii) Two Conductor Open Fault: consider the phases 'b' and 'c' under open condition' sp that then the conditions
I under fault are:
I
~
I
!
The derived conditions are: "I(~)
I,] ; I" ; 1'0;1,/3 and
(4.351
These relations suggest a series combination of the three sequence networks as shown .in fig. 4.12. It is observed
I that .. double conductor fault Is similar to a LGfault at the fault point F of the system consldered,
figure 4.13 Stubs Connections for faults through fault impedance z,.
I
I
I Let phase 'a' be on fault at F through Zp so that then, the c.u.f, would be:
These relations imply that the sequence networks are all open circuited. Hence. in a strict analystical sense, this is
not a fault at all! I.] ; [Vr/ (Z, + Z,+z,1l and
4.8 FAULTSTHROUGH IMPEDANCE (iii) LLGFiJUltat any paint F of a given Power system through Z,
Let phases 'b' and 'c be on fault at F through ZP.so that then, the c.u.f. would be:
IL.---------- -l
I·
I
i-Hence the derived conditions under fault would be:
I I" = {V,/ [Z,+Z,IZo.3Z,)/(Z,+Zo+3Zf)J) I 1400 A for a line-to-line fault and 2200 A for a line-to-ground fault. If the positive sequence generated voltage to
I. neutral is 2 ohms, find the reactances o.fthe negative and zero sequence currents.
1,,= -1.,(lo.3Z,j/(Z,+lo+3Z,); 1,0= -1"Z,!(Z,+(lo+3Z,) and
I I, = 31'0 (4.39)
I Case a) Consider the conditions w.r.t. the LL fault:
(iv) Three Phase Fault at any pO"'t F oj a given Power system through Z,
I" = (E,d(Z, + Z,))
I, = I. = -I, = "31"
,
. ,
Let all the 3 phases a, band c be on fault at F, through Zr so that the c.u.f. would be! V.= I,Z,; Hence the derived
conditions under fault would be: I... [Vr/(Z,+Z,); The connections of the sequence n~tworks for all the above types .";3 E,.! (Z. + Z,) or
of faults through Z, are as shown in figures 4.14 and 4.15. .
(Z, + Z,) = ";3 E,,/ I,
I, = 31..
Example-2: A dead fault occurs on one conductor of a 3-conductor cable supplied y a 10 MVA alternator with
earhed neutral. The alternator has tva, -ve and a-sequence components of Impedances per phase respectively as:
(0.5+)4.7), (0.2+)0.6) and 00.43) ohms. The corresponding LN values for the cable UP to the polnt of fault are:
(0.36+)0.25), (0.36+)0.25) and (2.9+)0.95) ohms respectively. If the generator voltage at no load (e,,) Is 6600 volts
between the lines, determine the (i}Fault current, (ii)Sequence components of currents In lines and (iii)Voltages of
healthy phases.
llG Fault 3-Ph. Fault
Figure 4.15 Sequence network (onnections for There is LG fault 011 anyone of the conductors. Consider the LG fault to be on conductor in phase a. Thus
the fault current is given by:
LLG& LLLGfaults through impedance (i) Fault current: I, = 31", = [3E,/(Z, + Z, + loll
; 3(6600/"3)/ (4.32+j7.18)
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Vc _ VAO -+ 0.. VA, -t- a_2. VA~
_ 0 + 30' ~G l__3o +r:>.c + ao- 9-6 L: '10f> 2..t,0
::. - @6' f.2>-j 15'38 _ !26·62-tj 1$'.38-
_ - '53· 2-G Vt> t-H. . .
L-=- ~~~=====================================
P6@ A- );, ~\ l' e,.vv~po'e ~e..vt0'('c:?\.toy ~1~oV\-t- elo.,~pe V\_ u
Y'a..t<2d &0 f\l\.VA) 12>,8 KV 4- ~ 0-.. AVl-~:Jty~ vv",'fW\.,t 'Y(E:'~-
Z:ll' It· -
~ 7 ~
~~ lPA Y -'--
.1...-- =_ ~
o______________________________
I .- J \
_ .
