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Artificial Intelligence - European Perspective
Artificial Intelligence - European Perspective
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Max Craglia (Ed.)
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massimo.craglia@ec.europa.eu
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An online version of this publication is available at: GSSORDB
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How to cite this report: Craglia M. (Ed.), Annoni A., Benczur P., Bertoldi P., Delipetrev P., De Prato G., Feijoo C.,
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ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE
A EUROPEAN PERSPECTIVE
Table of contents 4
TABLE
#VCASRGTCȩQSKK?PW
OF CONTENTS 8
1 +MRGT?RGMLȩ?LBȩM@HCARGTCȩMDȩRFGQȩPCNMPR 16
2 About AI 19
2.1 A brief history of AI 19
2.2 Recent developments in machine learning 20
2.3 Recent developments in social robots 21
2.4 Current challenges 22
2.5 Summary and conclusions 23
4 AI in the EU 37
4.1 Strategies and plans 37
4.1.1 The European Union 37
4.1.2 France 40
4.1.3 United Kingdom 41
4.1.4 Finland 43
ȩ -RFCPȩ#3ȩAMSLRPGCQȩ
4.2 Summary and conclusions 43
7 Legal perspective 63
ȩ +?GLȩJCE?JȩAF?JJCLECQȩGBCLRGȏCBȩGLȩ#SPMNC?Lȩ'ȩQRP?RCEGCQȩ
ȩ -ULCPQFGN
ȩ?AACQQȩ?LBȩQF?PGLEȩMDȩB?R?ȩ
7.3 The protection of AI inventions/creations
by intellectual property rights 66
7.4 Regulatory approach 68
7.5 Summary and conclusions 69
8 Educational perspective 71
8.1 Introduction 71
8.2 AI impact on skills demand, learning and teaching 72
8.2.1 Direct AI impact on advanced skills demand 72
8.2.2 Impact of AI on learning 72
8.2.3 Impact of AI on teaching 73
8.3 AI skills and academic supply 74
8.4 Summary and conclusions 75
9 Economic perspective 77
ȩ .MRCLRG?JȩGKN?ARȩMDȩ'ȩMLȩHM@Qȩ
9.2 Potential impact of AI on growth 80
9.3 Potential impact of AI on inequality 82
9.4 Summary and conclusions 84
10 Cybersecurity perspective 87
10.1 Background: AI and cybersecurity 87
10.2 Applications of AI in cybersecurity 88
ȩ "CRCPPCLACȩ?LBȩȏEFRȩ?E?GLQRȩAPGKCȩ
10.4 Robustness of AI algorithms against malicious action 89
10.5 Summary and conclusions 91
Table of contents 6
DEEP
LE
ARNING
AI
IC S
OT
ROB
R SECU
BE
RIT
CY
S
HIC
ET
TA
DA
T
CEN ERE
HUMAN
D
AI
#VCASRGTCȩQSKK?PW 8
EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY
This report presents a European view of PRGȍAG?J however. Among them, current ML algorithms display
'LRCJJGECLAC ' based on independent research QMKCȩMDȩRFCȩAF?P?ARCPGQRGAQȩMDȩ?ȩ@J?AIȩ@MVȩUCȩ?A-
and analysis by the European Commission Joint cess the inputs and outputs but do not understand
Research Centre to inform the debate at the Euro- fully what happens in-between, and how certain
pean level. outputs, including decisions and actions, are
dePGTCBȩ 2FGQȩ A?JJQȩ fMPȩ ?ȩ EPC?RCPȩ CȎMPRȩ RMȩ SLBCPQRand
5Cȩ ȏPQRȩ GLRPMBSACȩ 'ȩ ?Qȩ ?ȩ ECLCPGAȩ RCPKȩ RF?Rȩ PC- RFCGPȩ RFCMPWȩ ?LBȩ RMȩ BCTCJMNȩ CVNJ?GL?@JCȩ ?LBȩ ?Acount-
fers to any machine or algorithm that is capable able algorithms. We also need strong evaluation
of observing its environment, learning, and based
MLȩRFCȩILMUJCBECȩ?LBȩCVNCPGCLACȩE?GLCB
ȩR?ICȩGL-
telligent actions or propose decisions. Autonomy
of decision processes and interaction with other
machines and humans are other dimensions that
need to be considered.
well balanced in the number of research and guide the development of AI, with shared concerns
non-PCQC?PAFȩNJ?WCPQ
ȩRFCȩ31ȩF?Qȩ?NNPMVGK?RCJWȩRFree over the need for an agreed ethical framework and
times as many industrial/corporate players as re- ?NNJGA?RGMLQȩ RF?Rȩ AJC?PJWȩ @CLCȏRȩ #SPMNC?Lȩ QMAGCRWȩ
QC?PAFȩMLCQ
ȩ?LBȩ!FGL?ȩF?Qȩ?@MSRȩQGVȩRGKCQȩ?QȩK?LWȩ and uphold the European values enshrined in the
research players as industrial ones. The strength of the Treaties $IBQUFS
.ȩ 2FCȩ &GEF*CTCJȩ #VNCPRȩ %PMSNȩ
corporate world in the USA is also indicated by its established in 2018 by the European Commission
dominance in the number of start-ups (almost half is elaborating a framework for subsequent develop-
of the total worldwide) and venture capital (more ments linked to these values. We also note the high
than one third of the total). China, on the other hand, level of awareness that data is crucial to the devel-
GQȩK?IGLEȩ?ȩQRPMLEȩCȎMPRȩRMȩRSPLȩPCQC?PAFȩinto pa- opment of AI, with policy documents at both nation-
tents, and accounts for almost 60 % of the world al and European level putting strong emphasis on
total. It has also put in place a strongly coordinated the need to share data better among all the stake-
approach to AI, including government policy, holders: the public sector, industry, and the public.
