Ibn Taimīya's al-Ṣūfīyah wa-al-Fuqarāʾ

Author(s): Th. E. Homerin

Source: Arabica , Jul., 1985, T. 32, Fasc. 2 (Jul., 1985), pp. 219-244
Published by: Brill

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/4056952

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 IBN TAIMIYA'S AL-SUFIYAH WA-AL-FUQARA'*

BY

TH. E. HOMERIN

AL-SUFIYAH WA-L-FUQARA' is a short epistle written by the famous

Hanball jurist and theologian Taqi-l-Din Ahmad ibn Taimiya (611-728
A.H./1262-1328 A.D.), in which he sketches briefly his view of Siifism's
origin and background. In answering the initial question posed, he
carefully delineates various types and grades of behavior among the
Muslim mystics and mendicants, always with reference to the traditional
legal categories of morally praiseworthy actions, excusable ones, and
those which are reprehensible.
Ibn Taimlya was a controversial figure during his lifetime in Damascus
and Cairo, and he was outspoken against any belief or practice which
seemed to undermine the basic God-man distinction, for he believed
this to be the basic foundation of any significant moral action in the
material world'. Although Ibn Taimiya vigorously attacked certain
popular and antinomian practices of the Sufi orders and the doctrine of
wahdat al-wujfid (<<Unity of Being>>) which he believed, sanctioned and
encouraged such tendencies, he was not anti-Stifi as such. Recent articles
by George Makdisi2 have severely criticized the traditional Western
conceptions of Hanbalism in general and of Ibn Taimiya in particular,
and Makdisi asserts, as Henri Laoust had earlier3, that Ibn Taimlya was

* I wish to thank Thomas F. Michel, and especially Dr. Faziur Rahman without whose
encouragement and guidance this study would not have been possible. The translation won
first prize in the non-literary genre of the 1982 American Association of Teachers of
Arabic Translation Contest
1 For further information regarding Ibn Taimlya's biography and basic intellectual
positions see the excellent work by Henri Laoust, Essai sur les doctrines sociales et politiques
de Taqi-l-Din Ahmad b. Taimiya, Cairo: Imprimerie de l'Institut Franqais d'Archeologie
Orientale, 1939, and also his, <Quelques opinions sur theodicee d'Ibn Taymiya", Meanges
Maspero,Cairo: Imprimerie de l'Institut Franqais d'Archeologie Orientale, 1940.
2 G. Makdisi, <<Hanbalite Islam>>, in Studies on Islam, ed. and tr. by Merlin L. Swartz,
New York: Oxford University Press, 1981, pp. 216-264; ?The Hanbali School of Sufism>>,
in Actas do IV Congresso de Estudos Arabes e Isldmicos, 1968, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1971,
pp. 71-84, and < Ibn Taimiya: A Sifi of the Qadiriya Order>>, in American Journal of Arabic
Studies, V. 1 (1973), pp. 118-129.
3 Laoust, Essai, pp. 22-31, 89ff.

Arabica, Tome xxxII, 1985

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 220 TH. E. HOMERIN [2]

sympathetic to an e
Qur'an and the practice of Muhammad. Fazlur Rahman4, Joseph Bell5
and Thomas Michel6 have examined this dimension of Ibn Taimiya in
more specific contexts, sensitive to its ramifications for a reconstruction
and understanding of Ibn Taimlya's fundamental world-view.
al-.ufiyah wa-l-fuqara' is a key work for such investigations, stating
briefly and at times, succinctly, Ibn Taimlya's position vis-a-vis the
mystical experience and Sifi practice. This epistle has the further
advantage of being less technical than other works, such as his commen-
tary on 'Abd al-Qadir al-Jilni's Futuh al-ghayb', and it lacks the
polemical tone found in a number of his works which denounce ideas
and customs he found repugnant8. The translation of this epistle then,
can provide the non-Arabic reader with a valuable primary source for the
study of Ibn Taimiya and fourteenth century Islamic mysticism and
perhaps, encourage further study in these areas by specialists.
Ibn Taimlya's literary style in this work is homiletic, resembling the
style of the popular preacher; the author digresses at times from his
subject but always returns to conclude his thoughts which he presents in
a clear and generally logical fashion. al-Suf-yah wa-l-fuqara' is listed by
Ibn Qayyim al-Jauziya as being among the works written by his teacher9,
and the tone, style, and ideas of the epistle are unmistakably those of Ibn
Taimlya. This translation has been based on the text published in the
Riyad edition of Ibn Taimlya's complete works ' and the numbers in the
margin refer to this edition. I also compared it to the edition of this

4 Fazlur Rahman, Islam, Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, 1968, pp. 132,
239-240.

5 Joseph Bell, Love Theory in Later Hanbalite Islam, Albany, New York: State
University of New York Press, 1979.
6 Thomas Michel, <<Ibn Taymiyia's Sharh on the Futuh al-Ghavb of'Abd al-Qadir
al-J-iani>>, in Hamdard Islamicus, 4:2:3-12, and his Ph.D. dissertation, Ibn Taymiyya's
al-Jawdb al-Sahih: A Muslim Theologian's Response to Christianity, University of Chicago,
1978, especially 1:122-145.
See Michel, <<Ibn Taymiyya's Sharh ...>>, and Ibn Taimiya, <<Sharh Kalimat li-Abd
al-Qadir ft kitab Futu7h al-ghayb>>, in Majmi' Fatdwd Shaykh al-Isldm Ibn Taimiya, Riyad:
Maktabat al-Hukiimah, 1386, 10:455-548.
See for example: Ibn Taimiya, al-Farq bayn awliyd' Alldh wa-awliyi' al-Shaytdn
(<<The Difference Between the Friends of God and Those of Satan>>) in Majmu7' Fatdwd ....
11:157:31 1. For other works see: Laoust, Essai, pp. 125-131 and Michel, Ibn Taymiyya's
al-Jawdb al-Sah.h, 1:98.
9 Shams al-Din ibn Qayyim al-Jauziya (d. 751/1350) Asmd' mu'allifdt Ibn Taim7ya (La
Liste Des (Euvres D'Ibn Taimiya), ed. Salah al-Din al-Munajjid, Damascus: Academie
Arabe de Damas, 1953, p. 21, ?36: << Qd'ida fl-l-fuqard wa-l-Sflyah ayyuhumd afdal?>>
10 al-Suifiyah wa-l-fuqara', in Majmi' fatawa Shaykh al-Isiam Ibn Taimiya, Riyad:
Maktabat al-Hukuma, 1386, 11:1-24.

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 [3] IBN TAIMIYA 221

epistle published by Muhammad Rashid Rida in 192811. A short

commentary will follow the translation.

Ibn Taymiya (661-728/1262-1328)

The Siifis and The Poor (al-SufiJyah wa-l-fuqard')

s <In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful>>

The Shaikh al-Islam [Ibn TaimiyaJ-may God sanctify his spirit-was
asked about the Siufis. They are [in] groups as are thefuqard' (?poor>>,
<(mendicants?), therefore, what is the distinguishing characteristic of
each group, and what is incumbent upon each group, being that which it
prefers to follow?
He answered: 'Praise be to God'. As for the term al-sujfyah (Sufis), it
was not well-known in the three centuries [first-third A.H./seventh-ninth
A.D.], and its usage became well-known only after that. Its usage has
been reported by more than one of the imams and shaikhs, such as the
imam, Ahmad ibn Hanbal 2, Abii Sulaiman al-Ddran7i3 and others,
and it has been related, concerning Sufyan al-Thawri 14, that he used id.
Some have mentioned that concerning al-Hasan al-Basr1 i.
6 People have disagreed over the meaning ascribed to suf for it is
among the relational adjectives like al-qurashF (of the Quraish tribe),
al-madanf (from the city of Madina), and similar examples. Thus, it is

11 al-Sflyah wa-al-fuqara', ed. Muhammad Rashlid Rida, Cairo: Matba'at al-Manar,

2nd ed., 1348/1928. This edition was reissued in the late 1970's by the Saudi Fondation
in Egypt, with an introduction by Muhammad Jamil GaZi, Cairo: Matba'at al-Madani.
12 Ahmad ibn Hanbal (164-241 A.H./780-855 A.D.) was the founder of the Hanbali
school of law and in the forefront of the fundamentalist reaction against a rationalistic
interpretation of the Qur'dn and Islam. See: H. Laoust in Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed.
(El..2), 1:272-277.
13 Abu Sulaiman 'Abd al-Rahman ibn 'Atiya al-Darani (d. 215/830), was a famoes
ascetic who lived in Syria. See Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam, Chapel
Hill, North Carolina, 1975, pp. 31, 117, and also, al-Sulami, Tabaqdt al-.Siifyah Leiden,
1960, pp. 68-73; al-Qushairi, al-Risalah, Cairo, 1972, 1:96-98; al-Hujwfri, The Kashf al-
Ma.hjub, tr. R. A. Nicholson, London, 1967, pp. 11 2-113; 'Attar, Tadhkirdt al-awliyd',
Tehran, 1957, pp. 208-214; and Ibn Khallikan, Wafaydt al-'aydn Beirut, 1968, # 363.
14 Sufyan al-Thawri was born in Kufa in 97/715 and died in Basra in 161/778. He was
a traditionalist and legal scholar, founding a law school which lasted for about two
centuries. He led an ascetic lifestyle. See: M. Plessner in E.l.', 4:500-02, and also, Abu
Nu'aim, Hilyat al-awliyd', Cairo, 1932-38, 6:e56-7:143; al-Khatib al-Baghdadd, Tarikh
Baghddd, Cairo, 1931, 9:151-174, and especially, Ibn al-'Imad, Shadhardt al-dhahab,
Cairo, 1350-51 A.H., 1:250-51.
15 al-Hasan al-Basri (21-110/642-728) was a preacher, theologian, and certainly the
most famous Muslim ascetic. His bibliography is extensive. See: H. Ritter in E.l.2, 3:247-
248 and also his <<Hasan al-Basri ...>>, Der Islam 21 (1933), 1-83; Abu Nu'aim, 2:131-
161; 'al-Hujwiri, pp. 86-87, and Ibn al-Jauzi, al-Hasan al-Basra Cairo, 1931.