.:..
• V}1 h85· t' -}-'\A/d" ~..A vvq 1-1~
--
-~ ~W ~ <1~ ;to
[
WV\"'O./\J l"'OV\t'? V
- 'Vlcl b 1) • i7 -
(Ei7~I) ~ -::
f +Wi.A..A~ -tl'YY'O}
I =» Ie:: 11 fr ': l -j~~\~J4qV\o/
. Vld Q b =l E t.7 . I -=
(i-o+ee-o=s-« -OJ f
I =
-= I ~:r
. cIvvu; -6 ~8-····~
€QI )( -B' ~k &
QI ~a-c -=- a:r +~..A...A~~
't
- Vld I -=
-
8 ~CCI - ~ (I\~)
o:-G =- .. £) (\f /\ \I'J)
A d~ Al1-elYy,~-h:>y y-~ted 40_MVA" II KV, ~'Dh~ ~
!Y'\AV\ V\_~ _tAt V'a..ted ~pe.e.d '" o(eve IO-~fI r~+tZd
Vo l+~e. l~ a~e.-r~-hn' lI1eu..fy-~1 ~ Mofo..+ed ..(- e:vv'1
L LG-t fa- u.{ + +a.ke6 pl~ OY\ rv, 6v.5e b A. G· Dei (Vy"VY'\A'V'-(C
r-
o._
~ ---c> Xc. e, 0
T..ou> ::"0
:ZV\'Z.-olJ
____________
.._._. ]
J
,- .-.-.------.---- ..2-"""64'-- --'- _
i ..265
I
e-Notes by Dr.K.Uma Rao. HOD & E&E Engg.. RNSIT. Bangalore
isolation by circuit breakers will cause variations in the power flows, network bus voltages and generators rotor
speeds. The voltage variations will ,actuate the voltage regulators In the system and generator speed variations will
. , : actuate the prime mover governors; voltage and frequency variations will affect the system loads, In stable systems,
Subject: Power System Analysis and StabilitY
practically all generators and loads remain connected, even though parts of the system may be Isolated to preserve
portion Cpyer,dj Chapter "S on power Sy't,m Stability bulk operations. On the other hand, an unstable system condition could lead to casf'dlng outlses ind i Shutdown
of a major portion of the power system.
5.1 INTROOUCTION
Power system stability of modern large inter-connected systems is a major problem for secure operation of the
system, Recent major black-outs across the globe caused by system Instability, even in' very sophisticated and secure The high complexity of stability problems has led to a meaningful classification of the power system stability Into
systems, illustrate the problems facing secure operation of power systems, Earlier, stability was defined as the ability various categories. The classlflcatlon takes into account the main system variable in which instability can be
of a system to return to normal or stable operation after having been subjected to some form of disturbance. This observed, the size of the disturbance and the time span to be considered for assessingstability,
fundamentally refers to the ability of the system to remain in synchronism, However, modern power systems
operate under complex interconnections, controls and extremely stressed conditions. Further, with increased
5.2.1 ROTOR ANGLE STABILITY
autcrnatlon and use of electronic equipment, the quality of power has gained utmost importance, shifting focus on
to concepts of voltage stability, frequency stability, Inter-area OSCillationsetc,
Rotor angle stability refers to the ability of the synchronous machines of an inte~connJcted power system to remain
The IFEE/CiGRE'Oint Task Force on stability terms and conditions have proposed the following definition in 2004: in synchronism after being subjected. to a disturbance, Instability results in some generators accelerating
"PowerS~stem tabillty Is the ability 0/ on electricpower system, tor a given initial operatln!!condition, to regain a (decelerating) and lasing synchronism with other generators, Rotor angle stability depends on the ability of each
state 0/ operating equilibriumafter being subjected to a physical disturbance, with most system variablesbounded, synchronous machine to maintain equilibrium between electromagnetic torque and mechanical torque. Under
D...' that practicallythe entire system remains intact". steady state, there is equilibrium between the input mechanical torque and output electromagnetic torque of each
generator, and its speed remains a constant. Under a disturbance, this equilibrium is upset and the generators
accelerate/decelerate according to the mechanics of a rotating body. Rotor angle stability. is further categorized as
follows:
The Power System Is an extremely non-linear and dynamic system, with operating parameters continuously varying.