GLBSQRPG?Jȩ?NNJGA?RGMLQȩ?LBȩPCQC?PAFȩUGRFȩRFCȩM@HCARive Finding the right way of doing it is challenging, as
of becoming the world leader in AI by 2030. This is analysed in $IBQUFSof the report.
an ambitious but achievable target $IBQUFS
.
Europe is currently well positioned in the quality After the overview and analysis of the AI global and
of its research production, with more than 30 % European landscapes we discuss AI from multiple per-
MDȩ?JJȩN?NCPQȩMLȩ'ȩNS@JGQFCBȩGLȩRMNȩQAGCLRGȏAȩHMSP- QNCARGTCQȩRMȩ?BBȩQMKCȩBCNRFȩ?LBȩCVNJMPCȩQWLCPEGCQȩ
L?JQ
ȩ HSQRȩ @CFGLBȩ RFCȩ 31ȩ ȩ Ϥ
ȩ ?LBȩ GQȩ AMLQGB-
erably ahead of China. Key areas of strength in As we highlight at multiple stages in this report, a
Europe on which to build upon are automated and key characteristic of the European way to AI has
connected vehicles and robotics. to be a strong ethical framework. There is con-
sensus on this principle, and we report $IBQUFS
We note that many European countries as well as on many initiatives at both national and European
the EC are developing strategies and programmes to levels to develop ethical guidelines to frame the
#VCASRGTCȩQSKK?PW 10
development of AI. We review the main dimensions ?LBȩ ECMEP?NFGAȩ BGQRPG@SRGMLȩ MDȩ RFCȩ ?A?BCKGAȩ MȎCPȩ
that such guidelines should consider and highlight of study topics related to AI. This is relevant to
the potential implications of AI at the level of indi- the discussion in DIBQUFST BOE on possible
viduals and society. We conclude that to build and strategies to start preparing society, and the most
retain trust in AI we need a multi-layered approach vulnerable regions, to the challenges that AI will
that includes the critical engagement of civil so- bring.
ciety to discuss the values guiding and being em-
@CBBCBȩGLRMȩ'
ȩNS@JGAȩBC@?RCQȩGLȩBGȎCPCLRȩDMP?ȩRMȩ
translate these values into strategies and guide-
lines, and responsible design practices that encode
these values and guidelines into AI systems, so that
they are ethical-by-design $IBQUFS
.
The digital
In reviewing the European legal framework for AI,
transformation
particularly with respect to the fundamental rights,
data ownership, and intellectual property, we note of society
the tensions between protecting rights of individuals
?LBȩȏPKQȩ?LBȩCLAMSP?EGLEȩGLLMT?RGMLȩUGRFȩRPWGLEȩRMȩ has just begun:
K?VGKGQCȩMNCLLCQQȩ?LBȩRP?LQN?PCLAWȩ5CȩAMLAJSBCȩ
however that Europe is well placed to establish a
distinctive form of AI that is ethically robust and
AI is central
NPMRCARQȩRFCȩPGEFRQȩMDȩGLBGTGBS?JQ
ȩȏPKQ
ȩ?LBȩQMAGCRWȩ
?Rȩ J?PECȩ $MPȩ CV?KNJC
ȩ RFCȩ %CLCP?Jȩ "?R?ȩ .PMRCARGMLȩ
to this change
Regulation, opposed by many during preparation, is
now perceived as a European asset and is inspiring
and offers major
QGKGJ?Pȩ ?NNPM?AFCQȩ MSRQGBCȩ #SPMNCȩ #VRCLBGLEȩ RFGQȩ
notion, we should consider the high standards of the opportunities
European legal and regulatory landscape in a similar
way to those in environmental quality which are an to improve
asset for Europeans and their future generations to
build upon, not a barrier $IBQUFS
. our lives.
From an educational perspective, we observe
$IBQUFS
that AI has potential positive impacts
on shortages of skills, learning, and teaching.