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 222 TH. E. HOMERIN [4]

said to be an adjective denoting the ahl al-suffa (?<People of the

Bench>>)16 this being a mistake, because if that were so, one would sa
suffi[as the adjective]. Also, it is said to be a relational adjective to al-
al-muqaddam (?the front row>>) standing before God ', this too, being a
mistake, because if it were so, one would say saffi. It is thought to refer to
al-safwa (?the elite>>)8 of God's creation, this being a mistake, because
if it were so, one would say safawi. It is also said to be an adjective
denoting descent from Sawfah ibn Bashr ibn'Add ibn Tabikhah, a tribe
among the Arabs who used to live in the immediate vicinity of Mecca in
ancient times, ascetics being ascribed to them. Although this is consistent
with the derivation of the term [sJfi], it is also weak, because they were
not widely known nor generally recognized among the majority of
ascetics, and even if ascetics could be traced to them, this relationship
would have been in the time of the companions, the followers, and their
first followers. Further, the majority of those who used the adjective su7ff
were not acquainted with this tribe, and they do not find it acceptable
that he [the Silfi] be ascribed to a tribe existing during the JThillya,
without it [the tribe] existing in the era of Islam '9.
It is said, being well-known, that it [the term sui-f] is related to woolen
garments. The first place the ?wearers of wool>> (al-sajftyah) appeared

16 The ahl al-suffah (<<People of the Bench>>) is the name given to a group of
Muhammad's companions who are said to have lived an ascetical life in his mosque at
Madina. For later Muslims, they embodied the ideal of piety and poverty and were the
most virtuous of all mankind (see for example, al-Hujwiri, pp. 81-82). As part of the salaf
(?forefathers>?), Ibn Taimiya held them in high esteem. See his, An ahl al-suffah: kam kanI
wa-hal kdna bi-Makkah aw bi-Madinah2?, (?Concerning the People of the Bench: How
many were there, and were they in Mecca or Medina??) in Majmii'fatdwd, 11: 37-71.
17 The <<row>> (al-saff) standing before God is to be formed on the Day of Judgment in
which mankind will be lined up and judged (Qur'an 18:48 and 37:1); the angels will also be
in ranks on that day (78:38 and 89:22). The Qur'dn, however, does not mention a row of
the pious standing before God, and this is a product of popular legend. However, the
Qur'dn does say that the pious will occupy <<exalted ranks>? (al-darajdt al-'uld) in Paradise
(20:75).
18 al-Safwa (?the pure part?>, i.e., ?the elite>>) was often used to refer to the Suflis in
order to designate their spotless character, purged of all moral taint. See, for example,
al-Kaldbadhf, The Doctrine of the Siufis, tr. A. J. Arberry, Cambridge, England, 1975,
pp. 5-11, and al-Hujwiri, pp. 30-31.
19 The suggestion that the adjective silfi may be derived from the name of a tribe is
rarely found in other sources. It is not mentioned by al-Sarraj, al-Kaldbadhl, al-Qushairi,
or

al-Hujwi-i. However, an account similar to that of Ibn Taimlya's, though substantially

larger, appears in a work by his Hanbali predecessor, Ibn al-Jauzi (510-597/1116-1200). Ibn
al-Jauzi relates in his Talbis IblTs (?The Devil's Delusion.) Cairo, 1928, pp. 157-158, that
the Sawfah tribe was in charge of leading the people on the pilgrimage from Arafat to Mind
to Mecca. This was during pre-Islamic times; later the Quraish tribe obtained this privilege.

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 [5] IBN TAIMIYA 223

was Basra, and the fir

companions of 'Abd al-Wahid ibn Zaid,'Abd al-Wahid being among the
companions of al-Hasan [al-Basri]20. In Basra, there was an excessi-
veness in asceticism, worship, fear, and such things, which did not exist in
the inhabitants of the other major cities, and so it has been said, (Kiffi
jurisprudence and Basri worship?. Abui al-Shaikh al-Isfahani has related
based on Muhammad ibn S-irin 21 who reported it, that a group of people
prefers garments of wool. Thus he [Ibn Sirin] said, ((A group of people
prefers wool saying that they are imitating the Messiah, son of Mary, and
that 'the fashion of our Prophet is most dear to us'. However, the
Prophet-God bless him and grant him peace-used to wear cotton and
other [materials]?, or a statement similar to this.
Therefore, most of what is recounted on this issue concerning exces-
siveness, is only about the worshippers among the people of Basra, like
the story of those who died or swooned when hearing the Qur an, and
similar things, like the story of Zurara ibn 'Aufr, the qadi of Basra 22.
He recited during the morning prayer, ?And when the trumpet is
sounded [on the judgment day]>> (Q. 74:8-9), then fell down, dead. And
like the story of Abii Jahir al-'Ama (the blind) who when Salih al-Murri
recited [the Qur'dn] to him, died23 Likewise, there are others who are
said to have died from listening to its recitation, and there were groups of
them [the people of Basra] who would lose consciousness upon hearing
the Qur'an, but there was no one among the Companions [of the
Prophet] who had this condition. Thus, when it [this excessiveness]

20 'Abd al-Wahid ibn Zaid (d. 177/794) was a disciple of al-Hasan al-Basri and founder
of a settlement for ascetics at Abadan on the Persian Gulf. See Schimmel, p. 31. and also,
Abii Nu'aim, 6:155-165.
21 Muhammad ibn Sirin (34-110/654-728) was renowned for his interpretations of
dreams and for the reliability of his information regarding hadhths. He was a contemporary
and friend of al-Hasan al-Basri. See: T. Fahd in E.l.2, 3:947-948 and also, Ibn Khallikan,
4:181-183, and Abiu Nu'aim, 2:i63-282, who is probably the Abii Shaikh al-Isfahani
referred to, (see n. 15) but I could not find this account in his Hfilyah.
22 Zurarah ibn 'Aufa al-Jurashi (or al-Harasi) was a qadi of Basra and alive when
al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf became governor there in 76/694. The date of his death is uncertain;
Waki' gives 106/725 or 108/727, and Ibn Hajar gives 93/713. See Waki', Akhbar al-qu.dt,
Cairo, 1947-50, 1:292-296; Ibn Hajar al-'Asqalani, TahdhTb al-tahdhtb, Beirut, 1968,
3:322-23, and Abui Nu'aim, 2:258-260. Salih Ahmad al-'All in his al-Tanzimat al-
ijtimn 'iyah wa-al-iqtisddiyah fi al-Basrahfi-l-qarn al-awwal al-Hijri, Baghdad, 1953, p. 298,
lists Zurarah as holding the judgeship from 62-65 A.H. See the commentary below
concerning a possible motive for Ibn Taimiya's use of this particular story.
23 A similar story involving al-Murri is also found in al-Hujwiri, p. 396. Salih ibn Bashir
al-Q&ri'al-Murri (d. 176/793) was a famous reader of the Qur'cin; he was from Basra and
learned hadTth from Muhammad ibn Slkin (see n. 21). See: Abu Nu'aim, 6:167-177 and
also, Ibn Khallikan, 2:494-495.