Stability is hence, a function of the initial operating condition and the nature of the disturbance, Power systems are
continually subjected to small disturbances in the form of load changes, The system must be ,in a position to be able
to adjust to the changing conditions and operate satisfactorily. The system must also withstand large disturbances, Small single (or small disturbance) rotor angle stability: It is the ability of the power system to maintain
which may even cause structural changes due to isolation of some faulted elements, synchroni'sm under small disturbances. In this case, the system equation can be linearized around the initial
operating paint and the stability depends only on the operating paint and not on the disturbance. Instability may
result in
A power system may be stable for a particular Ilarge) disturbance and unstable. for another disturbance, It is (i) A non OSCillatoryor a periodic increase of rotor angle
impOSsibleto design a system which is stable under all disturbances. The power system is generally designed to be
stable under those disturbances which have a high degree of OCcurrence.The response to a disturbance is extremely Iii) Increasing amplitude of rotor oscillations due to ins~fflcient damping.
1
i
,I
complex and Involves practically all the equipment at the power system. For example, a shorticircuit learling to a line
"-r'" 'n"'1r I n
I
1
r _266_: - --1 r- .._. '''7'--
....... ---,
, The first form of Instability Is largely eliminated by modern fast acting voltas. r~,ulato(s and ·the second form of
Instability Is more common. The time frame of small signal stability Is of the order' of 10-20 seconds after a
disturbance.
: : Large disturbance voltage stability: It refers to the systems ability to maintain steady voltages following larg.
disturbances; It requires computation of the non-linear response of the power system to include Interaction
between various devices like motors, transformer tap changers and field current limiters. Short term voltage stability
I ....... na rotor ..... "'.,," " ,,~,- ,."" .." ,." refers to th e abllltvof the ,",W", system tc malr.tarn ! involves dynamics of fast acting load components and period of Interest Is In the order of several seconds. Long term
synchronism under large disturbances, such as short Circuit, line outages etc. The system response involves large I voltage stability involves slower acting equipment like tap-changing transformers and generator current limiters.
• Instability is due to loss of long-term equilibrium,
I excursions of the generator rotor angles. Transient stability depends on both the initial operating point and the
disturbance parameters like locatien. type, magnitude etc. Instability Is normally in the form of a periodic angular
,
The term dynamic stability was earlier used to denote the steady-state stability tn the presence of automatic
5.2.3 FREQUENCYSTABILITY
controls (especially excitation controls) as opposed to manual controls. Since all generators are equipped with
automatic controllers today, dynamic stability has lost relevance and the Task Force has recommended against its
I usage.
Frequency stability refers to the ability of a power system to maintain steady frequency following a severe
disturbance, causing conSiderable Imbala,nce between generation and load. Instability occurs In the form of
5.2.2 VOLTAGESTABILITY sustained frequency swings leading to tripping of generating units or loads. During frequency swings, devices such as
under frequency load shedding, generator controls and protection equipment get activated in a few seconds.
However, devices such as prime mover energy supply systems and load voltage regulators respond after a few
! Voltage stability refers to the ability of a power system to maintain steady voltages at all buses in the system after
minutes. Hence, frequency stability could be a short-term or a long-term phenomenon.