Three crucial points stand out from the review: The potential impact of AI on the labour market and
ȏPQRJW
ȩRFCȩLCCBȩRMȩSLBCPQR?LBȩ@CRRCPȩFMUȩRFCȩGL- inequality raises concerns in the media, research
teraction with AI impacts human intelligence in and public debates. We analyse the literature and
cognitive capacities in both adults, and even more evidence available to date on the potential impacts,
importantly, children. Secondly, we need to think both positive and negative, with respect to work,
beyond current needs and practices, and consider EPMURF
ȩ?LBȩGLCOS?JGRWȩ'LȩPCJ?RGMLȩRMȩUMPI
ȩUCȩȏLBȩ
how AI is likely to change the relationship between that neither theory nor evidence are very conclusive
education and work, and human development. at the present time. AI could complement and en-
Thirdly, we highlight possible risks related to AI in hance human activity, replace an increasing num-
education, particularly privacy and ethical ones. ber of routine tasks, or both. Studies measuring
In this chapter, we also provide an initial overview RFCȩQF?PCȩMDȩHM@Qȩ?RȩFGEFȩPGQIȩMDȩ?SRMK?RGMLȩCVFG@-
11 ȩ#VCASRGTCȩQSKK?PW
MOTIVATION
AND OBJECTIVE
OF THIS REPORT
PRGȍAG?J'LRCJJGECLAC'UGJJ@PGLEK?LWMN- AMLRCVRQ
ȩ CEȩ RMȩ ESGBCȩ SQȩ RMȩ ?ȩ BCQRGL?RGML
ȩ FCJNȩ
NMPRSLGRGCQx SQȩ ȏLBȩ RFCȩ LCVRȩ QMLEȩ RMȩ JGQRCLȩ RM
ȩ ȏJRCPȩ MSPȩ QN?Kȩ
'ȩGQȩ?ȩRCAFLMJMEGA?JȩȏCJBȩRF?RȩNMUCPQȩK?LWȩ?NNJG- CK?GJQ
ȩMPȩFCJNȩSQȩRCVRGLEȩKCQQ?ECQȩ'LȩRFCȩAMKGLEȩ
cations we use daily, often without knowing it. As it years, AI-supported medical diagnostics may be-
develops further, it has the potential to bring many AMKCȩ GLAPC?QGLEJWȩ AMKKMLȩ #T?JS?RGLEȩ HM@ȩ A?LBG-
changes to both economy and society. This might B?RCQȩMPȩNPCBGARGLEȩPCMȎCLBGLEȩAMSJBȩ@CȩQSNNMPRCBȩ
unfold in a similar way to the invention of the World by the responsible use of transparent algorithms
Wide Web 25 years ago which, combined with the helping to overcome personal or institutional
QS@QCOSCLRȩBGȎSQGMLȩMDȩKM@GJCȩNFMLCQ
ȩMNCLCBȩRFCȩ @G?QCQȩQCC
ȩDMPȩCV?KNJC
ȩ$?JG?EI?ȩCRȩ?J
ȩȩ?LBȩ
way to the massive increase the use of the internet Tollenaar et al., 2013). Robots able to understand
across the world. RFCȩAMKNJCVGRWȩMDȩQMAG?Jȩ?LBȩFSK?Lȩ@CF?TGMSPȩF?TCȩ
the potential to improve human cognitive perfor-
Looking back over these 25 years, we can see how mance (Belpaeme et al., 2018), and support the
early views about the death of distance (&DPOPNJTU, development of skills, e.g. in children with autism
ȩ?LBȩRFCȩBCKGQCȩMDȩAGRGCQȩ%GJBCPȩGLȩ)?PJE??PBȩ (Scassellati et al., 2018).
and Malone, 1995) as a result of the internet were
T?QRJWȩ CV?EECP?RCBȩ AGRGCQȩ F?TCȩ AMLRGLSCBȩ RMȩ EPMUȩ x?LBK?LWAF?JJCLECQ
and in fact increased their role as the hubs of in- AI can solve a wide range of problems, but we still
novation. The internet has profoundly changed the know very little about how it will impact the way
way we work, learn, and socialise, created entirely we think, make decisions, or relate to each other
new products, services, and business models, and %MKCXȩCRȩ?J
ȩȩ'ȩGQȩQRGJJȩLMRȩUCJJȩSLBCPQRMMBȩ
reshaped international relations and markets. We even by specialists. AI systems are currently limited
have seen new challenges emerging, including cy- RMȩ L?PPMUȩ ?LBȩ UCJJBCȏLCBȩ R?QIQ
ȩ ?LBȩ RFCGPȩ RCAF-
ber-threats, misinformation, loss of privacy, and the nologies inherit imperfections from their human
BGQNJ?ACKCLRȩ MPȩ JMQQȩ MDȩ HM@Qȩ GLȩ K?LWȩ QCARMPQ
ȩ @SRȩ APC?RMPQ
ȩ QSAFȩ ?Qȩ RFCȩ UCJJPCAMELGQCBȩ @G?Qȩ CȎCARȩ
UCȩF?TCȩ?JQMȩQCCLȩK?LWȩ@CLCȏRQȩQSAFȩ?QȩS@GOSG- present in data and algorithms. We should there-
tous access to information and services. fore be aware of the potential shortcomings of AI
and work towards agreed ways to evaluate algo-
The recent developments in AI are the result of rithms, build transparent and reliable systems, and
increased availability of processing power, im- design good human-AI interactions.
NPMTCKCLRQȩ GLȩ ?JEMPGRFKQȩ ?LBȩ RFCȩ CVNMLCLRG?Jȩ
growth in the volume and variety of digital data,
and increased funding. We use AI today in many
17 Introduction and AI International Landscape
5FWRFGQPCNMPRx UCJJȩ?AFGCTCȩRFCȩM@HCARGTCȩMDȩ@CAMKGLEȩRFCȩBMKGL
Hundreds of reports are published each year on AI ant AI player in the world by 2030, overtaking the
?LBȩ PCJ?RCBȩ RCAFLMJMEGCQ
ȩ GLȩ ?BBGRGMLȩ RMȩ QAGCLRGȏAȩ USA. Whilst we are more familiar with USA compa-
papers. This clearly shows the high level of interest nies, technologies and applications, we know little
GLȩRFGQȩQS@HCAR
ȩ@SRȩBMȩUCȩPC?JJWȩLCCBȩ?LMRFCPȩPCNMPR about developments in China and for this reason
we pay comparatively more attention to China in
Most of these publications come from industrial or this report, taking advantage of bespoke research
national interests. Therefore, an independent Euro- BMLCȩMLȩRFGQȩQS@HCARȩDMPȩRFCȩ(0!
pean perspective underpinned by original research
and not focused on a single policy domain is miss- In.?PR we look at AI from multiple perspectives:
ing. Hence the value of this report from the Joint ethical, legal, educational, economic, cybersecurity,
Research Centre (JRC), the science and knowledge computing and energy, data-related, and societal
management service of the European Commission resilience. We discuss each perspective in turn but
(EC). This report is also timely because many Euro- they are intertwined in multiple ways and should be
pean countries are developing national strategies considered all together in framing a European way
for AI (see Chapter 4) to embrace this technologic- to the development and use of AI.
