Dr.

Melih YILDIZ
melih.yildiz@atilim.edu.tr

 15.1 Fundamentals
 Potential energy, kinetic energy, Newton's laws of
motion, Brayton cycle;
 The relationship between force, work, power, energy,
velocity, acceleration;
 Constructional arrangement and operation of turbojet,
turbofan, turboshaft, turboprop
 B1 için Seviye: 2

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 Energy is defined as the capacity to the the work.
 Energy forms:
 Mechanical energy
 Electrical
 Chemical
 Nuclear
 Heat etc
 Energy can not be destroyed or created
 But can be transformed from one form to another

 During energy conversion, inefficiencies performed;

 Friction
 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation etc
 Input energy = work done + energy wasted

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 Potential Energy (PE) results from
 the influence of gravity on the mass of object,
because of its position or;
 State of the body such as elastic energy stored in a
compressed spring or of a gas compressed in a tank.
 If you raise a mass in a higher position, you increase
the PE of the mass.
 You have to spend some energy to do this!
 In order to compress a gas into a tank, you shall spend
some work or energy…

 You can calculate the PE of a mass by multiplying;

 mass of the body (kg),
 gravity acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
 height of the body (m)

Example 1:
A mass of 1 metric tonne is raised to a height of 20 meters
above the ground. Its potential energy at this height will be;

Potential Energy = mass x gravity x height

= 1000 kg x 9.81 m/s2 x 20m
= 196200 J =196.2 kJ

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 To calculate the PE stored in a gas, you will need to
know the velocity that would reached by the mass of the
gas when released the pressure.
 When releasing the gas, some heat will be formed by
friction as a waste energy.

 Kinetic Energy (KE) results from the motion of the mass.

 If a mass travelling at a given velocity it will possess KE.
 You have to spend some energy to accelerate the mass
to that velocity.
 Calculation of KE is;
 Half the mass multiplied by
 Velocity squared
 Kinetic Energy = ½ m v2

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 Example 2:
An aircraft with a mass of 20 tonne is travelling down a
runway at 20 m/s. Its kinetic energy will be;

Kinetic Energy = ½ mass x velocity2

= 0.5 x 20000 kg x 20 m/s x 20m/s
= 4000000 J = 4000 kJ =4 MJ

 These energies can be converted to each other.

 If you drop a mass from a height, it will gain velocity.
Thus PE will be converted to KE as it falls.
 At the halfway, PE and KE would be equal and at the
impact (at the bottom) the PE would be zero but all the
PE would be converted to KE at this point.
 At the impact, all KE will be converted on any other
energy such as heat.
 When you release the compressed gas, the mass
flowing out at a velocity would have KE with some
friction loss.

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 If you want to stop the aircraft of the example 2 on the
runway, you need 4 MJ energy in order to convert that
KE into heat energy in the brakes.
 A pendulum regularly converts PE to KE and back to PE
while it swings.

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 When yoyu throw a ball up in the air, you give it KE

while it gains PE with height and KE when it decends
again.
 As you have noticed all the energy forms any how turn
into heat and dissipates in the universe.

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 To do work, we have to consume fuel, create enegy and
spend it.
 If you can not raise enegy levels, you can not do work.

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 First Law:
 A body will continue in its state of rest or of uniform
motion in a straight line unless it is acted upon by an
external force.
 No object moves itself.
 A book on the table acting vertically downwards is being
reacted by an equal and opposite force being exerted
vertically upwards by the table.
 The book is said to be in equlibrium and will stay that
way indefinetely unless someone move it.
 A ball rolling on the floor, without friction, would continue
to roll indefinetely. A friction opposite to the ball
movement is in action.

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 Second Law:
 The rate of change of momentum of a body is
proportional to the applied force and will take place in
the direction of the force.
 A book on the table is at rest. When you apply a force
(push it) the book will accelerate to the direction you
push.
 The harder you push, the faster the book moves.
 A space probe moving freely at a constant speed in the
space, when an engine to light and vector 45o to the left,
the probe will move to the right and accelerate at the
direction the force is applied.

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 Third Law:
 To every action, there will be an equal and opposite
reaction.
 A book on the table acting vertically downwards is being
reacted by an equal and opposite force being exerted
vertically upwards by the table.
 If you lean on a Wall, you exert a force on the Wall and
the wall exerts an equal and opposite force on you.

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 Force is the product of mass (kg) and acceleration
(m/sec/sec) and is expressed in Newton.
Example 3:
The force required to accelerate 10 kg of air at a rate of 20
m/s2;

Force = mass x acceleration

= 10 kg x 20 m/s2
= 200 N
 The force applied on the air creates an equal and
opposite reaction.
 A jet engine accelerates a mass of air rearwards and
experiences a reaction force on all its internal and
rotating parts.
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 Each thermodynamic engine works in a thermal cycle.