I being subjected to a disturbance. It depends on the ability of the system to maintain equlllbrlum between load
I
demand .nd load supply. Instability results in a progressive fall or rise of voltages of some buses, which could lead to
5.3 MECHANICSOF ROTATORYMOnON
10" of load In an area or tripping of transmission lines, leading to cascading outages. This may eventually lead to loss
II of synchronism of some generators.
iI
Since a synchronous machine is a rotating body, the laws of mechanics of rotating bodies are applicable to it. In
I rh~ cause of voltage instability is usually the loads. A run-down situation causing voltage instability occurs when load
rotation we first define the fundamental quantities. The angle em Is defined, with respect to a circular arc with its
I dynamics attempt to restore power consumption beyond the capability of the transmission network. Voltage
center at the vertex of the angle, as the ratio of the arc length s to radius r.
stability is also threatened when a disturbance increases the reactive power demand bevond the sustainable
I capacity of the available reactive power resources. Voltage stability is categorized into the following sub-categories: (S.l)
I
T = J r dF From (5.14) we can see that the unit of M has to be J-sec/rad.
(5.5)
The unlt of' torque is N-m. When torque is applied to a body, the body experiences angular acceleration. Each
particle experiences a tangential acceleration a = ra , where r is the distance of the particle from axis of rotation. 5.4 SWING EQUATION:
The tangential force required to accelerate a particle of mass dm Is
dF = a dm = r a dm
(5.6)'
The laws of rotetlon developed In section.3 are applicable to the synchronous machine. From(.5.8)
Ie<' =T
The torque required for the particle is
dT = r dF = r' a dm or
(5.7) (5.15)
It is called the moment of inertia of the boov, The unit is Kg - m'. It the torque Is assumed to be the result of a
number of tangential forces F, which act at different paints of the body Let Tm = shaft torque or mechanical torque corrected for rotational losses
Now each force acts through a distance, ds = r de", and the work done Is }: F . ds i.e.,
dW = }: F r dem= demT
For a generator Tmtends to accelerate the rotor In positive direction of rotation as shown in Fig 5.1. It also shows
the corresponding torque for a motor with respect to the direction of rotation.
(5.10)
and T= dW
dB", (5.11)
Thus the unit of torque may also be Joule per radian. The power Is defined as rate of dOinll work. Using (5.11)
p=dW = TdB"=Tw
dt dt '" (5.12)
"n'''lr 1 'I
,------.------- .----- ll1... --,-_~ _
r'~-------------- ~2~7~ -,
J 2H d'o
I --;;:
d/' '" r; '" P,,,-P, pu
Synchronous condenser Large 12S}
1:0
.
25% less for hydrogen cooled
Small
Here (0., Is the synchronous speed in electrical radls ((0., '" (~) (0."" 1 and p. is acceleration power in per unit on Synchronous motor with load varying
H d'(j
l! f dl' = P" = P,,,=P; pu (S.27)
In defining the inertia constant H, the MVA base used is the rating of the machine. In a multi machine system, swing
when (5 is in electrical radians and equation has to be solved for each machine, in which case, a common MVA base for the system has to chosen. The
constant H of each machine must be consistent with the system base.
(5.31)
(5.30)
·In which (I). (0., and 0 are in electrical units. In deriving the swing equation, damping has been neglected.
,
.' ~".' ,_,."'nl",r j'l I'"
r:::.,,",!,..,"",', 00:::""'" " 00",",.", .. "'" "..: ..
.2:15
I
m,", moo"", .... m. moo<" ,w'"' H,H,
equations to be solved is reduced. Machines within a plant normally swing together'. after a disturbance. Such Multiplying both sides by ----- we get
I machines are called coherent machines and can be replaced by a single equivalent machine, whose dynamics
H, +H,
reflects the dynamics of the plant. The concept is best understood by considering a two machine system.
I
The swing equations for two machines on a common system base are:
I.e
(S.37)
2H, d ' ", _ P P
I
~ d t' - ,,' - "pu (S.33)
where 0" = 0, -0" the relative angle of the two machines
I
I 2H,q d'c5 ~ P _ P,.