?JȩȏCJBȩ?LBȩNPCN?PCȩQMAGCRWȩDMPȩRFCȩAF?LECQȩGRȩUGJJȩ
bring. The EC is working with the Member States 5F?RGQLMRGLRFCPCNMPR
on a coordinated Action Plan for AI. A High-Level The report does not include any analysis of AI appli-
#VNCPRȩ %PMSNȩ MLȩ 'ȩ F?Qȩ ?JQMȩ @CCLȩ CQR?@JGQFCBȩ @Wȩ A?RGMLQȩGLȩBGȎCPCLRȩQCARMPQȩMDȩRFCȩCAMLMKWȩ2FGQȩUGJJȩ
the EC to make recommendations on policy and @CȩRFCȩQS@HCARȩMDȩ?ȩQCN?P?RCȩ(0!ȩPCNMPRȩGLȩNPCN?P
investment, and set guidelines on the ethical de- ation, as well as the focus of an AI-Watch facility
velopment of AI. The latter are crucial as there is to monitor and analyse AI developments launched
a strong consensus in Europe that our AI should be GLȩ"CACK@CPȩȩ-RFCPȩ(0!ȩPCNMPRQȩMLȩPCQGJGCLAC
ȩ
human-centric, with ethics and security by design, fairness, mobility, cybersecurity, hybrid threats,
and supporting the core values of the European and China will be published soon, complementing
Union: human dignity, freedom, democracy, equal- and adding details to some of the arguments ad-
ity, rule of law and human rights. dressed in this report.
x?LBGRQM@HCARGTC 5F?RWMSQFMSJBR?IC?U?W
To provide a balanced assessment of opportunities Currently, the global competition on AI is largely be-
and challenges for AI from a European perspective, tween the USA and China at the present time. For the
and support the development of European action in EU, it is not so much a question of winning or losing a
RFCȩEJM@?Jȩ'ȩAMLRCVRȩ P?ACȩ@SRȩMDȩȏLBGLEȩRFCȩU?WȩMDȩCK@P?AGLEȩRFCȩMNNMP-
RSLGRGCQȩMȎCPCBȩ@Wȩ'ȩGLȩ?ȩU?WȩRF?RȩGQȩFSK?LACLRPCB
ȩ
5F?RGQGLRFCPCNMPR ethical, secure, and true to our core values.
We have organised the report into two sections:
in .?PR we give a brief introduction to AI, and 5Cȩ F?TCȩ K?LWȩ ?PC?Qȩ MDȩ QRPCLERF
ȩ GLAJSBGLEȩ CV-
analyse the EU positioning in the global AI land- ACJJCLRȩ PCQC?PAF
ȩ CVRPCKCJWȩ PGAFȩ ASJRSP?Jȩ BGTCPQGRW
ȩ
scape, including key features and leading players, and leadership in some industrial sectors, such as
research and technological capacity, and areas automotive and robotics.
MDȩ QRPCLERFȩ 5Cȩ RFCLȩ AMLQGBCPȩ ?ȩ DCUȩ CV?KNJCQȩ MDȩ
Member States’ policies and strategies to assess We should therefore not feel intimidated or fearful
points of synergy and where European action can about the future. However, we need to act and shape
best add value. This is followed by an analysis of AI this future because EU countries are stronger to-
in China since this country has set out, and could gether in this global competition than acting alone.
2. About AI 18
"*BVHNFOUTPVSWJTJPOPGUIFXPSME
SUMMARY
AI is a generic term that refers to any machine or algorithm that is capable of obser-
TGLEȩGRQȩCLTGPMLKCLR
ȩJC?PLGLE
ȩ?LBȩ@?QCBȩMLȩRFCȩILMUJCBECȩ?LBȩCVNCPGCLACȩE?GLCB
ȩ
R?IGLEȩGLRCJJGECLRȩ?ARGMLȩMPȩNPMNMQGLEȩBCAGQGMLQȩ2FCPCȩ?PCȩK?LWȩBGȎCPCLRȩRCAFLMJMEGCQȩ
RF?RȩD?JJȩSLBCPȩRFGQȩ@PM?Bȩ'ȩBCȏLGRGMLȩRȩRFCȩKMKCLR
ȩML techniques are the most
widely used.
In this chapter, we introduce the basic concepts of AI and highlight recent develop-
ments. The opportunities opened up by AI are many, and in some cases not yet fore-
QCCL
ȩ@SRȩQMȩ?PCȩRFCȩAF?JJCLECQȩ2FCQCȩUGJJȩ@CȩCVNJMPCBȩGLȩN?PRGASJ?PȩGLȩ.?PRȩȩMDȩRFCȩ
report, but in this chapter, we highlight that the algorithms powering AI display all the
AF?P?ARCPGQRGAQȩMDȩ?ȩ@J?AIȩ@MVȩUCȩA?Lȩ?AACQQȩRFCȩGLNSRQȩ?LBȩMSRNSRQ
ȩ@SRȩBMȩLMRȩSL-
derstand fully what happens in-between, and how certain outputs, including decisions
?LBȩ?ARGMLQ
ȩ?PCȩBCPGTCBȩ%GTCLȩRFGQȩK?HMPȩBP?U@?AI
ȩGRȩGQȩGKNCP?RGTCȩRMȩincrease our
QAGCLRGȏAȧSLBCPQR?LBGLE
ȧBCTCJMNȧRP?LQN?PCLRȧKCAF?LGQKQȧRMȧ?QQCQQȧRFCȧOS?JGRWȧ
?LBȧNCPDMPK?LACȧMDȧ'ȧQMȧRF?Rȧ?Qȧ?ȧQMAGCRWȧUCȧ?PCȧ?@JCȧRMȧ@SGJBȧ?LBȧPCR?GLȧRPSQR
in this disruptive technology.
