Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Task-Based Learning (TBL) : and Clarification of Terms
Task-Based Learning (TBL) : and Clarification of Terms
2.1 Introduction
and clarification of terms
This section provides the theoretical back- • Learning styles/strategies A range of ways
ground to Task-Based Language Learning of studying and learning, along the spec-
(TBLL); a framework for TBLL with explana- trum from experiential to studial. (See 2
tions; factors to consider when implementing Section 1.2 Roles of learners and facilita-
task-based language learning; and finally, a tors).
concrete example of a task. • Materials Anything which is used to form
the basis of a language learning activity or
It shows how adapted versions of task-based task.
approaches to language learning are well • Task The end product to a planned process;
suited to the non-formal context of learning a completed piece of work
in the framework of European language • Topic Any subject which provides contex-
programmes. This method relies heavily on tualised language learning.
learners’ involvement and their world know-
ledge. It places emphasis on the value of the
information and experiences which partici-
pants bring to the language learning sessions.
As participants share their knowledge, expe-
rience and opinions, they will also be using
their existing language, be exposed to new
2.2 Task-Based Language
language and develop a variety of strategies Learning (TBLL)
for improving their language skills.
TBLL also allows the facilitator to use authentic 2.2.1 Background to Task-Based
topic material, which is relevant to the partici- Language Learning
pants’ needs and encourages the development
of skills necessary for the successful comple-
tion of real-life tasks. Language acquisition and learning: How is
it done?
There is no definitive model for learning a
Clarification of terms language or indeed for the acquisition of lan-
guage by children. Research has suggested that
Linguistic jargon is notorious for its ambiguity. human beings are born with a device which
Different terms mean different things to dif-
enables them to organise the language they
ferent people. So for clarification, some of the
are exposed to (their mother tongue) and form
key terms used in this publication are listed
rules which can be used to generate more
below, together with an explanation.
language and be applied in different situa-
tions (LAD: language acquisition device and
• Activity Doing something which can be
Universal Grammar, Chomsky 1965). Yet there
seen as a step towards achieving the task;
one part of the process; work in progress. is also research to show that even without the
• Collaborative learning Working together stimuli of exposure to a language, deaf chil-
and supporting each other to maximise dren develop language which displays simi-
learning and task outcomes. It is the oppo- lar features of a formal language structure
site of competitive learning where each (Goldin-Meadow 1990). This has also been
learner is trying to be better than his com- shown through the study of Pidgin languages
panions. – languages that are formed by people who
• Language facilitator The person who has have no common mother tongue but who
a native speaker competence in the lan- need to communicate among themselves and
guage being learnt and can provide all the so form another language. The first intrepid
necessary linguistic input to facilitate the explorers and international traders relied on
activities and task achievement. pidgin communication. When pidgins are used
• Learner–centred Describes an approach to as a native language by the next generation,
classroom methodology which puts lear- they develop into a Creole language (Bickerton
ners’ needs and interests at the centre of the 1984) and a new language is formed by peo-
learning programme. ple who were exposed to a language which
21
Methodology
in language learning
T-Kit
did not display a full range of structures. This activities as steps towards successful task rea-
is known as poverty of stimulus (Gleason and lisation. The focus is away from learning lan-
Ratner 1998). Some theories also relate the guage items in a non-contextualised vacuum
cognitive development of children to their to using language as a vehicle for authentic,
language acquisition. This is another major dif- real-world needs. By working towards task
ference between mother-tongue acquisition realisation, the language is used immediately
2 and learning a second language which is usu- in the real-world context of the learner, ma-
ally undertaken after childhood cognitive deve- king learning authentic. In a TBLL framework
lopment is complete. (Bates 1979, Piaget 1926). the language needed is not pre-selected and
given to the learners who then practise it but
This is a very cursory dip into this area to rather it is drawn from the learners with help
demonstrate that nothing is finite in language from the facilitator, to meet the demands of
learning or acquisition theory. Also, it must the activities and task.
be remembered that we are attempting to
develop ideas for language learning not lan- TBLL relies heavily on learners actively expe-
guage acquisition. It is therefore important to rimenting with their store of knowledge and
bear in mind the difference between language using skills of deduction and independent
acquisition of mother tongue and second lan- language analysis to exploit the situation fully.
