Chapter 8

Momentum, Impulse and

Collisions

8.1 Momentum and Impulse

In the previous two chapters we have reformulated the Newton’s second law
in terms of conservation of energies (kinetic, potential, internal). We can also
express it as
⃗ i = d⃗p
!
F (8.1)
i
dt
where ⃗p is a new physical quantity known as momentum. In this course we
define it as
⃗p ≡ m⃗v. (8.2)
Note, however, that in context of the so-called Hamiltonian mechanics
(which is the starting point in both quantum mechanics and statistical me-
chanics) it is defined as
∂E x, dx
" #
dt
⃗p = . (8.3)
∂( dx
dt
)
For example if $ % $ %2
d⃗x 1 d⃗x 1
E ⃗x, = m + kx2 (8.4)
dt 2 dt 2
then
∂E ⃗x, d⃗
" x#
dt d⃗x
⃗p = =m (8.5)
∂( d⃗
x
dt
) dt
which is in agreement with (8.2).

96
CHAPTER 8. MOMENTUM, IMPULSE AND COLLISIONS 97

The units of momentum are given by

[Momentum] = [Mass] × [V elocity] (8.6)

and for example in SI units

1 N · 1 s = 1 kg · m/s2 . (8.7)

Alternatively one can write units of momentum as

[Momentum] = [Mass] × [V elocity]

= [Mass] × [Acceleration] × [T ime]
= [F orce] × [T ime] (8.8)

where the latter form suggests that when some force is applied to a system
for some time then, it may effect the momentum. In fact if we define impulse
(of the time-independent net force) as

⃗J = ⃗ i ∆t
!
F (8.9)
i

then from (8.1) we get

⃗J = ⃗pf − ⃗pi . (8.10)
When the net force is time dependent the impulse is defined as
& tf !
⃗J = ⃗ i dt
F (8.11)
ti i

and from (8.1) we get

tf tf
d⃗p
& &
⃗J = ⃗ i dt =
!
F dt = ⃗pf − ⃗pi (8.12)
ti i ti dt

which is the same as equation (8.10). Note also that if the average force is
defined as ' tf (
⃗
⃗ avg ≡ ti i Fi dt
F (8.13)
tf − ti
then the impulse is just
⃗J = F
⃗ avg (tf − ti ) (8.14)
similarly to (8.9).
CHAPTER 8. MOMENTUM, IMPULSE AND COLLISIONS 98

Similarly to the energy conservation which is fundamentally due to time-

shift symmetry of physics laws, the momentum conservation is due to space-
shift symmetry. For this reason the conservation of energy expresses changes
caused by force in time

⃗J = ⃗ i dt = ⃗pf − ⃗pi
!
F (8.15)
i

and the conservation of momentum expresses the changes caused by forces

in space
⃗ i · d⃗l = Kf − Ki .
!
W = F (8.16)
i

The fact that the two expressions look so much alike might be surprising at
first but this is what lead people to eventually discover a more fundamental
and unified conserved quantity known as energy-momentum tensor as well
as other conserved quantities such as electric charge. In fact discovery of
new symmetries and developing theories based on these symmetries is what
physicists did for the most part of the 20th century.
Example 8.1 . We can now go back to the example 6.5 where we con-
sidered a race of two iceboats on a frictionless frozen lake. The boats have
masses m and 2m, and the wind exerts the same constant horizontal force F ⃗
on each boat. The boats start from rest and cross the finish like a distance s
away. Which boat crosses the final line with greater momentum.

Although it is true that the final kinetic energy of both boats will be the
CHAPTER 8. MOMENTUM, IMPULSE AND COLLISIONS 99

same,

K1 = K2
1 1
(m) v12 = (2m) v22 (8.17)
2 2
and the final velocities where not the same
v1 √
= 2. (8.18)
v2
and thus momenta are related by
p1 v1 √
= = 2. (8.19)
p2 v2
This is due to the fact that the same forces were acting for different
periods of time. Using the impulse-momentum theorem we can conclude
that

F ∆t1 = mv1
F ∆t2 = mv2 (8.20)

and thus
∆t1 v1 √
= = 2. (8.21)
∆t2 v2
Example 8.2. You throw a ball with a mass of 0.40 kg against a brick
wall. It hits the wall moving horizontally to the left at 30 m/s and rebounds
horizontally to the right at 20 m/s. (a) Find the impulse of the net force on
the ball during its collision with the wall. (b) If the ball is in contact with the
wall for 0.010 s, find the average horizontal force that the wall exerts on the
ball during impact.