H, +H,
ra, d t? •• pu (S.35)
P _ p" H, - p" H,
<.'12 - HI + H2
I Where 11.. =H, +H,
i From (S.37) it is obvious that the swing of a machine Is associated with dynamics of other machines in the system. To
I P,,, = P"" + P,,,, be stable. the angular differences between all the machines must decrease after the disturbance. In many cases.
i when the system loses stability. the machines split Into two coherent groups. swinging against each other. Each
r. = p", + P",
I! -coherent group of machines can be replaced by a single equivalent machine and the relative swing of the two
equivalent machtnes solved using an equation similar to (S.37). from which stability can be assessed.
The relation (S.3S) represents the dynamics of the single equivalent machine.
The acceleration power Is liven bv p•• P,. - P" Hence. under the condition that p.. Is a ,o&stlnt. an ac,eleratlnl
the acceleration and help in maintaining stability. It' on the other hand. P, decreases when 6 Increases, P, would
(JP
further increase which is detrimental to stability. Therefore. ali must be positive for a stable system. Thus the
I
~-----------------------------------------,.,------ ..--------------------------------------------------------~.~----~~~-----------------------------
?7h
(I) Mechanical power input Pm is a constant during the period of in~erest, immediately after the
The power output of the generator is given by the real part of E,I,' .
disturbance
{iiI
(iii)
Rotor speed changes are insignificant.
Effect of voltage regulating loop during the transient Is neglected i.e t~e excitation is assumed to be I t = E, L.t5 - V. L.O·
a constant. (5.38)
" R" + jx,
As discussed in section 4, the power-angle relationship plays a vital role In the soluticn of the swing equation.
E, L.t5 - V. L.O·
Neglecting R., t =--_._-
" jx"
5.5.1 POWER-ANGLE EQUATION FOR A NON-SAUENT POLE MACHINE:
The simplest model for the synchronous generator is that at a constant voltage behind an impedance. This model is
called the classical model and can be used for cylindrical rotor (non-salient pole) machines. Practically all high-speed
turbo alternators are of cylindrical rotor construction, where the physical air gap around the periphery of the rotor is
uniform. This type of generator has approximately equal magnetic reluctance, regardless of the angular position of
the rotor, with respect to the armature mmf. The phasor diagram of the voltages and currents at constant speed and
excitation is shown in Fig. 5.2.
t
(5.39)
(Note- R stands for real part of). The graphical representation of (9.39) ~ called the power angle curve and It Is as
shown In Fig 5.3.
t
I
i
Fig S.2 Phasor diagram of a non-salient pole synchronous generator'
p","JC - -_.. -""-
V, "Terminal voltage
I
I
'1- _--_ __ ..:.\__ )
e = Power factor angle
---.3d
I, = Armature current
r. = Armature res.stance
Fig 5.3 Power angle curve of a non - salient pole machine
I
(SAl) in (5.40), we obtain
Here because of the salient poles, the reluctance of the magnetic circuit in which flows the flux produced by an
I the relation (5.42) gives the steady state powerangle relationship for a salient pole machine, The second term does
not depend on the excitation and ii called the reluctance power component. This component makes the maximum
armature mmf in line with the quadrature axis is higher than that of the magnetic circuit in which flows the flux
power greater than in the classical model. However, the angle at which the maximum power occurs is less than 900.
produced by the armature mmf in line with the direct axis. These two components of armature mmf are
proportional to the corresponding components of armature current. The component of armature current producing
an mmf acting in line with direct axis is called the direct component, I,. The componerit of armature current
producing an mmf acting in line with the quadrature axis is called the quadrature axis component, I,. The phasor
diagram is shown in Fig 5, with same terminology as Fig5.4 and R, neglected.
o
cl""e.,.{:- .. )t.~, ~,
(5.40)
E -E
!,,~--y---q=1"sin(o+B)
x ,/
,
/ = E" = I " cos (0 +0)
«; (5.41) :
of a Single Machine Infinite Bus (SMIS). where a generator supplies power to an infinite bus, The concept of on
infinite bus arises from the fact that if we connect a generator to a much larger power system. it is reasonable to I
!