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 224 TH. E. HOMERIN [6]

appeared, a group of the Companions and followers, such as Asma' bint

Abui Bakr24, 'Abd Allah ibn al-Zubair25, Muhammad ibn Sirin and
others like them, disapproved.
Those who disapprove have two approaches. There are those who
suppose that [excessive state] to be an affection and a feigning. It is
mentioned about Muhammad ibn Sirin that he said, <?The difference
between us and those who lose consciousness upon hearing the Qur'dn is
8 only that, if it is recited to one of them while he is sitting on a wall and he
falls off, then he is [considered] sincere >>26 As it has been related about
Asma' and her son'Abd Allah, there are those who denounce it because
they see it as an innovation contrary to what is known of the way of the
Companions.
The majority of the 'ulama' are of the opinion that the ecstatic27 one
among them, if he is overcome, is not reproved, although the state of
stability (hal thabit) is more perfect. For this reason, when the imam
Ahmad [ibn Hanbal] was asked about this he said, ?The Qur'dn was
recited to Yahya ibn Sa'ld al-Qattan28, and so he swooned, and yet if
anyone would have been able to defend himself from this, then Yahya
ibn Sa'id would have done so, for I have not seen anyone more intelligent
than him>>, and so forth. It has been related about al-Shdfi'i29 that this
[state] befell him, and the case ofAli ibn al-Fudail ibn 'Iyad is famoes 30.

24 Asma' bint Aba Bakr (d. 73/693) was the daughter of the first caliph and a half-sister
of'A'isha. She was one of the early converts to Islam and noted for her piety. She was the
mother of'Abd Allah ibn al-Zubair (see n. 25). See, H. A. R. Gibb in El..2, 1:173-174 who
gives her bibliography.
25 'Abd Allah ibn al-Zubair (2-73/624-629) according to tradition, was the first child
born in the Muslim community of Madina. He participated in numerous battles and was
among those commissioned by 'Uthman to compile an official recension of the Qur'an.
Following 'Uthman's death (35/654),'Abd Allah opposed'Arl, and in 683 he was generally
recognized as caliph. Later, however, he was defeated a and killed at Mecca by a force
under the command of al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf. See, H. A. R. Gibb in El..2, 1:54-55, and
M. G. S. Hogdson, The Venture of Islam, 1:219-223.
26 This story is also found in Abu Nu'aim, 2:265 with slight differences.
27 I am following the Rida edition's al-walhid, p. 5, in place of the Riyad's.
28 Yahya ibn Sa-ld ibn Furilkh al-Qattan (120-198/737-813) was a hadfth scholar from
Basra who gave legal opinions following the pronouncements of Abii Hanifa. He was
considered to be very reliable. See al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, i 14:135-144 and Ibn Hajar,
11:217-220.
29 Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafi'-i (150-204/767-820) was the founder of the Shafi-l
law school and is sometimes referred to as the father of Islamic jurisprudence. See,
W. Heffening in E.', 4:252-254 who includes an extensive bibliography. Concerning his
swooning see, al-Ghazzrll, Ihya 'uluim al-dTn, Cairo, 1356-57/1937-38, V. 1:43.
30 All ibn Fudail ibn 'Iyad (d. before 187/803) was the son of the famous ascetic and
mystic Fudail ibn 'Iyad (d. 187/803). 'All was renowned primarily for his fear of the

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 [7] IBN TAIMIYA 225

On the whole, then, this is frequent among those whose truthfulness is

not doubted.
But the states (ahwdl) which the Companions possessed are mentioned
in the Qur'dn, and they are: the dread of hearts, the tears of the eye, and
the trembling of the skins, as He-He is most high-has said,

The believers are only those who, when God is mentioned, their hearts dread, and
when His signs (d7pdt) are recited to them, they increase in faith, and those who trust
in their Lord. (Q. 8:2)

And He-He is most high-has said,

God has sent down the best statement, a uniform book, paired; the skins of those
who fear their Lord tremble, then their skins and hearts yield to the remembrance
of God (Q. 39:23)

God-He is most High-has said,

And when the signs of the Merciful are recited to them, they fall down prostra
crying. (Q. 19:58)

And He has said,

And, when they hear what has been sent down to the messenger, you will see their
9 eyes overflow with tears due to what they recognize of the truth. (Q. 5:83)

12nHe has said,

And they fall down on their faces, crying, increasing in humility (Q. 17:109)

At times, their state is censured by those people who have in

themselves that which is blameworthy itself due to hardness of heart
the rust upon them and crudeness in religion, and yet they too do it
[blame others]. And among them [who have the states] are those who
suppose that this state of theirs is the most perfect state, the culmination
and most exalted of them, but both extremes in this matter are
reprehensible.
Instead, there are three ranks [to those hearing the Qur'an]. One
of them is the state of those unjust to themselves, those who are
hard-hearted, not yielding to the audition [of the Qur'ain] nor t
remembrance [of God], and they are comparable to the Jews. God-He
is most High has said,

Judgement Day and hell-fire. Ibn Khallikan, 4:40, counts him among those killed by God's
love. Also see, Abiu Nu'aim, 8:297-300, and'Attar, pp. 91-93.

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 226 TH. E. HOMERIN [8]

Then your hearts were hardened after that, and they are like rocks or harder, for
indeed among stones there are [those] from which streams gush forth and there are
[rocks] which are split, and water then comes from them, and indeed there are [rocks]
which fall down from fear of God, and God is not unaware of what you do.
(Q. 2:76)

And He-He is most high-has said,

Is it not time for those who believe to humble their hearts to the remembrance of
God and to what was sent down from the Truth, and they are not like those who were
granted the book previously, then the period was lengthened, but their hearts became
hardened, and many of them were licentious ones? (Q. 57:16)

The [second rank] is the state of the pious believer who is too weak to
bear what suddenly afflicts his heart. So he is the one who is struck down,
1o death-struck or swooning, and that is due only to the power of the
sudden seizure (al-wdrid)3" and the weakness of the heart to bear it. At
times, something like this [state] is found in one who is happy or fearful,
grief stricken or in love with earthly affairs, that making him physically
ill, insane, or killing him. Among the worshipper of forms (suwar*32 is
one whom excessive love ('ishq) makes physically ill, drives mad, or kills,
and so likewise with others-and this does not happen except to one
seized by an affliction (amr) which his carnal soul (nafs) is too weak to
repel, or to one who was overwhelmed by it-just like the causes which
afflict the body making it sick or killing it.
However, if a remissness does not issue from him [the pious believer]
nor a transgression, then there is no fault in what befalls him nor reason
for suspicion. He is just like one who heard the Qur'an in the legal
manner and had not been remiss by omitting what that required of him.
Likewise is what afflicts the hearts from what is called intoxication (al-
sukr), annihilation (al-fand'), and similar things among the afflictions
which cause the intellect to vanish without the choice of the afflicted.
That is, if the cause is not [legally] forbidden, then the intoxicated one is
not censured, rather he is excused because the intoxicated is without [the
power of] discrimination. Similarly, that [state] may arise by seeking
intoxication from wine or hashish, and that is undeniably forbidden
among Muslims. He who regards intoxication derived from these things
as permissible, is an unbeliever. It [the state of intoxication] may also

31 al-Hujwiri, p. 385, defines wdrid as ?the descent of spiritual meanings upon the heart.
They frequently occur during audition and some novices may be overpowered by it, lose
consciousness and at times die>> (p. 407).
32 Ibn Taimiya is probably referring here to those people afflicted from gazing on
beautiful faces. See, Joseph Bell, Love Theory in Later Hanbalite Islam, Albany, New York,
1979, pp. 125-144.

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 [9] IBN TAIMIYA 227

arise from the lo

has been said,

sukran-i sukru hawa wa-sukru mudamah

wa-matd ifdqatu man bi-hi sukrdn

There are two intoxications: the drunkeness of passion and that of

wine.
When is there recovery
for one who has both?33

This is blameworthy because its cause is forbidden. At other times it

arises due to the audition34 of enrapturing voices which cause somethi
like this intoxication, and this is also blameworthy; for man has no right
to listen to that voice among the voices whose audition is not incumbent
upon him, and which removes his reason, since the removal of reason is
forbidden. So, when an unlawful cause leads to it, it is forbidden. The
emotional or spiritual pleasure produced in that [state]-even though it
be dhrough things connected to the faith-is submerged by the cessation
of the intellect occurring along with it. God has not permitted us to allow
our hearts and spirits to enjoy those pleasures of faith nor other pleasures
which necessitate the cessation of our intellects, except for the one whose
intellect has vanished due to a lawful cause or due to an affliction which
unexpectedly befalls him, he having no means to repel it.
At times, intoxication arises due to the cause in which the servant had
no doing, like an unintended audition which stirs him up and drives him
into a state of agitation, and such things, and so, he is not to blame in
this. He is excused for what issued from him in the state of the cessation
of his intellect, because the Pen [of judgement] is lifted from everyone
whose intellect has vanished for a legitimate reason, as is the case with
the unconscious person, the possessed, and others similar to those two.
As for him whose intellect has vanished due to wine, is he legally
responsible while in the state of the cessation of his intellect? There are
two well-known opinions about it, and there is a famous controversy
concerning the divorce of one who has this state. This also applies to one
whose intellect has vanished due to marijuana (banj), as is held by the

3 Rashid al-Din Vatvat (d. c. 573/1177) also cites this line without giving its author, in
his al-Haqd'iq al-sihrfidaqa'iq al-shi'r, Tehran, 1308/1930, p. 18. He gives it as an example
of a line beginning and ending with the same word bearing the same meaning.
3 Concerning Ibn Taimiya's views on samd'(<<audition>>) see: his, Su'dl 'an sama'
al-sdlihfn, in Majmii' fatawa, 10:587-603, and other recorded opinions in this volume
10:603-606.