The momentum-energy theorem implies

⃗J = ⃗pf − ⃗pi . (8.22)
CHAPTER 8. MOMENTUM, IMPULSE AND COLLISIONS 100

Assuming that the x-axis is chosen in the direction of motion of the ball
before collision we get
⃗J = m (⃗vf − ⃗vi )
) * ) *
= (0.40 kg) −30 m/sî − 20 m/sî
= (−20 N·s) î. (8.23)

Now if the ball is in contact with the wall for ∆t = 0.010 s then
⃗
⃗ avg = J = (−20 N·s) î = 2000 Nî
F (8.24)
∆t 0.010 s

8.2 Conservation of Momentum

When a given system is analyzed it often useful to distinguish two types of
forces:

• internal forces (forces exerted on each other by objects inside the sys-
tem)

• external forces (forces exerted on the system by objects outside of the

system)

When there are no external forces the systems is said to be closed or isolated.
For isolated systems one can write down the impulse-momentum theorem for
each object separately

⃗ A on B = d⃗pB
F
dt
d⃗
⃗ B on A = pA
F (8.25)
dt
but because of the Newton’s third law
⃗ A on B = −F
F ⃗ B on A (8.26)

we get
d⃗pB d⃗pA
=− . (8.27)
dt dt
If we now define the total momentum of all particles as
⃗ = ⃗pA + ⃗pB
P (8.28)
CHAPTER 8. MOMENTUM, IMPULSE AND COLLISIONS 101

then we get the law of conservation of total momentum

⃗
dP
= 0. (8.29)
dt
This is true for an arbitrary collection of particles, i.e.
⃗ = ⃗pA + ⃗pB + ⃗pC + ... = mA ⃗vA + mB ⃗vB + mC ⃗vC + ...
P (8.30)
given that there are no external (but only internal) forces acting on these
particles. Note that since (8.29) is a vector equation it must be satisfied
along all three components
dPx
= d(mA VAx +mB VdtBx +mC VCx +...) = 0
dt
dPy d(mA VAy +mB VBy +mC VCy +...)
= dt
=0
dt
dPz
= d(mA VAz +mB VdtBz +mC VCz +...) = 0 (8.31)
dt
and for arbitrary time interval
Pix = Pf x ⇒ mA VAix + mB VBix + mC VCix + ... = mA VAf x + mB VBf x + mC VCf x + ...
Piy = Pf y ⇒ mA VAiy + mB VBiy + mC VCiy + ... = mA VAf y + mB VBf y + mC VCf y + ...
Piz = Pf z ⇒ mA VAiz + mB VBiz + mC VCiz + ... = mA VAf z + mB VBf z + mC VCf z(8.32)
+ ...
Example 8.4. A marksman holds a rifle of mass mR = 3.00 kg loosely,
so it can recoil freely. He fires a bullet of mass mB = 5.00 g horizontally with
a velocity relative to the ground of vBx = 300 m/s. What is the recoil velocity
vRx of the rifle? What are the final momentum and kinetic energy of the
bullet and rifle?
CHAPTER 8. MOMENTUM, IMPULSE AND COLLISIONS 102

Conservation of momentum implies

mB ⃗vBi + mR ⃗vRi = mB ⃗vBf + mR ⃗vRf

0 = mB vBx + mR vRx
mB
vRx = − vBx
mR
5.00 × 10−3 kg
vRx = − (300 m/s)
3.00 kg
vRx = −0.500 m/s. (8.33)

So the final momenta and kinetic energies are

⃗pR = (3.00 kg) (−0.500 m/s) î = −1.50 kg · m/s î

⃗pB = 5.00 × 10−3 kg (300 m/s) î = 1.50 kg · m/s
" #

1
KR = (3.00 kg) (−0.500 m/s)2 = 0.375 J
2
1"
5.00 × 10−3 kg (300 m/s)2 = 225 J.
#
KB = (8.34)
2
Example 8.6. Consider two batting robots on a frictionless surface.
Robot A, with mass 20 kg, initially moves at 2.0 m/s parallel to the x-axis.
It collides with robot B, which has mass 12 kg and is initially at rest. After
the collision, robot A moves at 1.0 m/s in a direction that makes an angle
α = 30◦ with its initial direction. What is the final velocity of robot B.
CHAPTER 8. MOMENTUM, IMPULSE AND COLLISIONS 103