Transient stability Is the ability of the system to remain stable under large disturbances like short circuits, line
assume that the voltage and frequency of the larger system will not be affected by control of the generator I outages, generation or load loss etc. The evaluation of the transient stability is required offline for planning, design
I parameters. Hence, the external system can be approximated by an infinite bus, which Is.equivalent to an ideal etc, and online for load management, emergency control and security assessment. Transient stability analysis deals
i voltage source, whose voltage and frequency are constant. The one line diagram is shown in Fig 7. with actual solution of the nonlinear differential equations describing the dynamics of the machines and their
controls and interfacing it with the algebraic equations describing the interconnections through the transmission
network.
Since the disturbance Is large, linearlied analysis of the swing equation (which describes the rotor dynamics) Is not
I possible. Further, the fault may cause structural changes in the network, because of which the power angle curve
prior to fault, during the fault and post fault may be different (See example 9.8). Due to these reasons, a general
stability criteria for transient stability cannot be established, as was done In the case of stea~ state stability (namely
Ps > 0). Stability can be established, for a given fault, by actual solution of the swing equation. The time taken for the
! . Flg.S.S SMIB System
fault to be cleared (by the circuit breakers) is cafled the clearing time, If the fault is cleared fast enough, the
I probability of the system remaining stable after the clearance is more. If the fault persists for a longer time,
likelihood of instability Is increased.
i '" " 55. the '1""''' b. voltage is taken as reference and , is the aos" between .... d E•. 'h, """"0< rs
i assumed to be connected to the infiflite bus through a lossless line of reactance x,, The power transferred (using
I classical model) is given by
Criticalclearingtime is the maximum time available for clearing the fault, before the system loses stability. Modern
I
I circuit breakers are equipped with auto reclosure facility, wherein the breaker automatically reclcses after two
E, Eb ."
I P=---S1I1u
Ad +X ..
(5.43) sequential openings. If the fault still persists, the breakers open permanently. • faults are transient, the
Since most
first r~closure is in general successful. Hence, transient stability has been sreatly enhanced by auto closure breakers.
and using salient pole model,
An important measure of performance Is the steady state stability limit, which Is defined .as the maximum power 2. Effect of damper windings is neglected which again gives pessimistic results.
that can be transmitted in steady state Without loss of synchronism, to the recelvlng end, If transient analysis 'is 3. Variations In rotor speed are neglected.
I power output.
leads to pesstmlsttc results.
5. The generator is modeled as a constant voltage source behind a transient reactance, neglecting the
voltage regulator action.
6. Loads are modeled as constant admittances and absorbed into the bus admittance matrix.
I
"I""''''n''',r I '1 I'"
dO(I) =0
The above assumptions, vastly simplify the equations. A digital computer program for transient stability analysis can .d t
easily include more detailed generator models and effect of controls, the discussion of whlch' is beyond the scope of
present treatment. Studies on the transient stability of an SMIB system, can shed light on some important aspects of some time after the fault is cleared In a stable system and d > o 0, for a long time after the fault Is cleared in an
dl ,
stability of larger systems. One of the important methods for studying the transient stability of an SMIB system Is the
unstable system.
application of equal-area criterion.
Transient stability assessment of an SMIB system is possible without resorting to actual solution of the swing
equation, by a method known as equal-area criterion. In a SMIB system, if the system is unstable after a fault is
cleared, 6(t) increases indefinitely with time, till the machine loses synchronism. In contrast.jn a stable system, 6(t) Multiplying both sides by 2 do, we get
dt
reaches a maximum and then starts reducing as shown in Fig.5.6.
!!..[(
a t dr
dO)'] = 2 do p..
dt M
Sf 1 1\-.