19 2. About AI
ABOUT AI
2P?BGRGML?JJW
ȩ PRGȏAG?Jȩ 'LRCJJGECLACȩ 'ȩ PCDCPQȩ RMȩ
machines or agents that are A?N?@JCȧMDȧM@QCPTGLEȧ
Although AI
RFCGPȧ CLTGPMLKCLR
ȧ JC?PLGLE
ȧ ?LBȧ @?QCBȧ MLȧ RFCȧ
ILMUJCBECȧ ?LBȧ CVNCPGCLACȧ E?GLCB
ȧ R?IGLEȧ GLRCJ-
has a long history
JGECLRȧ?ARGMLȧMPȧNPMNMQGLEȧBCAGQGMLQ.
of development,
2MȩB?RC
ȩRFCPCȩGQȩLMȩ?EPCCBȩBCȏLGRGMLȩMDȩUF?RȩAML-
QRGRSRCQȩ'ȩ5FCLȩPCȐCARGLEȩMDȩ'ȩ?LBȩK?AFGLCQ
ȩRFCȩ
recent major
general public often thinks about humanoid robots
which have always been part of the public’s per-
breakthroughs
ception of intelligent machines, as popularised in
QAGCLACȩ ȏARGMLȩ LMTCJQȩ ?LBȩ ȏJKQȩ 'Lȩ D?AR
ȩ PM@MRGAQȩ GQȩ
are due to the
MLJWȩMLCȩQS@ȏCJBȩMDȩ'ȩ?LBȩK?ICQȩSQCȩMDȩK?LWȩ+*ȩ
techniques, including neural networks.
convergence
The origins of AI date back to the 1940s and 50s,
of increased
but it is only recently that it has entered into our
CTCPWB?Wȩ JGDC
ȩ DPMKȩ ȏJRCPGLEȩ MSRȩ RFCȩ QN?Kȩ GLȩ MSPȩ
computing
K?GJ@MVȩ QCCȩ MVȩ
ȩ RMȩ ?SRMK?RGA?JJWȩ R?EEGLEȩ MSPȩ
loved ones in family photos, to real-time machine
capacity,
translation, and many more applications in busi-
ness, industry, defence, and social media.
availability
of data, and
Ɏɛɤ #?PJWQSAACQQA?QCMD+*GL
Ɏɛɤǩ
AW@C
AW@CPQCASPGRW1N?KȍJRCPGLE
new algorithms.
Wee are all familiar with the sense of annoyance when our inbox
W
DDBQPȭIIBATFQEGRKHJ>FILOPM>J'KQEBB>OIVP
QEB>MMIF
DB QPȭI @PGCDFGQRMPWMD'
cation
ca
a of a ML technique called Bayesian Networks brought a
new generation
ge of JLOBBȬB@QFSBBJ>FIȭIQBOP that were able to There have been ups and downs in the history of
adapt themselves to their environment, learning to detect spam AI with MPHJDCBTFE approaches in the 1950s and
BJ>FI
BJ>FI?V>K>IVPFKDI>ODBNR>KQFQFBPLCP>JMIBP2KPLIF@FQBABJ>FI early 60s, LOPXMFEHFCBTFEFYQFSUTZTUFNT in the
has become
be not just a nuisance but a potential security threat as 1970s and 80s, and EBUBESJWFO approaches (from
mail messages
m are used to distribute malware, conduct phishing 2000 onwards) with periods of disillusionment and
@>JM>
@>JM>FDKP LO @>OOV LRQ Q>ODBQBA >QQ>@HP +LABOK BJ>FI ȭIQBOP reduced funding in-between. We are now at the
@LKQFKR
@LKQFKRB QL ȭDEQ QEBPB QEOB>QP BJMILVFKD a new generation of @CEGLLGLEȩ MDȩ ?ȩ LCUȩ NF?QCȩ MDȩ FGEFȩ CVNCAR?RGMLQ
ȩ
algorithms and AI methods QL@OB>QBJLOBBȬB@QFSB>KAOBPFIFBKQ
algorith fuelled by vastly increased computing processing
counte
countermeasures. capabilities and data. Their combination supports
new developments such as Machine Learning (ML)
2. About AI 20
0CACLRBCTCJMNKCLRQGL+*
The recent interest in AI, and ML in particular, re- ɎɛɤǪ2SPLGLENMGLRGLGK?ECPCAMELGRGML
sults from three parallel developments. First, in-
creasingly realistic computer games have required 'K
> JRIQFI>VBO KBQTLOH QO>FKBA RPFKD Nvidia’s graphics
specialised graphic processors. When the PC graph- processor cardsPELTBALRQPQ>KAFKDMBOCLOJ>K@BFK>TBIIHKLTK
ics card manufacturer Nvidia published the CUDA image recognition competition. The competition was based on
programming interface to its graphics accelerator the ImageNet database that contains about JFIIFLK ERJ>K
cards in 2007, it became possible to take advan- annotated digital images. The ImageNet Large Scale Visual
tage of fast parallel computing at low cost. Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC) is now one of the main benchmarks
for progress in AI.'QPL?GB@QABQB@QFLK>KA@I>PPFȭ@>QFLK@E>IIBKDB
Second, very large amounts of data have become uses JFIIFLK images for training, with AFȬBOBKQ
available as computers and their users have been QVMBPLCL?GB@QP'K
QEB?BPQKBRO>IKBQTLOHPTBOB>?IBQL
networked. The digitalisation of images, videos, guess the correct object category with MBO@BKQ|QLM