 Brayton cycle forms the basis of operation of the gas
turbine engine.
 To get any heat (thermodynamic) engine to do work, we
must first raise the energy level of the working fluid, in
this case, air. We do this by releasing the heat energy in
fuel to raise the energy level of air.

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 In a piston engine, air pressure rises as heat energy is
released in the constant volume of the cylinder.
 The resulting air pressure then pushes the piston. During
piston movement work is done and temperature of the
expanding gas reduces. Then the gas is exhausted to
atmosphere.
 This cycle is Otto cycle
and is a constant volume cycle.

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 In a gas turbine engine, air is drawn in, compressed,

heated at constant pressure and accelerated during ist
subsequent expansion to craete a reaction force, the
spent gasses then reduce to their original energy levels
outside the engine.
 The process is continuous and is called the Brayton
Cycle.

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 Heat is continuously added to the air in the combustion
chamber to replace the heat enegy and pressure potential
energy being converted to kinetic energy during expansion,
consequently the pressure and temperature of the air in the
combustion chamber remains constant.
 The process is a constant pressure cycle.

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 A force is the product of mass (kg) and acceleration

(m/s2).
 It is expressed in Newton (N) in the SI system.
 If you apply a force on a body, enough to overcome
friction, the body will move. It would change its velocity
from zero to a new velocity.
 A change of velocity over time is called acceleration.

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 Example 4a:
The book reached a steady velocity of 2m/s after 2 seconds. The
acceleration will be

Acceleration = (final velocity (v) – initial velocity (u))/time (t)

= (2 m/s – 0 m/s)/2 s
= 1 m/s2

If the book had a mass of 2 kg then the force applied was;

Force = mass x acceleration

= 2 kg x 1 m/s2
=2N

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 In example 4 you will see that the distance the book

travelled is not mentioned. If the distance is given than
the work can be calculated.
 Work is the product of force (N) and distance (m) and is
expressed as the Joule (J) in the SI system.

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 Example 4b:
The book reached a steady velocity of 2m/s after 2 seconds. The
acceleration will be

Acceleration = (final velocity (v) – initial velocity (u))/time (t)

= (2 m/s – 0 m/s)/2 s
= 1 m/s2

If the book had a mass of 2 kg then the force applied was;

Force = mass x acceleration

= 2 kg x 1 m/s2
=2N
If we travelled the book at a distance of 2 meters, the work we
performed is;

Work (J) = Force (N) x Distance (m)

=2Nx2m=4J
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 But the duration of the work is not mentioned. Did it take

long or was it in a short time?
 The rate of doing work is called power and is expressed
as the watt (W) in the SI system.

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 Example 4c:
The actual time to move the book 5 m, with the previous acceleration
and final velocity;

Distance moved during acceleration to 2 m/s

Distance= ut + ½ at2
= 0 + ½ x 1 m/s2 x 2 s x 2 s = 2 m

Time to reach 2 m/s over 2 m was given as 2 s

Time to move the final 3 m;

Time = distance / speed

= 3 m / 2 m/s
= 1.5 s

Therefore total time to moce the book 5 m was 3.5 seconds. So the
power;

Power = Force x Distance /Time

2 N x 5 m / 3.5 s = 2.86 Watt
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 We have calculated the power required to move the

book but we do not know yet how much energy we
spent or the book gained as Kinetic Energy.
 Kinetic Energy is the product of half the mass and the
velocity squarred.

Example 4d:
Kinetic Energy = ½ mass x velocity2
= ½ x 2 kg x 2 m/s x 2m/s
=4J

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 The pure turbo-jet engine being
tested in still air, on the
ground…
 The engine consumes 260 kg
air into its intake every second
and accelerates the air to an
outlet velocity of 500 m/s.

Example 5a:
Acceleration (a) = (Final velocity (v) - Initial velocity (u))/time (t)
a = (500 m/s – 0 m/s)/1 sec
= 500 m/s2

Force = Mass (kg) x Acceleration (m/s2)

= 260 kg x 500 m/s2
= 130 000 N = 130 kN
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 Newton’s third law

states that to every
force there is an equal
and opposite force.
 Therefore there is a
forward acting reaction
force in the engine of
130 kN.
 That is called thrust
of the engine.

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 Lets calculate the work done by this force.
 We said the engine is still in the gorund and is not
moving. So the engine is doing no work!
 Lets calculate the power.
 Power is the product of force and distance divided by
time. Again as there is no movement, engine is
producing no power, although it produces thrust.
 An engine installed on an aircraft which is at the
staring on the runway with brakes on, does no work
and produces zero power. But as you will see, it
produces maximum thrust.

