CE113

Introduction to Properties of Wood

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 Material Properties

Microstructure & macrostructure

Softwoods & hardwoods
Defects & stress grading
Moisture & load duration effects
Stress grading

© 2002 R. J. Schmidt 2
Wood Chemical Composition

Cellulose (40-50%)
Lignin (18-25%)
Hemicellulose (20-30%)
Extractives
(2-30%)
Ash-forming minerals

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Wood Chemical Composition

Cellulose – Carbohydrate of long chain

polymers organized into microfibrils
(C6 H10O5 )n
(Note: Cotton is pure cellulose)
Lignin – Organic compound the binds
the microfibrils together in the
secondary walls and middle lamella
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Wood Chemical Composition

Hemicellulose – A cellulose-like material

in the wood cell wall that is easily
decomposed by dilute acid to yield
simple sugars
Extractives – Organic material deposited
during heartwood formation (gums,
resins, oils, alkaloids)

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Micrograph – Red Pine

ew = early wood
lw = late wood
rc = resin canal
r = ray

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Macrostructure – Red Oak

A = cambium layer
B = inner bark
C = outer bark
D = sap wood
E = heart wood
F = pith
G = rays

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Macrostructure – Douglas Fir

ob = outer bark
ib = inner bark
cz = cambium zone
gi = growth increment
p = pith
x = wood

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 Softwoods

Naked seeds in cones

Needle-like leaves
Usually evergreen
Simple cell structure
Some are very high strength
n Douglas fir
n Southern Pine

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 Hardwoods

Seeds are enclosed in shells

Broad leaves
Deciduous
Complex cell structure
Some are very low strength
n Aspen
n Cottonwood

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 Defects

Knots
Checks, shakes, splits
Reaction wood
Wane, skip
Slope of grain
Warp

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 Knots

Intergrown Encased
n Tree trunk grows n Tree trunk grows
around and with a around a dead
living branch branch

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 Checks, shakes, splits

Checks – radial cracks due to

differential shrinkage (ST > SR)
Shakes – tangential cracks due to shock
loading or growth defect
Split – any thru-thickness crack

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 Reaction Wood

Growth defect
Abnormal cell growth while under
bending stress
Softwoods – Compression wood
Hardwoods – Tension wood
Bigger problem for lumber than for
timber

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 Reaction Wood

Compression Wood Tension Wood

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Compression Wood in Lumber

Compression
wood

Longitudinal
shrinkage
cracking

Warp from
differential
shrinkage
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 Wane & Skip

Cutting defects
Wane – Incomplete rectangular cross
section due to cutting too close to the
bark
Skip – Saw gouge, chip, or other
recessed area not removed by planing
at the mill.

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 Slope of Grain

Growth or cutting defect

Wood cell fibers not parallel to member
axis
Common around knots
Causes failure by shear and tension
perp.

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 Warp

Bow – Curvature about minor axis

Crook – Curvature about major axis
Twist – board does not lie flat
Kink – Sharp bend at a knot
Cup – Curvature about longitudinal axis

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Warp

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 Moisture Content

MC = (Weight of H2O)÷(Weight of Solids)

MC > 100% in a living tree
at 700F & 65%RH, MC ˜ 12%
MC > 19% defined as “wet service”

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 Shrinkage

Decrease in dimension due to loss of

moisture
n St ˜ 2xSr
Softwoods – Doug Fir: St = 7-8%
Hardwoods – Red Oak: St = 9-13%

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Shrinkage Deformation

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 Moisture Affects

Stiffness
Strength

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Duration of Load Effects
impact Madison Curve

wind

roof live
snow
live
dead

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 Stress Grading

Method of classifying lumber to identify its

structural qualities
Visual or Machine methods
Agencies that write grading rules
n WWPA – Western Wood Products Assn.
n NELMA – Northeast Lumber Manufacturers Assn.
n NLGA – National Lumber Grades Authority
(Canada)
n … several others

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 Stress Grading

Visual grading
n Visual examination of each piece
n Identification of defect types and effects
n High variability in result
n For dimension lumber and timbers

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Visual Grading
Rules

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 Lumber and Timber
d
Lumber: 2 in < b < 4 in
b
Timber: b ≥ 5, d ≥ 5
n Posts and Timbers d ≤ b + 2 in
n Beams and Stringers d > b + 2 in