TMGACȩ?LBȩRCVRȩF?QȩAPC?RCBȩ?LȩCLTGPMLKCLRȩGLȩUFGAFȩȩ 5’ accuracy, meaning that the correct object class was among
ML thrives. This has allowed AI researchers to re- QEBȭSBJLPQMOL?>?IB@I>PPBP>PBPQFJ>QBA?VQEBKBQTLOH
21 2. About AI
• 3FJOGPSDFNFOU -FBSOJOH (RL) is another set Singing synthesisers might soon make them indistinguishable from
MDȩ ?JEMPGRFKQȩ RF?Rȩ DMASQȩ MLȩ CVNCPGCLACBPGT- human singing. As ML algorithms can also compose new music
en sequential decision-making, i.e. they make and imitate the style of classic composers of the past, we may
QMDRU?PCȩ?ECLRQȩR?ICȩ?ARGMLȩRMȩK?VGKGQCȩQMKCȩ PLLK?B@LKCOLKQBATFQE>J>GLOPEFȱFKLRORKABOPQ>KAFKDLCTE>Q
TE>Q
notion of cumulative reward. RL combined with music is, how we experience it, as well as new models of music
DL is the basis of many recent successes in MOLAR@QFLK
AFPQOF?RQFLK>KA@LKPRJMQFLK%LJBWBQ>I
AMKNJCVȩ E?KCQ
ȩ QSAFȩ ?Qȩ %M
ȩ .MICPȩ ?LBȩ "MR?
ȩ
where computers have been able to beat lead-
GLEȩFSK?LȩCVNCPRQȩGLȩRFCȩȏCJBȩ.P?ARGA?Jȩ?NNJG-
cations of these algorithms are starting to be 0C?JRGKCȩ RP?LQJ?RGMLȩ MDȩ @MRFȩ RCVRȩ ?LBȩ TMGACȩ F?TCȩ
applied in many domains, such as autonomous @CCLȩ BCTCJMNCBȩ @Wȩ %MMEJCȩ ?LBȩ ?GBS
ȩ UFGJCȩ +GAPM-
driving, unmanned aerial vehicles, stock mar- soft researchers have created algorithms that read
kets, and defence. a document and answer questions about it almost
?QȩUCJJȩ?Qȩ?ȩFSK?Lȩ2FGQȩGQȩ?ȩK?HMPȩKGJCQRMLCȩGLȩRFCȩ
'Lȩ?BBGRGMLȩRMȩGK?ECȩ?LBȩRCVRȩPCAMELGRGMLȩ?LBȩE?K- push to have search engines such as Bing and intelli-
GLE
ȩ RFCȩ ȏCJBȩ MDȩ FSK?LAMKNSRCPȩ GLRCP?ARGMLȩ F?Qȩ gent assistants such as Cortana interact with people
seen many impressive improvements recently as and provide information in more natural ways, much
a result of the AI applications. A long-standing as people communicate with each other.
goal has been to enable people to have a natural
conversation with computers, as they would with 0CACLRBCTCJMNKCLRQGLQMAG?JPM@MRQ
each other. In recent years, the application of DL
and the combination of multiple AI components, Advances in robotics have allowed AI to be embed-
including natural language processing, voice syn- ded in physical entities that take into consideration
thesis and voice translation, have revolutionised the the characteristics of their ‘body’ as well as those of
interaction we have with computers, as discussed the physical and social environment in which they
GLȩ1CARGMLȩȩ@CJMUȩ?LBȩCVCKNJGȏCBȩ@WȩRFCȩTGPRS- operate. This raises the potential for socially intel-
al assistants now available on most mobile phone JGECLRȩ PM@MRGAȩ ?ECLRQȩ RMȩ AMCVGQRȩ UGRFȩ FSK?LQ
ȩ ?Qȩ
platforms, such as Apple’s Siri, Microsoft’s Cortana in the case of co-workers, personal companions or
?LBȩK?XMLQȩJCV? self-driving vehicles.
2FCȩ CVRCLRȩ MDȩ NPMEPCQQȩ GLȩ AMKNSRCPECLCP?RCBȩ Advances in perception systems make it possible to
speech is such that even in singing it is increasing- translate low-level signals into high-level abstract
JWȩBGȑASJRȩRMȩBGQRGLESGQFȩ?ȩFSK?LȩDPMKȩ?ȩK?AFGLCȩ concepts. For instance, natural language processing
QCCȩ MVȩȩ (NLP) techniques connect sounds from speech with
language semantics. This contributes to creating a
perception-cognition-action loop for autonomous
2. About AI 22
robots that makes them able to understand and in- (FOFSBM "*
which would involve the development
teract with the surrounding environment. of consciousness, is many years away. The current
AMLQCLQSQȩ MDȩ RFCȩ NPGT?RCQCARMPȩ CVNCPRȩ AMKKSLGRWȩ
These developments in robotics bring additional is that general AI will not be achieved for several
perspectives to the integration of AI in our every- decades (NSTC 2016a).