guage learning later in life. As mentioned in (See Section 2.4 Concrete example of task –
Section 1.1 Language learning and language Preparing a meal.) In this example, the aim of
teaching, there have also been many theories the session is to work together to prepare a
of language learning, which have been reflect- meal where everyone can contribute. By
ed in approaches and methodologies in lan- doing this, a great deal of language will be
guage teaching. activated under the theme of food. As can be
seen by the example, menus have to be dis-
cussed, food has to be bought and jobs allo-
cated. The participants are prepared for the
Learner-centred approaches task, so that they will be aware of the language
Learner-centred approaches draw knowledge they need in order to carry it out successfully.
from the learner, working through their needs
and interests and selecting materials, activi- In this approach, motivation for communica-
ties and tasks accordingly. At all stages, nego- tion becomes the primary driving force. It
tiation between facilitators and learners is places the emphasis on communicative flu-
encouraged. Learning is seen as a collabora- ency rather than the hesitancy borne of the
tive enterprise. Any approach must consider pressure in more didactic approaches to pro-
the context in which it is to be used and con- duce unflawed utterances. Exposure to the
sequently the possible reaction of learners to target language should be in a naturally
the methodology. Are learners going to accept occurring context. This means that, if mate-
the choice of methodology with open arms? rials are used, they are not prepared especially
If the proposed methodology is unfamiliar or for the language classroom, but are selec-
greeted with foreboding, facilitators will need ted and adapted from authentic sources. (See
to negotiate with learners to ensure that they Section 4 Selecting and using materials.)
are motivated and happy to learn in that way.
The learners will then be stakeholders in the
The Task-Based Learning Framework shown
approach. Of primary concern therefore is that
below has been adapted from the Willis frame-
facilitators take into account the learning envi-
work (1996). In the adapted framework, the
ronment they are working in and manage new
focus of attention is upon a final task. This task
approaches sensitively. (See Section 1.2 Roles
is defined as an undertaking that is authentic
of learners and facilitators.)
to the needs of the learners.
22
Methodology
in language learning
T-Kit
PRE-TASK
PRE-TASK
23
Methodology
in language learning
T-Kit
PRE-TASK
TASK PREPARATION
TASK
Learners prepare own input for tasks
REALISATION
e.g.
• planning a report
• practising role-play
24
Methodology
in language learning
T-Kit
PRE-TASK
TASK REALISATION
• Producing a poster
• Performing a role-play
• Having a debate
• Producing a leaflet
POST-TASK
• Giving a presentation
25
Methodology
in language learning
T-Kit
2
Post-Task options
Language focus
While the task is being carried out, the facilitator may wish to
make notes on the language : could any vocabulary be added ?
Were there any structures that caused misunderstanding or TASK
confusion ? Were there any phrases which could have been
PREPARATION
expressed differently ? Could any of the language have been
used to better effect e.g. made less abrupt, more persuasive etc.?
After the task has been completed, participants may wish to
look at the material again to gain a better understanding of the
language : to look at structures, difficult/unusual vocabulary etc.
Feedback and evaluation
The facilitator may wish to conduct a feedback session to discuss
the success of the task and consider suggestions for improving TASK
it. Participants may wish to discuss such issues as working toge- REALISATION
ther, performing in a group, reactions to the topic, amount of
language input, things they enjoyed doing, things they didn’t
enjoy and so on. Evaluation of the task will provide useful
information for facilitators when planning further tasks.
26
Methodology
in language learning
T-Kit
27
Methodology
in language learning
T-Kit
the facilitator to provide all the answers and tasks be freely available? If not, what can you
may be unused to interacting with other par- do in advance to obtain suitable material? Will
ticipants during language lessons. you have to adapt or change planned tasks in
this location? Will participants contribute mate-
A key element in any language course is a rials? How can you manage with minimal
strong learning to learn component. This could materials? How can you use other resources as
2 include discussions and even demonstrations well as language-based materials? (See Section
of different learning styles and explanations of 4 Selecting and using materials.)
the methods. This is important in the deve-
lopment of participants’ learning strategies and, You may be in a situation where you and the
if employed near the beginning of a course, participants are the only resources available:
can ease the way for the introduction of new this might seem a daunting challenge, but is
methodologies such as task-based learning. a stimulating call for your resourcefulness! In
case you find yourself in such a situation, we
Some factors for facilitators to consider: par- have provided an example to inspire you!. If
ticipants’ ages and any special requirements; there are few conventional teaching materials
their roles in European youth work; their rea- available, look within and around you, draw
son for learning the language; various social on the experiences/feelings/observations... etc
realities; how participants are used to learning; of the participants. Once your task has been
their previous language learning experiences; decided upon, the materials can be created
ways of encouraging participants to be confi- from what is available: people, geography,
dent and adventurous learners. (See 1.2 Roles buildings and so on. (See Section 3.1 Tasks
of learners and facilitators). from No Materials).