$"1---' : \__
8,~1'
or-=as ~.- IPdo (5.45)
\L_. __._~___
~-;fA.
...Il- i<t.; b"ll:~~ dt M s. •
_~
!:D' t;-.-> do
For stability -
dt
= 0, some time after fault is cleared. This means
Fig.S.6 Swing Curve (6 V, t) for stable and unstable system' s
fp" do =0 (5.46)
Mathematically stated,
Th~ integral gives the area under the p. - Ii curve. The condition for stability can be, thus stated as follows: A SMIB
system is stable if the area under the P, - 6 curve, becomes zero at some value of 6. Ttlis means that the accelerating
(postnva) area under P, - 0 curve, must equal the decelerating (negative) area under P, _ Ii curve. Application of
equal area criterionior several4lsturba~ is discussed next.
I angle 6 increases. With increase in 6, the electrical power P, increases, the accelerating power decreases, till at 6 •
6,. the electrical power matches the new Input Pm" The area A" during acceleration 11 given by
A, = ('(p,,,, - p.,)do
J,.
(5.47)
At b, even though the accelerating power is zero, the rotor is running above synchroMus speed. Hence, 6 and P,
increase beyond b, wherein P, < Pm, and the rotor is subjected ~o dec~eratlon, The rotor decelerates and speed
Flg.5.7 SMIB System starts dropping, till at paint d, the machine reaches synchronous speed and 6 = 6..... The area Au during deceleration
is given by
p,. = P"., sin" By equal area criterion A, = A,. The rotor would then oscillate between 00 and om.. at its natural frequency. However,
damping forces will reduce subsequent swings and the machine finally setties down to the new steady state value 6,
E V
Prl~I.X =-,-'- (at paint b). Stability can be maintained only if area A, at least equal to A" can be located above Pm" The limitmg
x, +x" case is shown in Flg.5.9, where A, is just equal to A,.
Under steady state Pm= p•. Let the machine be initially operating at a steady st~te angl,e:6,. at synchronous speed
I w" with a mechanical input P"", as shown in Fig.5.B( paint a).
i
!
,I
~
I
Fig.S.9 Maximum Increase in mechanical power
I
I
L -- __ ._--l
Here 6m.. Is at the intersection of P, and Pm" If the machine does not reach synchronous speed at d, then beyond d,
r----------- ~~ _,
1
I
I
P, decreases Wit
A, =A,.
increase In 6, causing 6 to increase Indefinitely. Applying equal area criterion to Fig.S.9we get
= 166.6 • ~ om/s'
p
Substituting P,,,I = Pmol)( sin 6'maJi'we get
= 166.6. ~ x ~ rps Is
(5.49) p 360
Equation (5.49) is a non-linear equation In 6mu and can be solved by trial and -erroror by uslng any numerical
=166.6' ~. .L .60 rpm/s
method for solution of non-linear algebraic equation (like Newton-Raphson, bisection. Eitd).From solution of om.;, Pm, P 360
can be calculated. Pml- Pm,will give the maximum possible Increase In mechanical input before the machine looses = 13.88 rpm/s
stability.
10
(c) 10 cycles = - = 0.2 s
50
120 x 50
N, = Synchronous speed = --4-- = 1500rpm
Rotor speed at end of 10 cycles = N. + a. 0.2 = 1500 + 13.88" 0.2.1502.776 rpm.
5.10 NUMERICALEXAMPLES Ex~mple 2: Two SO Hz generating units operate In parallel within the same plant, with the following ratings: Unit
1: ~OO MVA, 0.8 pf, 13.2 kV, 3600 rpm: H z 4 MJ/MVA; Unit 2: 1000 MVA, 0.9 pf, 13.8 kV, 1800 rpm: H D 5 MJ/MVA.
Caiculate the equivalent H constant on a base of 100 MVA.