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 228 TH. E. HOMERIN [10]

followers of al-Shafi'i and Ahmad [ibn Hanbal]. Again, there is said to be

a difference between it [marijuana] and wine, because this [wine] is
addicting and this [marijuana] is not. Therefore, the fixed penalty (hadd)
is incumbent in this [wine] but not in this [marijuana]. This is textually
related from Ahmad [ibn Hanbal] and the school of Abui Hanifa.
Among them [the intoxicated or annihilated], is he whom a sudden and
strong seizure (wdrid) overpowers-whether due to a humor which
prevails in him, or something else-such that he becomes possessed. And
among them are the intelligent ones of the possessed who are numbered
among the ascetics and are, at times, called ?the despondent ones?)
(muwalahdin). One of the 'ulama' said about them, ?They are a group to
whom God gave their intellects and states. Then He plundered their
intellects and removed [their] religious obligations because of what He
plundered3 5? >.
So these are the states to which are linked unconsciousness, death,
possession, intoxication, and annihilation-such that one has no feeling
of oneself-and so forth. If their causes are lawful and their possessor
truthful, unable to repel them, then he is praised for what good things he
does and the faith he achieves, being excused for what he is too weak to
do and for what has befallen him without his choice. They are better than
those who did not arrive at their station due to deficiency in their faith,
or the hardness of the hearts or similar causes which include the omission
of what God loves or the doing of what God loathes. But those who
retain their reason, in spite of the fact that they acquired from faith that
which others acquired, or similar to it or more perfect, they [the former]
are more excellent than they [the latter] are. This is the state of the
Companions-may God be satisfied with them-and the state of our
Prophet- God bless him and give him peace. For he was made to travel
by night into the heaven, and God revealed to him what He revealed.
Yet, he awoke as he had spent the night; his state did not change. Thus,
13 his state is more excellent than that of Moses God bless him and give
him peace-who fell swooning (Q. 7:143) when his Lord manifested
Himself to the mountain. Moses' state is a splendid, exalted, and
excellent state, but the state of Muhammad-God bless him and give
him peace is more splendid, exalted, and excellent36.

I The Rida ed. (p. 11) reads: wa-'asqat 'ab wdlahum wa-'abqd ma farada lamma salaba,
i.e. ?and He toppled their states and made permanent what He decreed when He
plundered >>.
36 The state of the Companions is Ibn Taimiya's third rank. Concerning the importance
of Muhammad's state vis-a-vis that of Moses see the commentary below.

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 [ 1] IBN TAIMIYA 229

The point is that these matters, which contain an excess in worship

and states, issued from Basra due to an intense fear [of God]. Certainly,
what is mentioned with respect to the fear [of God] possessed by 'Utaba
al-Ghulam and 'Ata al-SulaimP7 and the like, is something extra-
ordinary, and there is no doubt that their state is more perfect and
excellent than one who does not have what was granted and bestowed
upon them with respect to the fear of God. But he who fears God with a
moderate (muqtasid) fear, being called by it to do what God loves and
avoid what God loathes, withoet this excessiveness, his state is more
perfect and excellent than theirs, being the state of the Companions-
may God be satisfied with them.
It is related that'Ata al-Sulaimi-may God be satisfied with him-was
seen [in a dream] after his death, and he was asked, ?What has God done
with you??) He said, ?lHe said to me, 'O'Ata! Aren't you ashamed before
Me that you were afraid of Me to this extent? Didn't it reach you that I
am ready to pardon, merciful?'? In like fashion is what is told about
those like them [the Basrans] concerning the states of asceticism, piety,
worship, and similar things, transmitting, at times, matters which due to
[their] excess beyond the state of the Companions may God be satisfied
with them-and beyond what the Messenger established as custom,
necessitate that people take sides: one party censures and refutes them
14 [the excessive ones], and at times they have overdone it, and one party
goes to extremes about them and deems this path to be among the most
perfect and exalted of paths.
The truth is that they [Basrans] formulated their own opinions
(mujtahidz7n) on these acts of worship, just as their neighbors among
the Kufans formulated their own opinions on matters of judicial
decision, political authority (imara) and similar things. Ra'y (personal
judgement), which contains what is reprehensible to the general public
due to deviation from the Sunna, emerged among them [Kiifans]. The
elite among the legists and those with ra'y are divided concerning those
Kiifans [as well]: one party censures them, and the are excessive in
their censure, and one party exaggerates their magnificance, and deems

3 'Utabah al-Ghulam (d. 2nd/8th century) a student of al-Hasan al-Basri and one of
the early ascetics, is said to have performed miracles; he was also known for his fear of
God and patience. See, al-Sarraj, Lumd', Nicholson's ed., p. 322; Abul NuWaim, 6:226-238;
al-Hujwlri, p. 180, and'Attar, pp. 62-63. 'Atd al-Sulaimi was a contemporary of the famous
Sifi Ibrahim ibn Adhom (d. 165/782). Statements attributed to him point to a preoccupa-
tion and obsession with the fear of God and hell-fire. See: al-Sarraj, p. 322; Abu Nu'aim,
6:215-226, and'Attar, pp. 96-97.

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 230 TH. E. HOMERIN [12]

them to be more learned in jurisprudence than any others. Sometimes,

they prefer them over the Companions, just as the ?extremists?)
(al-ghulat) concerning those worshippers, at times prefer them over
the Companions. This is a domain in which the people are divided.
That which is proper for a Muslim to know is that the best speech is
the speech of God, the best guidance is the geidance of Muhammad-
may God bless him and grant him peace-the best of generations was the
generation in which he gas raised, and that the most excellent of paths
and roads to God is the one which he and his companions followed. One
knows, therefore, that it is incumbent upon believers that they fear God
(yattaqu) commensurate with their individual diligent effort (ijtihMd)
and ability (wus'), as God He is most high-has said, ?Fear God as
much as you can?) (Q. 69:16). He [Muhammad]-may God bless
15 and give him peace-has said, ?When I give you an order accomplish as
much of it as you can38.? He has said, <<God does not commission a
person except [within] its capacity?) (Q. 2:286).
Although the majority of believers-the pious, the friends (awliyd')
of God-may not have received what the Companions received with
regards to the perfection of religious knowledge ('i/m) and faith, they fe
God as best they can and obey Him according to their individual diligent
effort. Thus, it is inevitable that they will err, whether in their sciences
and doctrines (aqwal), or in their actions and states, but they are
rewarded for their obedience, and He pardons them for their errors. For
indeed God-He is most high-has said,

The messenger believed in what came down to him from His Lord and (so did) the
believers. Each one believes in God, His angels, books, and messengers We make no
distinction between any of His messengers-and they said, 'We hear and obey. [Grant
us] Your pardon our Lord, to You is destiny ... 'Our Lord, do nod punish us if we
forget or err'. (Q. 2:285-286)

God-He is most high-has said, <I have done it?).

So, anyone who deems the path of one of the 'ulama' or legists, or the
path of one of the worshippers or ascetics to be more excellent than the
path of the Companions, is mistaken, astray, and innovating. He who
considers any person who does his best in forming his own opinion on a
pious deed-while being mistaken in some matters to be blameworthy,
disgraceful, and disgusting, he is mistaken, astray, and innovating.
Furthermore, people in love, hate, friendship, and enmity also apply
individual judgement, hitting the mark sometimes and sometimes erring.

38 al-Bukhari, SahTh, o<Bdb al-itisdm,: #i6; Muslim, SahTh, <<Bab al-halj>>, #416.