day life: (i) the agents are becoming increasingly
A?N?@JCȩMDȩNCPACGTGLEȩRFCȩAMLRCVRȩUGRFGLȩUFGAFȩRFCWȩ !SPPCLRAF?JJCLECQ
act by developing an understanding of the human
NFWQGA?Jȩ CLTGPMLKCLR
ȩ GLAJSBGLEȩ AMKNJCVȩ FSK?Lȩ Each specialised sub-area of AI has its own specif-
social behaviour; (ii) the embodied form of AI can ic challenges, but here we focus on those related
physically act upon and shape human environment to algorithm design and evaluation in ML as this
?LBȩNMRCLRG?JJWȩ?ȎCARȩFSK?Lȩ@CF?TGMSPȩ?QȩUCJJȩ?Qȩ is one of the main areas of development, as dis-
human to human social interaction not only at the ASQQCBȩ ?@MTCȩ -RFCPȩ AF?JJCLECQ
ȩ GLAJSBGLEȩ CRFGA?J
ȩ
individual level but also in small groups; and (iii) the legal and cybersecurity, are discussed in Chapters
interaction between humans and intelligent robot-
ȩ ȩ ?LBȩ
ȩ ?LBȩ @Wȩ BGȎCPCLRȩ QAGCLRGQRQȩ QCCȩ ?JQMȩ
ic systems increasingly involves human emotions %MKCXȩCRȩ?J
ȩ
which might stimulate empathic behaviour towards
?PRGȏAG?Jȩ QWQRCKQȩ ?LBȩ F?TCȩ ?Lȩ GKN?ARȩ MLȩ FSK?Lȩ
development over time.
'LȩRFGQȩAMLRCVR
ȩ?ȩPCJ?RGTCJWȩLCUȩQRP?LBȩMDȩPCQC?PAFȩ
has emerged, which investigates the ways in which
humans interact with robots and how various
We need
PM@MRȩ @CF?TGMSPQȩ ?LBȩ BCQGELQȩ ?ȎCARȩ FSK?Lȩ AME-
nitive and socio-emotional development. A seam-
to advance
less human-robot interaction has the potential to
AMLRPG@SRCȩ RMȩ RP?LQN?PCLRȩ ?LBȩ CVNJ?GL?@JCȩ '
ȩ ?LBȩ
the explainability,
for vulnerable populations too (e.g. children and the
elderly), because of its intuitive nature even with
accountability
minimalist design characteristics.
and transparency
$MPȩ RFGQȩ PC?QML
ȩ UFGJCȩ RFCȩ ȏCJBȩ MDȩ PM@MRGAQȩ GQȩ ?B-
T?LAGLE
ȩ PCQC?PAFCPQȩ GLȩ RFCȩ ȏCJBȩ MDȩ FSK?LPM@MRȩ of algorithms
interaction create scenarios in which they test
various robot characteristics in real-life settings.
In this way, they investigate the impact of so-
in general and
cially intelligent robots on human cognitive and
socio-emotional development by involving multiple
DL systems
stakeholders. This type of research allows society
to actively shape the ways in which robots might be
in particular.
integrated into our everyday life and contribute to a
more inclusive and sustainable use of AI.
Nowadays, many ML techniques display some char- and the algorithm development process which may
?ARCPGQRGAQȩMDȩ?ȩ~@J?AIȩ@MVȩKMBCJ
ȩGCȩUCȩILMUȩUF?Rȩ CLAMBCȩ@G?QCQȩ@WȩRFCȩBCTCJMNKCLRȩRC?KȩMPȩAMLRCVR
goes in and what comes out of the algorithm, but
we do not have a full understanding of its inner 1SKK?PW?LBAMLAJSQGMLQ
UMPIGLEQȩ 2FGQȩ JGKGRQȩ RFCȩ QAGCLRGȏAȩ SLBCPQR?LBGLEȩ
of algorithms, the capability to recover from ad- AI is a generic term that refers to any machine
TCPQ?PG?JȩCV?KNJCQ
ȩ?LBȩAMKNJGA?RCQȩFSK?LȩQSNCP- or algorithm that is capable of observing its en-
vision in practical applications (see Chapter 10 on vironment, learning and, based on the knowledge
cybersecurity). ?LBȩ CVNCPGCLACȩ E?GLCB
ȩ R?IGLEȩ GLRCJJGECLRȩ ?ARGMLȩ
MPȩ NPMNMQGLEȩ BCAGQGMLQȩ 2FCPCȩ ?PCȩ K?LWȩ BGȎCPCLRȩ
5CȩLCCBȩRMȩBCȏLCȩCT?JS?RGMLȩDP?KCUMPIQȩRF?Rȩ?PCȩ RCAFLMJMEGCQȩRF?RȩD?JJȩSLBCPȩRFGQȩ@PM?Bȩ'ȩBCȏLGRGMLȩ
meaningful and in realistic settings to match prac- At the moment, Machine Learning techniques are
RGA?Jȩ?NNJGA?RGMLȩAMLRCVRQȩ'LȩRFGQȩPCQNCAR
ȩUCȩQFMSJBȩ the most widely used.
consider engineering best practices, impact as-
sessment methods, user satisfaction and business The methodological developments in AI date back
metrics, in order to develop smart and transparent more than 50 years but the recent breakthrough has
@CLAFK?PIGLEȩQRP?RCEGCQȩ5CȩQFMSJBȩRP?GLȩRFCȩLCVRȩ come from advances in computing power, availability
generation of ML developers to apply and commu- MDȩB?R?