Example 1: A 50Hz, 4 pole turbo alternator rated 150 MVA, 11 kV has an inertia constant of 9 ·MJ/ MVA ..Find the (a)
stored energy at synchronous speed (b) the rotor acceleration if the Input mechanical power is raised to 100 MW
~olution:
when the electrical luad is 75 MW, (c) the speed at the end of 10 cycles if acceleranon is assumed constant at the
initial value.
= 4x 500 = 20 MJ/MVA
100
Solution:
= 5x 1000 =50 MJ/MVA
100
,
I {ill
(b)
Stored energy = GH = 150 • 9 = 1350 MJ
p.=pm-p. =100-75=25MW
li.q =H, +H,=20+50=70MJ/MVA
l -----I~~-~_1
M=__(!.H
IMOf
= __1350
180 x50
=O.15MJ-s/2e
This is the equivalent inertia constant on a base of 100 MVA and can be used when the two machines swing
coherently.
..
______ . ~J~qn. .:._ _
JQ'
Solution:
Fig. P4 Example 4
~c;100''b5
. J 0'4--
JO·35 '
I
w_._ I
Fig. PS Example 6
E, Lo = V,LO + jl.O(/)
=lLB+ jI.0(1.0LB-1.0LOo)
jl.O . 0.35
(a) X= 0.4 + --2- = 0.575 pu
When maximum power Is transferred <5 = 90'; which means real part of E = 0
:. 2 cosS-1 = 0
:.0, = sin -I ~
P"..
= sin -l (_Q:!._)
2.087
= 22.54°.
S = cos'! 0.5= 60'
~: A 50 Hz synchronous generator having an internal voltage 1.2 pu, H = 5.2 MJ/MVA and a
= ± j 7.63 rad/sec = 1.21 Hz
reactance of 0.4 IJU is connected to an infinite bus through a double circuit line, each :line of reactance 0.35 pu. The
generator is dehverrng 0.8pu power and the Infinite bus voltage is 1.0 pu. Determlbe: maximum power transfer, Natural frequency of oscillation w, = 1.21 Hz.
I Steady state operating angle, and Natural frequency of oscillation if damping is neglected.
I
example 6: In example .6, If the damping is 0.14 and there is a minor disturbance of /J. ~ = 0.15 rad from the initial
Solution: The one line diagram is shown in Fig P5. operating point, determine: (a) 00,(b) ~ (c) OOd (d) setting time and (el expression for o.
I
i
L-----r--,------------------------------- ~
~.------------------------------------------~
.------.-----_-L>L. __
. : ~
,----- ...-.--------- .-- ..L.:l"'- ---,
~ '1.927
(a) 0). = 11-"- = 1-- = 7.63 rad/sec = 1.21 Hz ~; In example 6, find the po,,:,er angle relationship
vM ~ 0.0331
(i)
(b) ~= !l_J- , . = ~ C- ,- =0.277
(ii)
For the given network
The variation of delta with respect to time is shown below. It can be observed that-the angle reaches the steady
state value of 22.54' after the Initial transient, it should be noted that the magnitudes of the swings decrease in a
stable system with damping .
"ni'
I
l,of
!"-::
-,~.o---~--~-· a
Ih>1<J(u()Con(Je)
Fig.P7a Short circuit in middle of line
Fig.P6 Swing Curve for example 7
The network is reduced by converting the delta to star and again the resulting star to delta as shown In Fig P7a, P7b
and P7c.
L_____ ._~ ~
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~\.~
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0.9
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K - J(8;:;)
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Starting from an initial guess of lim.. between!!" to 1[, the above equations are solved Iteratively till A o!:;~ S E.
2
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Simplifying, we get
or
d'o
M,. d/' =Pm-P" ,
Example 9: Transform a two machine system to an equivalent SMIB system and show
equal area criterion is M,M,
applicable to it. where M•• = ---
. M,+M,
This relation is Identical to that of an SMIB system In form and can be used to determine the relative swing (0, _ 0,)
'between the two machines to assessthe stability .
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