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 [13] IBN TAIMIYA 231

Many people, if they discern in a man what they love, they love him
absolutely and ignore his faults. But if they discern in him what they hate,
they hate him absolutely and ignore his merits, [abandoning]39 the
protection and state of one who speaks with circumspection. This is
among the doctrines of the innovators, the Kharajites, the Mu'tazilah,
and the Murji'ah.
The people of the Sunna and community assert what the Book, Sunna,
and consensus point to, namely that the believer deserves-thanks to
God's promise and His grace-reward for his good deals and punish-
ment for his misdeeds. Although there is only the single individual, there
is gathered in him what is rewarded and what is punished, what is
praiseworthy and what is worthy of blame, what is loved and what is
hated. And so that's that.
One knows then, that Stufism's place of origin was Basra, and that
there were there those who trod the path of worship and asceticism that
they used independent reasoning (ijtihad) in it, just as there were in Kuifa
those who trod the path of jurisprudence and religious knowledge, using
independent judgement in it. Yhey [the Basrans] were linked to the
outward manner of dress, it being a wool garment, so that it was said of
one of them, <<He is a Sfif>>. But their path is not restricted to the wool
garment; they did not require it nor did they make the whole affair
dependent on it. Rather, they were [only] referred to by it because it was
[their] outward state.
Moreover, in their opinion, Stufism has truths (haqa'iq) and recognized
states; they have spoken of its ordinances (hudu7d), its ways of life and
morals. Like the saying of one of them, <<The Sfiff is he who has become
clear of turbidity, full of contemplation (al-fikr); gold and stone are
equal in his sight>>. <?Sifism is the concealment of [spiritual] meanings
17 and the abandonment of pretensions (al-da'dwa)>>, and similar things.
They allude with st7Jito the meaning siddTq (the <<righteous>>). The best
mankind after the prophets are the righteous, as God-He is most
high-has said,

And they are those to whom God has shown favor, among the prophets, the
righteous, the martyrs, and the honest ones, and they are the best as a companion.
(Q. 4:69)

Therefore, after the prophets there is no one more virtuous in their

opinion than the Stiff, but he is in fact a type of righteous one. Thus,
is the righteous one distinguished by the asceticism and worship in which

3 Rida (p. 16) notes that this clause is corrupt and lacking something.

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 232 TH. E. HOMERIN [14]

they [the ascetics] strive diligently (ijtahadii). He is the righteous man

of the path, just as it is said, ?the righteous ones of the 'ulam?'>> and
?the righteous ones of the amirs>>. Hence, he is more specific than the
absolutely righteous and one below the perfectly righteous one [i.e.]
the righteous ones among the Companions, the Successors and their
Successors. So, when it is said about those ascetics and worshippers
among the Basrans that they are righteous, it is as when it is said about
the imams of jurisprudence among the inhabitants of Kiifa, that they are
also righteous, each according to the path upon which he travels, due to
the obedience to God and his apostle, commensurate with his individual
diligent effort. They can be among the most outstanding of the righteous
with respect to their time, and so among the most perfectly righteous of
their time. However, the righteous one in the first generation is more
perfect than they are.
The rigteous are in ranks and types. Thus, there exists for each one of
them a type of state and devotional act appropriate for him and which he
masters and is supreme in, although there are others with other types,
who are better and more excellent than he is.
Because of the independent reasoning and its controversy, which have
taken place among most of them [the Sifis], people have been at variance
concerning their [the Sufis'] path. Thus, one side censured the Sifis and
18 Siufism, and said that they were innovators and outside of the Sunna.
Well-known statements on this [issue] have been related from a group of
the imams, and groups of legists and theologians have followed them in
that. Another group went to extremes concerning them[the Siffis] and
claimed that they were the best of mankind and the most perfect after the
prophets. Both sides in this matter are blameworthy.
What is correct is that they [the Siifis] exercise their independent
judgment in obedience to God just as others who are obedient to God
have also done. Among them is the foremost (al-sabiq) who draws near
[to God] on the basis of this diligent effort, and among them is the
moderate who belongs to the ?People of the Right Hand>>. Among both
classes is one who may strive diligently but err, and some who sin, repent
and others do not. And among those claiming affiliation with them, are
those who are unjust to themselves, rebelling against their Lord.
Sects of innovators and zindiqs40 have claimed affiliation with them,

40 Ibn Taimiya uses the term zindTq to brand a person whose profession of Islam seems
to lack sufficient sincerity and whose <intellectual rebellion>> insults the custom of the
prophet Muhammad. See, Louis Massignon in El1.1, 4:1228-1229, and G. Vajda, ?Les
Zindiq en pays d'Islam au debut de la periode abbaside ?>, Revista degli Studi Orientali, 1937.

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 [15] IBN TAIMIYA 233

but in the opinion of the genuine Sutfis, they do not belong. [Take]
al-Hallaj4> for example. Most of the shaikhs of the path refused to have
anything to do with him and expelled him from the path, as did al-Junaid
ibn Muhammad, the master of the sect, and others as shaykh AbuiAbd
al-Rahman al-Sulami mentions in the Tabaqat al-S iflyah42, and al-Hafiz
Abui Bakr al-Khatib in the Tarikh Baghdad43.
This, then, is the origin of Sifism. Then it branched out after that and
diversified; the Suifis came to be of three types: oSiufis of the True
Realities>> (al-haqd'iq), ?Funded Sifis>> (al-arzdq)44 and ?Stifis of
Convention>> (al-rasm). As for the <S<ifis of the True Realities>>, they
those who we have described. As for the ?Funded Sutfis>>, they are th
to whom religious endowments, like khanqahs, were bequeathed. But it is
not necessary for them to be among the people of true realities, for this is
a rare thing, most of the people of true realities not being characterized
by the need for khanqahs45. Rather, three things are incumbent upon
them [this second class]. One of them is lawful, proper conduct so as to
carry out the religious requirements (al-fard'id) and abstain from the
forbidden. The second is civility (al-ta'dib) by means of the Sifi rules of
conduct (al-addb) which are generally lawful rules. As for the innovated,
conventional rules, one should not pay attention to them. The third
[requisite] is that none of them be attached to the dross of this world. So,
as for him who hordes wealth or is not endowed with praiseworthy
virtues, and who is unrefined in the legal rules of conduct, or a sinner, he
is not entitled to that [privilege of being among these Sufis].
As for the <<Sifis of Convention>> they are restricted to the name
20 (al-nisbah), and so their concern is with the dress, the conventional rules
of conduct, and such like. Hence, among the Siufis, they have the status
of one restricted to the attire of the people of learning and those of jihad,
and to a certain portion of their sayings and acts, in such a way that the
ignorant supposes that the truth of the matter is that he belongs to them
[the learned], though he does not.

41 al-Husain ibn MansOr al-Hallaj was executed in 309/922 for heresy. For an
exhaustive bibliography see Ch. 15 of Louis Massignon, La Passion de Husayn Ibn Mansuir
Hallaj, (Paris, 1975).
42 al-Sulami, p. 308.
43 al-Khatib al-Baghdid1, 8:112-113ff.
44 i.e. those Sufis supported by endowments.
4 The Rida edition (p. 24) gives an alternate reading: wa-akbar- ahl- al-haqd'iq la
yatasadduna bi-lawdzim- al-khawaniq, i.e. <(The greatest of the people of true realities do
not concern themselves with the requirements of khdnqdhs>>.

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 234 TH. E. HOMERIN [16]

As for the name faqir (?poor man?), ?mendicant?>), it is found in the

Book of God and the Sunna of God's messenger-may God bless him
and give him peace but what is designated by it in the Book and the
Sunna is the poor as opposed to the wealthy man. As the Prophet-may
God bless him and give him peace-has said46, ?The Poor and poverty
are of [different] types; because of it [poverty] taking alms (zakat) is
justified. Its opposite is wealth which prohibits and forbids the taking of
alms>>. Just as the Prophet-may God bless him.and give him peace- has
said, ?Alms are not lawful to a wealthy man nor to him capable of
earning. >>47
The wealth which necessitates the giving of alms is different from this
[the property which allows taking alms] in the opinion of the great
majority of 'ulama'-as with Malik48, al-Shafi'l, and Ahmad [ibn
Hanbal]-it being the possession of the minimum amount of property
liable to alms. It is their opinion, contrary to that of Abtu Hanifa49, that
giving alms is sometimes incumbent upon a man, but [under certain
conditions] taking alms is also permitted him.
God-may He be praised-has mentioned the poor in [a number ofl
passages, but God has mentioned the poor deserving alms in one verse
and those deserving booty in [another] verse. Concerning the first He has
said,

If you make public your alms, then it is a benefit; but if you conceal them and give
them to the poor (fuqard') then that is better for you ... [to His saying] ... to the poor
21 emigres (muhajiriin) who are beleaguered for the sake of God, unable to travel on the
Earth, the ignorant consider them prosperous because of [their] abstinence. You will
recognize them by their expression; they do not ask people [for alms] with
importunity. (Q. 2:271-273)

And He said concerning the second,

That which God gives as booty to His Prophet, from the inhabitants of the towns,
... [to His saying] ... [and] to the poor (fuqara'), the emigres who were deprived of
their homes and property, who seek God's bounty and favor from God, while they
give assistance to God and His messenger; these are the righteous ones.
(Q. 59:7-8)

At times, there is among the poor one who is more virtuous than the
best of a great many rich people, and at times, there is among the rich

46 This statement is not found in the major hadith collections.

4 This hadfth is found in the Musnad of Abiu Daud, <Bab al-zakdt>>, # 25.
48 Malik ibn Anas (179/795) was the founder of the Maliki school of jurisprudence and
author of the earliest surviving Muslim law book. See, J. Schacht, in E.', 3:205-209.
49 Abui Hanifa (d. 150/767) was a theologian and legal expert, providing the founda-
tions for the later Hanifi school of jurisprudence. See, J. Schacht in E.1.2, 1:123-214.