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 In-Grade Test Program

For dimension lumber only

Test each stress grade individually
Account for statistical variation
Use “lower 5% exclusion limit”
n 5% of all pieces will be below the limit
Reduce by factor of 2.1
n Factor of safety
n Time effect factor
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 Test Data Variation
3.0E-04

2.0E-04
Frequency

Mean = 5000 psi

COV = 0.3
1.0E-04

0.0E+00
0 2500 5000 7500 10000
Breaking Strength (psi)
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 Test Statistics

Mean of all tests: F

Standard deviation: σ

Coefficient of variation:COV =σ
F
5% exclusion limit: F5% = F − 1.64σ
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 Sample Design Value, Fb
3.0E-04
F = 5000psi
COV = 0.3
2.0E-04 σ = 1500psi
Frequency

F5% = F − 1.64σ
1.0E-04 F5% = 2540psi
FS = 2.1
0.0E+00 Fb = 1210psi
0 2500 5000 7500 10000
Breaking Strength (psi)
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 Timber Design Values

For timbers only

Small, clear specimens tested
Use “lower 5% exclusion limit”
Adjust for knots, size effect, etc.
Reduce by factor of 2.1

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 Stress Grading

Machine grading
n Nondestructive evaluation of each piece
n Measurement of stiffness or density
n Statistical correlation to strength
n For dimension lumber only (currently)
n Most machine graded lumber goes into
nail-plate trusses

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E vs Fb Correlation, Eqn. Form

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E vs Fb Correlation, Real Data

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 Grade Stamps

Visual Grade Machine Grade

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 Design Methods

Allowable stress design

n ANSI/AF&PA NDS-1997 (NDS-2001)
Load and resistance factor design
n AF&PA/ASCE Standard 16-95
Both are recognized by building codes

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Allowable stress design (ASD)

aka: Working stress design

Uses service level loads
Assumes elastic behavior
Unknown reliability
(probability of failure)

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 Allowable Stress Design
Rn
Design inequality: ∑ Qi ≤ FS
… is usually written in terms of stress:
Mx MOR
fb ≤ F ,
b
'
fb = , F =
b
'
Sx FS
(in psi)

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Load and Resistance Factor
Design (LRFD)
aka: Limit states design
aka: Ultimate strength design
(like concrete)
Uses factored loads
Recognizes inelastic behavior (if any)
Well defined reliability
(probability of failure)

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 Load and Resistance Factor
Design
Design inequality:
∑γ Q i i ≤ φRn
… is usually written in terms of force or
moment:

M u ≤ λφb M '
M u = 1.2 M D + 1.6 M L
Factor up the moments

time effect factor (only used in wood)

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 ASD vs LRFD

A structure does not care which design

method was used
Behavior is independent of design rules
ASD has worked fine for years
For inelastic (ductile) materials, LRFD
more closely expresses behavior

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 ASD vs LRFD

ASD advantages
n Comfort and familiarity – not trivial
considerations!
LRFD advantages
n More consistent reliability, esp. w.r.t. loads
n Adapts more easily to new developments:
w Engineered wood products
w Connection systems
w Mixed material systems

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 NDS Overview

Specification
Allowable stress tables
Commentary
Other supplements

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 Specification

Chapter 1 – Boiler plate & notation

n fi à Actual stress, an analysis quantity
n Fi à Allowable stress or material strength
n Ci à Adjustment factor
n Fi’ à Adjusted allowable stress

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 Specification

Chapter 2 - Equation format for

allowable stresses

F = Fb [C DCM Ct CLCF CV C fuCi Cr CcC f ]

b
'

adjustment factors
tabulated design value (allowable stress)

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 Design Values for Wood
Construction (DVWC)
Materials covered
n Dimension lumber
w Visually graded
n Western woods
n Southern pine
w Machine graded
n Timbers – softwood and hardwood
w Visually graded

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 Design Values for Wood
Construction (DVWC)
Properties listed
n Fb à Bending
n Ft à Tension
n Fv à Shear
n Fc ⊥ à Compression perpendicular
n Fc à Compression parallel
n E à Modulus of Elasticity (MOE)

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Allowable Stresses

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