Conservation of momentum implies

mA ⃗vA1 = mA ⃗vA2 + mB ⃗vB2 (8.35)

or along x-axis

mA vA1 = mA vA2 cos(α) + mB vB2x

mA
vB2x = (vA1 − vA2 cos(α))
mB
(20 kg)
vB2x = (2.0 m/s − 1.0 m/s cos(30◦ )) = 1.89 m/s (8.36)
(12 kg)
CHAPTER 8. MOMENTUM, IMPULSE AND COLLISIONS 104

and along y-axis

0 = −mA vA2 sin(α) + mB vB2y

mA
vB2y = − vA2 sin(α)
mB
(20 kg)
vB2y = − (1.0 m/s) sin(30◦) = −0.83 m/s (8.37)
(12 kg)
and so
⃗vB2 = 1.89 m/s î − 0.83 m/s ĵ. (8.38)

8.3 Inelastic Collisions

In this section we will discuss instantaneous events - we call collisions -
which suddenly change the kinetic energies of objects.

• If forces between colliding objects are conservative, then the total ki-
netic energy right before and right after collision is the same and the
the collision is called elastic.

∆K = 0 (8.39)

• If the forces are non-conservative, then the total kinetic energy is not
conserved and the collision is called inelastic (or completely inelastic
is objects stick together).
∆K ̸= 0 (8.40)

The key point is that although the (kinetic) energy might not be conserved,
the momentum is still conserved for both elastic and inelastic collisions:
⃗ =0
∆P (8.41)

Consider a completely inelastic two-bodies collision, i.e.

⃗vA2 = ⃗vB2 = ⃗v2 (8.42)

then conservation of momentum implies

mA ⃗vA1 + mB ⃗vB1 = (mA + mB ) ⃗v2 (8.43)

or
mA ⃗vA1 + mB ⃗vB1
⃗v2 = . (8.44)
(mA + mB )
CHAPTER 8. MOMENTUM, IMPULSE AND COLLISIONS 105

For example if object B was originally at rest, then

mA
v2 = vA1 (8.45)
(mA + mB )

and then it is easy to show that after the (completely inelastic) collision the
total kinetic energies are
1 2
K1 = mA vA1
2
%2
m2A
$
1 2 1 2 1 mA 1
K2 = mA v2 + mB v2 = (mA + mB ) vA1 = v2
(8.46)
2 2 2 (mA + mB ) 2 (mA + mB ) A1

and so
K2 mA
= <1 (8.47)
K1 (mA + mB )
or the total kinetic energy after the collision is lower than before collision

K 2 < K1 . (8.48)

Example 8.8. Consider a ballistic pendulum, a simple system of mea-

suring speed of a bullet.
CHAPTER 8. MOMENTUM, IMPULSE AND COLLISIONS 106

A bullet of mass mB makes a completely inelastic collision with a block of

wood of mass mW , which is suspended like a pendulum. After impact, the
block swings up to a maximum height y. In terms of y, mB , and mW , what
is the initial speed v1 of the bullet.
During the inelastic collision of the bullet and the block of wood the
momentum is conserved and so
mB
mB v1 = (mB + mW )v2 ⇒ v1 = v2 (8.49)
mB + mW
During the swing the the total energy is conserved and so
1 +
(mB + mW ) v22 = (mB + mW ) gy ⇒ v2 = 2gy (8.50)
2
CHAPTER 8. MOMENTUM, IMPULSE AND COLLISIONS 107

By combining the two equations we get

√
mB 2gy
v1 = . (8.51)
mB + mW
Example 8.9. A 1000 − kg car traveling north at 15 m/s collides with a
2000 − kg truck traveling east at 10 m/s. The occupants, wearing seat belts,
are uninjured, but the two vehicles move away from the impact point as one.
The insurance adjustor asks you to find the velocity of the wreckage just after
the impact. What is your answer?

Conservation of momentum implies

) *
mC vC î + mT vT ĵ = (mC + mT ) v cos θ î + v sin θ ĵ (8.52)

and thus we have two equations

mC vC = (mC + mT ) v cos θ
mT vT = (mC + mT ) v sin θ (8.53)

with two unknowns v and θ. With solutions

mT vT
tan θ =
mC VC
$ %
2000 kg · 15 m/s
θ = arctan ≈ 37◦ (8.54)
1000 kg · 10 m/s
CHAPTER 8. MOMENTUM, IMPULSE AND COLLISIONS 108

and
mT vT
v =
sin θ (mC + mT )
2000 kg · 15 m/s
v = = 8.3 m/s. (8.55)
sin (37◦ ) (1000 kg + 2000 kg)

8.4 Elastic Collisions

In elastic collisions the total kinetic energy before and after collisions is un-
changed and so one can use both conservation of energy and momenta
∆K = 0
⃗ = 0
∆P (8.56)
Example 8.12. Consider an elastic collision of two pucks (masses mA =
0.500 kg and mB = 0.300 kg) on a frictionless air-hockey table. Puck A has
an initial velocity of 4.00 m/s in the positive x-direction and a final velocity
of 2.00 m/s in an unknown direction α. Puck B is initially at rest. Find the
final speed vB2 of puck B and the angles α and β.