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 [17] IBN TAIMIYA 235

one who is more virtuous than the best of a great many of them [the
poor]. People have differed concerning who is better, the patient poor
man or the thankful, rich one. The truth is that the better of the two is the
more God-fearing one, and if they are equal in their piety (taqwd), then
they are equal in rank, as we have clearly explained in another place50.
Certainly, the poor will precede the rich into paradise without being
judged, then the rich will be called to account. But, he whose merits are
weightier than those of a.poor man, his rank in paradise will be higher,
although he followed him when entering; he whose merits are less than
his [the poor man's] his rank will be lower.
However, since the genre <(asceticism>> was predominant among the
poor, faqr (?poverty>>) came to be, in the usage of many people, an
expression for the path of asceticism, which is of the genre suifism. Thus,
if it is said, ?There is poverty in this one>>, or ?There is no poverty in th
one>>, it does not mean lack of wealth. Rather, it means what is meant by
22 the term sz7fi, namely types of gnosis, states, moral qualities, rules of
conduct, and similar things.
People have disputed this usage; which is better, the faqTr or the
Sufif? One side held to the preferability of the Sufif, as did Abti Hafs
al-Suhraward7i5I and those like him, and one side held to the preferability
of the faqTr, as did numerous groups. Sometimes these [faqTrs] are
attached to retreats (zawTyds) and these [$Sffs] to monasteries (khMnqdh
and similar things 52. The majority of people give preference to the faqar.
The truth is that the more preferable of the two is the most God-
fearing one and so, if the Stuff is more God-fearing he is the better one,
being more active in doing what God loves and more abstentious from
what He does not love. Thus, he is better than the faqYr. But, if thefaqTr is
more active in doing what God loves and more abstentious from what
He does not love, then he is better. However, if the two are equal in doing

50 See Ibn Taimiya's, Fasl kathr tandzu' al-nds, ayyumd afdal: al-faqfr al-sabir aw-al-
ghanT al-shdkir? (?People have varied a great deal concerning which is better: a patient
poor man or a thankful rich one??), in Majmua fatdwa, 11:122-133.
51 The Majmirfatdwd edition (p. 22) reads Aba JaTfar al-Suhrawardi, while the Rida
version (p. 25) gives the more desirable reading of Abi Hafs al-Suhrawardi, referring to the
famous Sifi who died in 632/1234 and author of the very popular Awdrif al-ma'arif. See,
Schimmel, pp. 244-245.
52 This seems to be the meaning of this sentence. Ibn Taimiya has already referred to
Siifi khdnqdhs; see above: Laoust and others have pointed out that khdnqdhs usually
housed Sufis while zdwiyas generally were the residences of ascetics (fuqard'). However,
Laoust cites this statement in al-Sufiyah wa-l-fuqard' as evidence of Ibn Taimiya's
ambiguity regarding these terms. See: Laoust, Essai, p. 22 and n. 2, p. 22.

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 236 TH. E. HOMERIN [18]

the desirable, and abstaining from the undesirable, then they are equal in
rank.
The ?friends?) (awliyd') of God are the pious believers, whether called
faqTr, $Sifi, legist, scholar, merchant, soldier, artisan, amir, governor, or
something else. God-He is most high-has said,

The friends (awlih'd') of God! There is no fear over them, and they do not grieve.
They are those who believe and are God-fearing. (Q. 10:62-63)

In the Sahih of al-Bukhari [it is related] by Abfi Hurairah that the

Prophet-may God bless him and give him peace-said,

God-He is most high has said, <Whoever treats a friend (wail) of mine as an
enemy, takes the field against Me in battle. Nothing draws My servant near to Me
like the performance of what I prescribe for him as religious duty. Then My servant
continues to draw nearer to Me by supererogatory acts until I love him. So that, when
I love him, I become his ear by which he hears, his eye by which he sees, his hand by
which he grasps, and his foot by which he walks. Thus, by Me he hears; by Me he
sees; by Me he grasps, and by Me he walks. If he asks Me [for something], I certainly
give it, and if he seeks refuge with Me, indeed I protect him. I never hesitated from
doing anything like My hesitating to seize the soul of My believing servant who hates
death, and I hate to hurt him, but he can not escape it53.

This hadhth has clearly set forth the moderate friends of God-?the
people of the right hand?>, and those brought near-? the foremost>>. The
first category is those who have drawn near to God by means of the
required religious duties, while the second category is those who have
drawn near to Him by supererogatory acts after the required ones, being
those ?who continue to drag near to Him by supererogatory acts entil He
loves them>>, as God He is most High-has said. God has mentioned
these two categories in more than one passage of His Book, as He has
said,

Then We gave the Book as an inheritance to those ghom We chose from among
Our servants. And among them is he who wrongs himself, the moderate one, and the
foremost one in good deeds ... (Q. 35:32)

And as God-He is most high-has said,

Certainly the righteous are in felicity, on couches, gazing. You will recognize the
splendor of felicity in their faces. They are given pure gine, sealed, to drink; its seal is
musk-and in that let the contenders contend-its blend is from Tasnim, a
springfrom which the near ones drink. (Q. 83:22-28)

53al-Bukhari, 81:38:2. For an analysis of this well-known hadith see, William A.

Graham, Divine Word and Prophetic Word in Early Islam, Paris, 1977, pp. 173-174.

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 [19] IBN TAIMIYA 237

Ibn'Abbass4 has said,

24 The near ones drink from it [the wine], it being pure, while it is mixed, a blend, for
the Companions of the Right Hand.

He He is most high-has said,

There [in Paradise] they are given a cup to drink; its blend is from Zanjab
is a spring there called SalsabTI. (Q. 76:17-18)

And He-He is most high has said,

And the Companions of the Right Hand; what are the Companions of the Right
Hand? And the Companions of the Left Hand; what are the Companions of dhe Left
Hand: And the Foremost; the Foremost are those brought near. (Q. 56:8-11)

And He-He is most high has said,

09n But if he is among those brought near, then [he receives at judgment] a breath of life,
sweet basil and a garden of felicity. But if he is among the Companions of the Right
Hand, then [he receives] 'Peace be upon you', from the Companions of the Right
Hand. (Q. 56:88-91)

This is the reply, containing sentences in need of an extensive detailed

exposition which this occasion was not sufficient for. God knows best.

Ibn Taimiya's Silfism and al-.Sufyah wa-l-fuqara'

It is clear from al-Sufiyah wa-l-fuqara' and other works, that Ibn

Taimlya appreciated certain spiritual dimensions of Islam and their
importance to Muslim society. He believed that a moral-ethical mysti-
cism could provide a strongly disciplined interior life by condemning
egoism, pride, and hypocrisy, and by promoting sincerity and patience5 5.
Siufism's <<Faith informed' intuition?) (al-dhawq al-imami) and ?religious
ecstacy?> (al-wajd al-dTni56 were invaluable to Ibn Taimiya for con-
structing the internal basis for the law which necessitated an experiential
and emotional, as well as a rational, component.

As for the Sufis, they affirm the love (of God)-this is more evident among them
than all other issues. The basis of their Way (tarTqa) is simply will and love. The

5 'Abd Allah ibn al-'Abbas (d-68/686) is considered the father of Qur'anic exegesis and
one of the first Muslims to gather information about the Prophet by questioning the
Companions. See, L. Veccia Veglieri, E.l.2, 1:40-41.
5 H. Laoust, Essai sur les doctrines sociales et politiques de TakT-d-DTn Ahmad b.
Taim7va, Cairo, 1939, p. 85.
5 T. Michel, <<Ibn Taymiyya's Sharh on the Futu-h al-Ghayb ofAbd al-Qadir al-Jilani>>,
in Hamdard Islamicus, 4:2:11, n. 23.

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 238 TH. E. HOMERIN [20]

affirmation of the love of

recent masters, just as it is
salaf57 .

However, in al-Suifya
with these psychological elements; instead, he attempts to outline
S-ufism's origins and discuss the behavior of its practitioners within the
framework of his own ideas and beliefs which he presents in this epistle.
He implies that the term st7fi was used beginning in the second or third
century A.H., and following an inquiry into the derivation of the
adjective, he states that the first to wear the wool garment distinctive
to the Stfifs, were the Basrans. These Muslims were excessive in their
worship of God, but although they exceeded the bounds of moderation
set by the Qur'dn and the Sunna of Muhammad, they were more
commendable than those who lacked their apprehension of God's
living presence. Such excessiveness, however, did not occur among the
Prophet's companions, some of whom criticized it as affectation or
innovation. Throughout this work, Ibn Taimiya applies the conduct and
custom of Muhammad and his companions, the salaf (<<ancestors>>), as a
criterion to judge later practice, which he believed had declined in moral
purity with each passing generation. He considered Muhammad and his
companions to be the best of mankind, holding the highest rank in piety
and morality; the righteous people of their generation were more
righteous than any others. However, Ibn Taimiya did not view the
inevitable decline as primarily an opportunity for Satan to successfully
delude Muslims, as his Hanbali predecessor Ibn al-Jauzi had asserted58
Rather, the decline was a cause for the interior weakening of the
individual and so, might lead to swooning and other excessive behavior.
Yet, this did not diminish Ibn Taimlya's respect for the pious of later
generations or of his contemporaries, and he often expressed a real
admiration for a number of Sfifi shaikhs, such as Ma'riuf al-Karkhi, al-
Junaid, and Abui Hafs al-Suhrawardi, whose opinions he quoted.
Nevertheless, due to their distance in time from the Prophet and his
companions, they were more liable to excess and error and so may not
serve as a sure standard for proper conduct59.