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 Lets assume engine of Example 5 is flying in an aircraft

with 300 m/s speed and consuming same amount of air.
Example 5b:
Acceleration (a) = (Final velocity (v) - Initial velocity (u))/time (t)
a = (500 m/s – 300 m/s)/1 sec
= 200 m/s2

Force = Mass (kg) x Acceleration (m/s2)

= 260 kg x 200 m/s2
= 52 000 N = 52 kN

 As the forward speed of the aircraft increase, the

thrust decreases.

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 If the aircraft on Example 5b, would fly at a speed of
500 m/s, there would be no thrust.
 If it reduced speed, the engine would have thrust again
and it would push the aircraft to higher speed again.
 Lets calculate the work done on the aircraft and the
power when it is flying at 300 m/s.

Example 5c:
Work (J) = Force (N) x Distance (m)
= 52000 N x 300 m/s = 15 600 000 J = 15.6 MJ

Power = Force x Distance /Time

= 15.6 MJ / 1 s = 15.6 MW

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 As aircraft speed increases, the engine loses thrust and

gains power.
 The energy in the exhaust flow when the aircraft was
stationary;
Example 5d:
Kinetic Energy = ½ mass x velocity2
= ½ x 260 kg x 500 m/s x 500 m/s
= 32 500 000 J = 32.5 MJ

 The engine would have had to use at least that amount

of heat energy to produce that result in the exhaust gas
flow.

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 Consider a turbo-propeller
engine on a ground test in
still air. The propeller is
taking 650 kg of air and
accelerating it to 200 m/s
in the slipstream.

Example 6a:
Acceleration (a) = (Final velocity (v) - Initial velocity (u))/time (t)
a = (200 m/s – 0 m/s)/1 sec
= 200 m/s2

Force = Mass (kg) x Acceleration (m/s2)

= 650 kg x 200 m/s2
= 130 000 N = 130 kN
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 The thrust is the same of

the pure turbo-jet engine.
 The energy in the
slipstream is

Example 6b:
Kinetic Energy = ½ mass x velocity2
= ½ x 650 kg x 200 m/s x 200 m/s
= 13 000 000 J = 13 MJ
 The propeller is producing the same thrust as the
pure turbo-jet engine but the energy required is 40%
of the turbo-jet.
 The turbo-propeller need less heat energy…
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 The energy required to accelerate a small
mass of air to a high velocity is greater than
the energy required to accelerate a large
mass of air to a low velocity.
 Although the propeller is more efficient compared the
turbo-jet, they are not replacements of each other.
 No aircraft can fly, in level flight, faster than the
slipstream of its engine. There would be not thrust.
 Propeller engines due to the problem of shock
waves/stall on the blades at high forward speess,
cannot operate efficiently above 350 knts.

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 350 knts is very slow for long-haul flights. That is why

propeller is preferred for short-haul flights.
 As the speed of sound in air is 331m/s at sea level, pure
turbo-jets with high exhaust velocities are not suitable
for sub-sonic airspeeds (i.e. 0.75 Mach).
 In order to overcome this dilemna, by-pass engine is
developed.

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 By-pass engines are designed to meet the desired
cruising speed of the aircraft.
 Cold stream by-pass flow provides the majority of the
thrust (around 70% of the thrust)

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Example 7:
A high by-pass engine has a cold stream mass flow of 500 kg/s and a
hot stream flow of 100 kg/s. The cold stream exhaust velocity is 200
m/s and the hot stream velocity is 300 m/s.

Cold stream thrust = mass x acceleration

= 500 kg/s x 200 m/s = 100 kN
Hot stream thrust = mass x acceleration
= 100 kg/s x 300 m/s = 30 kN

Total thrust = 130 kN (70% from cold stream)

Energy requirement is;

Cold = ½ mv2 = ½ x 500 kg x 200 m/s x 200 m/s = 10MJ

Hot = ½ mv2 = ½ x 100 kg x 300 m/s x 300 m/s = 4.5MJ

Total energy requirement is 14.5 MJ compared with 32.5 MJ for pure

turbo-jet and 13 MJ for turbo-propeller engine.

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 A single spool, axial flow, turbo-jet engine

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 The gas turbine, or the turbo-jet has five main sections
that are divided into cold and hot sections/regions of the
engine.
 High mass of air at ambient temperature enters the
intake.
 The air is then compressed in the compressor, which
can be of one or two stage axial or centrifugal design.
 A continuous supply of fuel is then mixed with the high-
pressure air in the combustion chamber and burned.
Potential chemical energy is converted into heat and
kinetic energy.