28
Methodology
in language learning
T-Kit
and beliefs. Participants will be encouraged experiences. For example even an article about
to see themselves and those around them as something as seemingly banal as dog–walking
individuals with their own values and beliefs. may lead to reflections on animals: the way
Intercultural understanding can be very enri- people treat them, people’s attitudes to them,
ching when bonds are formed through beliefs vivisection, animal rights groups, working
and attitudes rather than only national boun- animals and so on. An article was recently used
daries. If it is a multi-cultural group, there may about a strand of Bill Clinton’s hair which was 2
be one nationality which is conspicuously auctioned for almost £500! As you can ima-
larger than others; will this have any bearing gine, the reflections upon this can take many
on activities and group dynamics? Might some paths. Even shopping receipts picked up off the
participants feel excluded if they are not part floor can lead to tasks on shopping habits/food
of the dominant language sub-group? (Con- consumption/consumerism. Observing the way
sideration of this may need to be given when different countries organise addresses can also
organising sub-groups.) Will participants them- lead to interesting comparisons of people’s
selves decide who they form sub-groups with, views of housing and civic matters.
or will the facilitator form the groups with an
intercultural balance? Facilitators may also
need to consider any tensions which may This Section ends with a concrete example of a
already exist or arise between nationalities and worked through task. The task is preparing and
to be aware of possible sensitivities. eating a meal together. The only materials are
the participants, facilitator and course locali-
The material you find may not seem to have ty. This means it is a task from no materials.
an intercultural perspective to it, yet you may (See also 3.1 Task from No Materials.) At each
be able to create intercultural tasks from it. stage of the framework there are step-by-step
Often, something very specific to a certain guidelines indicating what to do and how to
environment can lead very well into compa- do it. Successful realisation of this task should
risons and reflections about the differences in be a most enjoyable experience!
29
Methodology
in language learning
T-Kit
PRE-TASK
What to do How to do it
Discuss : Explain specialities from different countries ;
• Possible menus/dishes gather promotional material from diffe-
rent stores ; study special offers ; examine
• Food likes/dislikes
available budget ; check available ingre-
• Available budget dients, utensils, etc ; put together a menu.
• Available ingredients Important language points : vocabulary of
• Available utensils cooking and food, numbers, etc …
• ……
TASK PREPARATION
What to do How to do it
• Select the menu to be prepared Express likes and dislikes ; decide who is to
• Divide it into stages do what ; decide where to shop ; go shop-
• Find out what each person is able to do ping ; make a list of things to be bought with
their prices ; check receipts ; … Important
• Decide each person’s
language points : making comparisons,
responsibility
negotiating, decision-making, communi-
• Collect money cation activities (buying things, asking for
• Go shopping information, prices, etc).
30
Methodology
in language learning
T-Kit
TASK REALISATION
What to do How to do it
• Cook the meal Decide where everyone is to sit ; settle any 2
• Set and decorate the table disputes ; talk about individual preferences,
• Resolve any disputes the role of women and men, eating habits
in different countries, etc ; write out menus ;
• Eat and chat
Important language points : negotiating,
• Wash up conversation gambits, giving commands,
requesting things, prepositions of place etc.
POST-TASK
What to do How to do it
• Comment on and discuss the meal and its Share views, feelings and sensations ; orga-
preparation, human relationships, any nise a debate on different food habits (vege-
disputes that may have arisen tarian/non-vegetarian) ; put together an
• Exchange recipes, etc international menu ; write an account in
• Write a letter to a friend describing the the past tense ; etc …
evening, etc Important language points : expressing the
past, expressing subtleties, agreeing and
• Invent a new (intercultural ?) recipe
disagreeing, etc.
• ......
31