5 Ibn Taimiya, al-Ihtijaf bi-l-qadar, Cairo: al-Matba'at al-Salaflya, 1974, p. 38.

Translation by Michel, ibid., pp. 11-12, n. 24.
58 Ibn al-Jawzi, TalbFs IblTs, Cairo, 1928, p. 158. Also see Joseph N. Bell, Love Theory in
Later Hanbalite Islam, Albany, New York, 1979, pp. 42-46.
59 See: Michel, <<Ibn Taymiyya's Sharh>>, p. 5 and p. 10, n. 10, and also his , Ibn
Taymiyya's al-Jawab al-Sahih, Chicago, 1978, 1:126-128.

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 [21] IBN TAIMIYA 239

Ibn Taimlya's insistence on the pristine state of the salaf was

predicated upon this use of their example, as well as that of Muhamm
together with the teaching of the Qur'an, as the infallible authorities
for true belief and right action. Therefore, when giving examples of
swooning during audition of the Qur>an, Ibn Taimlya refers to Zurara
ibn Awfa as qddi of Baghdd6d, a third or fourth generation Muslim,
and not to Zurarah ibn Awfa6l, a companion of Muhammad about
whom the same story is told62. In fact, al-Sarraj cites this story, along
with others, in his Luma', as a clear proof that ecstatic states, resulting
even in death, occurred among the Companions63, something Ibn
Taimlya explicitly denies. The point of contention lies in their perception
of religious experience. Ibn TainYiya quotes the Qur'an to give accoun
of the states said to belong to the salaf, thus asserting their validity and
excellence. But other psychological and mystical states not mentioned in
the Qur'an he finds ambiguous, liable to an interpretation against Islam,
and due to the loss of consciousness in them, rendering an individual
susceptible to demonic possession or psychological delusions64. Legally
forbidden causes such as the intentional audition of voices and
melodies65, and the imbibing of wine or hashish66, could also induce
similar states of unconsciousness, whether called intoxication, passing
away (fana') or something else, leading to offensive detestable behavior,
and this added to Ibn Taimiya's uneasiness with these states. Contrary to
al-Sarraj and al-Hujwiri who accepted moments of unconsciousness or
ecstasy as occurring to the pious of every age and as manifestations of
God's grace, Ibn Taimiya judged them to be afflictions which frequently
befall a person too weak to bear them and an obstacle to a correct faith
which demands consciousness and reason67. The only acceptable fand'

60 See n. 10 to the epistle.

61 Ibn 'Abd al-Barr in his Isti'abfi ma'arifat al-ashdb, Cairo, 196-, p. 517 lists Zurara
ibn Awfa (in the margin Zurara ibn Abi Awfr) as a companion who died during the
caliphate of 'Uthman (25-35/644-654).
62 al-Sarraj, Luma', ed. Nicholson, London, 1963, p. 139, and al-Hujwiri The Kashf
al-Ma.hjub, tr. Nicholson, p. 396, who gives the name as Zurara ibn Abi Awfra.
6 3 Ibid.
64 Michel, Ibn Taymiyya's al-Jawdb al-Sah.h, 1:125-126; 130-133.
65 Concerning Ibn Taimiya's attitude toward ?audition>> (sama') see his works referred
to in n. 72 of the text, and also, Laoust, Essai, p. 248.
66 Ibn Taimlya seems to gave held hashish to be more pernicious than wine and its use,
therefore, deserving a more severe punishment. However, as this epistle shows, there were
different opinions on this matter. See Laoust, Essai, p. 376.
67 Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziya elaborates Ibn Taimiya's views of fand', in his Taraq
al-hijratain wa-bdb al-sa'ddatain, Cairo, 1358/1939, pp. 334-335 and his Maddrij al-sdlikmn,
Rida ed., Cairo, 1131-33/1912-15, 1:84. See Bell, pp. 171-181 and especially 173-174.

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 240 TH. E. HOMERIN [22]

for Ibn Taimlya then, was one which corresponded to the ?stations>>
(maqdmat), not states, of fand' and baqd discussed by al-Sarraj 68, al-
Kaldbddhi69, al-Qushiyri70, and others who spoke of the passing away
of man's will and love for all other than God, and his abiding in the love
of God and His will. This was not a loss of consciousness or a passive
acceptance of whatever happens in the world, but an active obedience to
God's will as manifest in the Qur'dn and the Sunna of Muhammad and
the salaf.
The Qur'an and the Sunna became the touchstone for testing the moral
qualities of any state, and Ibn Taimlya frequently referred to them in
al-Sfiyah wa-al-fuqara' to support his arguments, as in his defense of
the superiority of the conscious, obedient servant over a person who
had swooned. On this issue, he contrasts Muhammad's encounter with
relevation to that of Moses; when God appeared to the mountain,
Moses swooned (Q. 7:143), while Muhammad remained conscious
during his night journey, his normal state unchanged (Q. 53:5-18). Since
Muhammad was the best of all prophets, his state must have been
superior to Moses swooning, though Ibn Taimiya adds that this, too, was
a noble state 71. al-Junaid (d. 298/91 1) had earlier juxtaposed the state of
Moses with that of Muhammad but without comparison or appraisal;
both states represented the station in which gnosis-too vast for any
space, inappropriate for any words-was revealed to the elect mystics of
God72. This and other surviving writings of al-Junaid clearly show his
concern with the mystical experience and its nature, and his attempts to
express and communicate it to others, to refine the Stfifs' lexicon and

68 al-Sarraj, Luma', pp. 213-214; 225; 341; 347; 388; 427; 433, and R. A. Nicholson,
<The Goal Muhammedan Mysticism>>, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1913, pp. 55-
68.

69 al-Kaldbddhi, Doctrine of The Suifts, Tr. A. J. Arberry, Cambridge, England, 1975,

pp. 120-132.
70 al-Qushairi, Risdla, ed. 'Abd al-Halim Mahmiud and Muhammad ibn al-Sharif,
Cairo, no date, 1:228-231.
71 Bell, pp. 175-176, discusses Ibn Qayyim's usage of the same proof in his TarTq
(pp. 418-19), showing that Ibn Qayyim would not accept the state of unconsciousness or
bewilderment as a justifiable mystical state. Further, Bell shows that Ibn Qayyim in his
Maddrij (3:50) attempts to avoid the use of Moses' state as an example, claiming that it was
not the revelation but the disintegrating mountain which caused Moses to swoon. Ibn
Taimlya seems to have been more open minded on this point.
72 al-Junaid, Kitdb dawd' al-arwdh (?<The Book of the Cure of Souls?)), ed. and tr. by
A. J. Arberry, in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1937, pp. 119-131. See especially
pp. 221-222 of the Arabic text and 226-228 of the translation. al-Kalabidhi, p. 123 also
refers to Moses' swooning as an example of bewilderment but without reference to
Muhammad and his night journey. See also: A. E. Affifi, ?The Story of The Prophet's
Ascent (Mi'raj) in Sufi Thought and Literature?>, in Islamic Quarterly 2 (1955), pp. 23-27.

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 [23] IBN TAIMIYA 241

thereby deepen their un

Rather than polemical or defensive in tone, al-Junaid's letters and
epistles are experimental and suggestive.
However, Ibn Taimlya's comparison of Muhammad's and Moses'
states and, in fact, the entire al-ufiyah wa-l-fuqara', is characterized
by the need to demarcate the limits of bonafide mystical experiences,
to codify those states which could be useful for an active religious life
in society, avoiding, indeed opposing, the fatalistic and antinomian
proclivities accepted or fostered by the monist doctrines of Ibn al-Arabli
(d. 638/1240) and others. This shift in emphasis was derived in part
from the changing socio-historical conditions which had resulted in a
prevailing interest in the reform of the Muslim community and of the
Islamic social order, and Ibn Taimlya and other reformers, like Ibn
Qayyim al-Jawziya (691-751/1292-1350) and Shah Wall Allah of Delhi
(1113-1176/1702-62), clung to this as their essential goal and most urgent
need73 This conscious desire to return to the pristine Islam of the
ancestors, and the interpretation of Sifism within this reformist context,
separate Ibn Taimiya and later mystically inclined reformers from the
early Sufis whose main task was the articulation of the mystical
experience and the individual's moral and physiological well-being. Ibn
Taimlya is a part of the Siifi tradition in the sense that he believed Sifism
to be the following of the way of the salaf and early $Sfis 4. But if Ibn
Taimlya and the Hanbali school preserved the moral-ethical spirit of the
early Suifis, their point of view and emphasis was quite different, and the
term <<neo-SUbfb> may help to distinguish these important variations7 5.
Given his social and reformist concerns and the enigmatic character of
the mystical states and experiences, Ibn Taimiya could not accept their
infallibility, and their religious integrity and worth could only be
determined by reference to the Qur'dn and Sunna76. Yet, individual
experience and effort, though liable to error, could be useful in choosing
the more probably correct course of action in an ambiguous situation.