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 Burned gas with very high speed, enters to turbine.

 Turbine extracts work from the gas. Extracted work
used in turning the compressor, accessory gearbox and
shaft.
 The gases than passes to exhaust section and leaves to
the atmosphere as fast as possible.
 The cycle is continuous and takes place under constant
pressure.
 The forward reaction thrust is the product of the mass of
air paasing through the engine and the acceleration
given to it and acts on all the engine internal
components.

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 The more fuel is burnt, the more expansion and exit
velocity is produced.
 The limiting factors are the maximum temperature and
rotational speed that can be saely handled by the
engine.

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 It operates similar to turbo-jet, except there are two
stages of compressors; low pressure (LP) and high
pressure (HP). Some of the air leaving LP is split to go
into HP while other part by-passes the cunbostion and
turbine sections and mixes with the core flow in the
exhaust section.
 This gives a lower average exhaust velocity to süit a
lower opeartional sirspeed requirement.
 Another advantage is the reduced energy input
requirement which enables fuel saving while improving
thrust/weight ratio.
 The first turbine is dedicated to driving the HP
compressor while the rear two drives the LP
compressor. 49

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 It is also called high by-pass engine.
 Majority of the incoming air by-passes.
 A by-pass ratio 5:1 means, for every kilogram of air
passing through the core engine, 5 kilograms of air are
by-passed throuygh the by-pass or cold duct.
 The thrust produced by the cold stream is around 70%
of the total thrust.
 For aircraft wishing to operate around 0.8 Mach, the
propulsive efficiency is around 80% using this concept.
 The first stage of the LP compressor is a fan consisting
of long, often wide chord blades. This is why it is called
tırbo-fan.

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 Air leaving the fan is split to pass through the cold

stream, or by-pass, duct and to a lesser amount through
the core of the engine for combustionand work to drive
the compressors.
 The cold stream flow passes through a set of fixed
stator vanes that coorects the flow direction and
maintain its acceleration.
 The core engine flow or the hot stream, passes through
the normal gas turbine cycle.
 The first stage turbine drives the HP compressor whilst
the rear four turbines are dedicated to drive the LP
compressor and fan.

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 The hot and cold streams are mixed in the exhaust
section.

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 The figüre shows a three stage high by-pass turbofan

engine.
 LP is fan only. This concept allows the fan to rotate at
optimum speed.
 The difficulty here is the bearing settings.

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 All the energy in gas flow is returned into shaft in order

to produce work to drive a propeller.
 The propeller is driven over a reduction gear box of
1:16. this means propeller turns one revolution per 16
revolution of gas turbine shaft.
 As an example, propeller rotation is 200 RPM at idle
and 1,100 at cruise, this responds to 3,200 RPM and
17,600 RPM of shaft rotation.

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 Turbo-propeller engine output is not/can not given in
libreforce or Newton thrust. It is rated in shaft horse
power (SHP).
 The hot exhaust gas does not produce thrust.
 Turbine section efficiency shall be high enough to
convert most of the power in the exhaust into rotation.

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 The most efficient way to drive propeller is to use

dedicated turbine section to drive the propeller.
 This design is called free-turbine engine.
 The turbine which is driving the propeller is controlled
by propeller RPM control and is free to spin at a speed
different from the compressor(s).
 This results in the control of the propeller at optimum
speeds different from engine.
 The integrated design which the compressor is also
connected is called compound engine.

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 İn case of engine failure, windmilling propeller is critical

in turbo-propeller engines, because of high reduction
and low frictional loads.
 Beware that a self-turning propeller (windmilling) rotates
the engine 16 times faster.
 Another advantage of the free-turbine engine is, in case
of windmilling, only the free-turbine is effected and the
rest of the engine does not.
 Anyhow, the turbo-propeller engine shall be fitted with
automatic feathering system to prevent windmilling.

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 Turbo-prop engine without a propeller can be called

turbo-shaft engine.
 The engine drives the shaft and shaft is used to do the
work. It can be gear box of helicopter, an APU load, etc.
 Free-turbine configuration gives the freedom to engine
to operate at its optimum speed while the load also
benefits from the same.
 Many turbo-shaft engines are used as APU which
provides electric and compressed air to aircraft systems
on ground. As they work unsupervised, they have
complex electronic control systems.

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 Turbo-shaft engine output is rated as shaft
horsepower as in turbo-props.
 All the energy in gas flow in converted into shaft power
as much as possible which is used to drive the loads.
 As the load changes, the engine control reacts in order
to maintain the RPM.
 The limit is the exhaust gas temperature.

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