From conservation of energy

2 2 2
mA vA1 mA vA2 mB vB2
= + (8.57)
2 2 2
or ,
2 2
mA (vA1 − vA2 )
vB2 = (8.58)
mB
CHAPTER 8. MOMENTUM, IMPULSE AND COLLISIONS 109

and from conservation of momentum

mA ⃗vA1 = mA ⃗vA2 + mB ⃗vB2 (8.59)

or along each axis

mA vA1 = mA vA2 cos α + mB vB2 cos β

0 = mA vA2 sin α − mB vB2 sin β. (8.60)

From (8.60) we get

mA
vB2 cos β = (vA1 − vA2 cos α)
mB
mA
vB2 sin β = vA2 sin α
mB
and by combining with (8.58) we get
2 2
vB2 = vB2 cos2 β + vB2
2
sin2 β
2 2
$ %2
mA (vA1 − vA2 ) mA "
(vA1 − vA2 cos α)2 + vA2 2
sin2 α
#
=
mB mB
$ %
mB " 2 2
" 2 2
cos2 α + vA2
2
sin2 α
# #
vA1 − vA2 = vA1 − 2vA1 vA2 cos α + vA2
m
$ A%
mB " 2 2
# 2 2
vA1 − vA2 = vA1 − 2vA1 vA2 cos α + vA2
mA
) *
mB 2 2 2 2
mA
(vA1 − vA2 ) + (vA1 + vA2 )
cos α = = 36.9◦
2vA1 vA2
and
mA (vA1 − vA2 cos α)
cos β =
m v
$ B B2 $ ! mB " 2 2 %%
mA ( A1
v −vA2 )+(vA1 A2 )
2 +v 2
mA vA1 − vA2 2vA1 vA2
cos β = -
mA (vA1 A2 )
2 −v 2
mB mB
,
2 2
mA − mB vA1 − vA2
cos β = = 26.6◦ .
2vA1 mB mA
CHAPTER 8. MOMENTUM, IMPULSE AND COLLISIONS 110

8.5 Center of Mass

The conservation of momentum can be restated in terms of center of mass
defined as the mass-weighted average position of particle
(
m1⃗r1 + m2⃗r2 + m3⃗r3 + ... mi⃗ri
⃗rcm ≡ = (i .
m1 + m2 + m3 + ... i mi

Then the total momentum can be written as

⃗ = m1⃗v1 + m2⃗v2 + m3⃗v3 + ... =
P
d
= (m1⃗r1 + m2⃗r2 + m3⃗r3 + ...) =
dt $ %
d m1⃗r1 + m2⃗r2 + m3⃗r3 + ...
= (m1 + m2 + m3 + ...) =
dt m1 + m2 + m3 + ...
d⃗rcm
= (m1 + m2 + m3 + ...)
dt
or simply
⃗ = M⃗vcm
P
where !
M= mi
i

is the total mass and

d⃗rcm
⃗vcm =
dt
is the velocity of the center of mass.
Example 8.14. James (mJ = 90.0 kg) and Ramon (mR = 60.0 kg) are
20 m apart on a frozen pond. Midway between them is a mug of their favorite
beverage. They pull on the ends of a light rope stretched between them. When
James has moved 6.0 m towards the mug, how far and in what direction has
Ramon moved?
CHAPTER 8. MOMENTUM, IMPULSE AND COLLISIONS 111

From the conservation of the total momentum

Pix = Pf x
0 = M⃗vcm
ricm = rf cm
If we set the origin to be in the location of the mug, then
xiJ = −10 m
xiR = 10 m
xf j = −10 m + 6 m = −4 m
and so the initial (and final) location of the center of mass is
xiJ mJ + xiR mR xf J mJ + xf R mR
=
mJ + mR mJ + mR
or
xiJ mJ + xiR mR − xf J mJ (−10 m) (90.0 kg) + (10 m) (60.0 kg) − (−4 m) (90.0 kg)
xf R = = = 1.0 m
mR (60.0 kg)
If there are external forces acting on the objects, then the total momen-
tum changes as
⃗
⃗ ext = dP = d (M⃗vcm ) = M⃗acm .
!
F
dt dt
Example. Will the center of mass continue on the same parabolic tra-
jectory even after one of the fragments hits the ground? Why or why not?