73Concerning the reformist spirit and movements of this time, see F. Rahman, Islam,
Garden City, New York, 1968, pp. 237-260.
74 G. Makdisi, <<The Hanbali School and Sufism >>, in Actas do IV Congresso de Estudios
Arabes a IslCimicos, 1968, Leiden, 1971, pp. 83-84.
7S For other discussions of the term <<neo-Sffi>>, see Rahman, Islam, pp. 239-240;
Michel, Ibn Taymiyya's al-Jawdb al-SahT'h, 1:136, and Makdisi, <<Ibn Taimilya: A Sufi of
The Qadiliya Order?>, in American Journal of Arabic Studies, V. 1 (1973), p. 122. In using
the term (<neo-Sufi?> I wish only to point out Ibn Taimiya's shift in emphasis and not to
disassociate him from the mainstream Suifi tradition. Neo-Sufi does not mean pseudo-Sifi.
7 Rahman, Islam, pp. 177-179; 238-240.

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 242 TH. E. HOMERIN [24]

Ibn Taimiya did not believe that every particular of an individual's life
was covered by the Qur'dn and Sunna, and so there was a need at times
to discover the Divine command. In such situations, Ibn Taimlya
recommended the use of ijtihdd (?individual reasoning>>, ?diligent
effort>>) to determine the action conforming most to God's will. One's
decision could be based on ilham (?inspiration>?) or dhawq (?spiritual
intuition>>) which may be stronger than other available means such as
weak analogies or weak hadiths 7.

If the sdlik has creatively employed his efforts to the external shar'T indications and
sees no clear probability concerning the preferable action, he may feel inspired-
along with his goodness of intention and reverent fear of God-to choose one of two
actions as superior (to the other). This kind of inspiration is an indication concerning
the truth. It may be even a stronger indication than weak analogies, weak hadiths,
weak literal arguments (zawdhir), and weak istishabs which are employed by many
of those who delve into the principles, differences, and systematizing of fiqh.

The person who strives diligently to discover and implement God's

will, doing supererogatory acts and succeeding, he iv among the Fore-
most (al-sdbiq) of God's creation, while the ?Companions of the Right
Hand? (ashab al-yamTn) are those who, with moderation, are content to
actively fulfill the established requirements 78. Some error was inevitable,
and this has led to divergence and dispute concerning $fifsm's essence
and practice. Ibn Taimlya declared that if the Sifi's error resulted from a
sincere effort to ascertain correct behavior, he would be pardoned, and
he should rectify it by recourse to the Qur'an and Sunna. If, however, the
error derived from an individual's belief that he had been granted a
revelation which annulled the old or allowed for its suspension, then that
person and his transgression were clearly condemned. al-HallaJ and the
zindiq represented for Ibn Taimiya, examples of such self-delusion and
possession, uniting the most heinous aspects of unregulated individual
experience and judgment, with the rejection of both the doctrines and
legal commands of the prophets79. Ibn Taimiya was quick to point out
that the reputable siifi shaikhs had always condemned such behavior, and
he elaborated on this in another work80:

Michel, <dIbn Taymiyya's Sharh>>, pp. 8-9. Michel's translation from Ibn Taimiya's,
Sharh kalimdt li-Abd al-Qddir, in Majmzu' fatdwa, 10:473. Also see: Makdisi, o<Ibn
Taimiya>>, p. 128. For a discussion of Ibn Taimiya's conception and use of ijtihad see:
Laoust, Essai, pp. 226-230.
78 Also see: Ibn Taimiya, Sharh kalimat li->Abd al-Qddir, in Majmi' fatdwd, 10:470.
' Michel, Ibn Taymiyya's al-Jawab al-Sahih, 1:95-96; 141-145. Also see: Rahman,
Islam, pp. 132-133.
80 Ibn Taimlya, Sharh kalimdt li-4Abd al-Qddir, in Majmii'fataw&, 10:516-517. Michel's
translation in o<Ibn Taymiyya's Sharhlz, p. 10, n. 10.

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 [25] IBN TAIMIYA 243

The upright among the followers of the Path like the majority of the early
shay'khs (shuyuikh al-salaf), such as Fudayl ibn 'Iyacd, Ibrdhim ibn Adham, Ma'ariif
al-Karkh1, al-Sari al-Saqati, al-Junayd ibn Muhammad and others of the early
teachers, as well as Shaykh'Abd al-Qadir, Shaykh Hammad, Shaykh Abii'l-Bayan
and others of the later masters do not permit the followers of the Path to depart
from the divinely legislated command and prohibition, even were that person to have
flown in the air or walked on water. He must do what is commanded and avoid what
is forbidden until he die. This is the Truth which the Book and sunna have indicated.

Clearly, then, Ibn Taimiya did not consider mystical experience to be

an end in itself; it was redeemable only insofar as it deepened the
individual's knowledge of God's will and its realization in the social
order8". Against this standard, Ibn Taimiya ranks the Stifis in three
groups; those who have utilized their mystical experiences and individual
reasoning to the greatest extent in obedience to God are the <<Sfifs of
True Realities>> (suifiyat al-haqa'iq). Lesser Stfifs concern themselves
primarily with proper conduct and the fulfillment of the religious
requirements, the cultivation of civility, and detachment from the
world's refinements. These Stifis of lower status were by far the majority,
and they frequently resided in khdnqdhs, hence the name <<$Sfis of
Allowance>> (su7fiyat al-arzaq). The third category are the imitators and
charlatans who were Stufis in name and dress only, and he called them
<<Sifis of Ceremony>> (suftyat al-rasm).
In the last portion of al-.Sifiyah wa-l-fuqard' Ibn Taimiya turns
briefly to a discussion of poverty and the poor. He states that the term
faqr (?poverty>>) no longer meant a lack of wealth, but had become a
synonym for Stufism due to the asceticism which had long been a part of
Sufifsm and a major root of its origin. Previously, however, the term had
referred to material need as the Qur'an clearly shows. Ibn Taimiya then
concludes this epistle and summarizes these thoughts by addressing the
question: Who is more virtuous, the mendicant (faqhr) or the Sufif? His
answer is the same as that given to the earlier question of preference
between a patient poor man or a thankful rich one; the most excellent
is the one with the most taqwa and so, more active in carrying out
God's commands and obeying His prohibitions. The word taqwd often
translated by the term ?piety>> or ?fear of God>>, means to be conscious
of the fact that whereas man acts, the limits not to be transgressed by his
actions and the standard of their judgement, belong to God82. These

81 Fazlur Rahman, Prophecy in Islam, p. 101. Also see: Bell, pp. 86-87, 178; and Michel,
Ibn Tavmiyya 's al-Jawab al-Sah7h, 1: 1 36-14 1.
82 Fazlur Rahman, Major Themes of the Qur'dn, Chicago: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1980,
p. 29.

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 244 TH. E. HOMERIN [26]

guidelines, Ibn Taimiya believed, were set down in the Qur'an and the
Sunna.
Wealth or lack of it83, mystical states or their absence, become
of secondary importance in determining a truly religious man; the
((friends?) (awliyd') of God-a title frequently bestowed on Siffis <<are
the pious believers (al-mu'minuin al-muttaqun) whether calledfaqTr, Siifi,
legist, scholar, merchant, soldier, artisan, amir, governor, or something
else?). Ibn Taimlya's criterion is dominated by the primacy of the
sharT'ah, the law, and while it was the beginning of the mystic path for
many $ufis, it was the ultimate goal for Ibn Taimiya, but one accom-
panied by a sense of moral peace when the legal prescriptions had been
fulfilled84. The friends of God, the Companions of the Right Hand, and
the Foremost, are the beloved of God, and with their concern for the
orthodox dogma and the Islamic social order, they strive to fulfill His
commands within the community, assured of a great reward. Although
God's chosen ones portrayed in al-.Suflyah wa-l-fuqard' may have had
religious states and experiences, the true sign if their excellence was not a
mystical one but, deduced from the beliefs of the neo-Siifi Ibn Taimiya, it
was the quality of their moral purity as established by the Qur'dn and the
Sunna.

83 That Ibn Taimiya did not view poverty as better in itself than wealth, Laoust believes,
shows the <mercantile temper>> of Ibn Taimiya's doctrine. See: Laoust, Essai, p. 40.
84 Laoust, Essai, p. 471. See also: Michel, <Ibn Taymiyya's Sharh>>, p. 5.

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