ȩ?LBȩAMKNJCVGRWȩMDȩRFCȩ?JEMPGRFKQȩ,MUȩRFCȩ
nicate these strategies and follow best practices many applications of AI are entering into our every-
for AI evaluation. B?Wȩ JGTCQ
ȩ DPMKȩ ȏJRCPGLEȩ QN?K
ȩ RMȩ K?AFGLCȩ RP?LQJ?-
tions, image recognition, and music generation, and
5CȩLCCBȩRMȩ?BT?LACȩRFCȩCVNJ?GL?@GJGRW
ȩ?AAMSLR?@GJGRW are increasingly used in industry, government and
and transparency of algorithms in general, and DL commerce. We are probably only at the beginning of
systems in particular, both from the perspective this process because the development of ubiquitous
MDȩ+*ȩPCQC?PAFȩ?LBȩDPMKȩRF?RȩMDȩSQCPQȩGLȩBGȎCPCLRȩ QCLQMPȩLCRUMPIQ
ȩ?LBȩRFCȩ'M2
ȩUGJJȩGLAPC?QCȩCVNMLCL-
?NNJGA?RGMLQȩ5CȩLCCBȩRMȩCVRCLBȩB?R?ȩ?LBȩ?JEMPGRF- tially the sensing capabilities of AI, the volumes of
mic literacy across society to increase the ability of data available to train the algorithms, and the reach
critical thinking with respect to machine intelligence of AI through decisions and actions.
and challenge it when necessary.
The opportunities are many, and in some cases not
Further research is also needed to understand fair- yet foreseen, but so are the challenges. These will be
LCQQȩGLȩRFCȩAMLRCVRȩMDȩ?SRMK?RCBȩBCAGQGMLK?IGLEȩ CVNJMPCBȩGLȩN?PRGASJ?PȩGLȩ.?PRȩȩMDȩRFCȩPCNMPR
ȩ@SRȩGLȩ
An algorithm or decision is fair when it does not this chapter we have highlighted that the algorithms
discriminate against people because of their mem- powering AI display all the characteristics of a black
@CPQFGNȩ RMȩ ?ȩ QNCAGȏAȩ EPMSNȩ QSAFȩ ?Qȩ ECLBCP
ȩ P?AC
ȩ @MVȩUCȩA?Lȩ?AACQQȩRFCȩGLNSRQȩ?LBȩMSRNSRQ
ȩ@SRȩBMȩ
QCVS?JȩMPGCLR?RGMLȩ'RȩGQȩSL@G?QCBȩGDȩGRȩGQȩLMRȩ?ȎCAR- not understand fully what happens in-between, and
ed by the membership of a person to a protected how certain outputs, including decisions and actions,
group. Attempts to formalise algorithmic discrimi- ?PCȩBCPGTCBȩ%GTCLȩRFGQȩK?HMPȩBP?U@?AI
ȩGRȩGQȩGKNCP?-
nation leads to a long list of fairness criteria that RGTCȩRMȩGLAPC?QCȩMSPȩQAGCLRGȏAȩSLBCPQR?LBGLEȩBCTCJMNȩ
are always harmful to one group of stakeholders transparent mechanisms to assess the quality and
?LBȩ @CLCȏAG?Jȩ RMȩ RFCȩ MRFCP
ȩ K?IGLEȩ GRȩ BGȑASJRȩ RMȩ performance of AI so that we are able as a society
arrive at an agreed set. Moreover, these criteria to build and retain trust in this disruptive technology.
are helpful to identify if there has been discrimi-
L?RGMLȩGLȩBCAGQGMLK?IGLE
ȩ@SRȩRFCWȩBMȩLMRȩCVNJ?GLȩ
the source of unfair treatment. This is best done by
looking at biases in the training data, its labelling,
3. EU in the AI competitive global landscape 24
&VSPQFIBTFYDFMMFOUSFTFBSDIJO"*BOEMFBEJOHJOEVTUSJBMTFDUPSTPOXIJDIUPCVJME
SUMMARY
The overview of the global and European AI landscape we report in this chapter is the fruit of
?ȩAMKNPCFCLQGTCȩ?L?JWQGQȩMDȩMTCPȩȩȩICWȩNJ?WCPQȩUMPJBUGBCȩ2FCȩ?L?JWQGQȩAMLȏPKQȩRFCȩ
intense competition in AI taking place worldwide with three main leaders: the USA, Europe,
?LBȩ!FGL?ȩ#?AFȩPCEGMLȩF?Qȩ?@MSRȩMLCȩOS?PRCPȩMDȩ?JJȩICWȩNJ?WCPQȩGLȩRFCȩ'ȩȏCJB
ȩGLAJSBGLEȩ@MRFȩ
PCQC?PAFȩ?LBȩGLBSQRPW
ȩ@SRȩ?ȩBGQRGLARGTCȩBGȎCPCLRȩKGVȩMDȩNJ?WCPQȩUFGJCȩ#SPMNCȩGQȩUCJJȩ@?J?LACBȩ
GLȩRFCȩLSK@CPȩMDȩPCQC?PAFȩ?LBȩLMLPCQC?PAFȩNJ?WCPQ
ȩRFCȩ31ȩF?Qȩ?NNPMVGK?RCJWȩRFPCCȩRGKCQȩ
?QȩK?LWȩGLBSQRPG?J
AMPNMP?RCȩNJ?WCPQȩ?QȩPCQC?PAFȩMLCQ
ȩ?LBȩ!FGL?ȩF?Qȩ?@MSRȩQGVȩRGKCȩ?QȩK?LWȩ
research players as industrial ones. The strength of the corporate world in the USA is also
indicated by its dominance in the number of start-ups (almost half of the total worldwide)
and venture capital (more than one third of the total). China, on the other hand, is making a
AMLACPRCBȩCȎMPRȩRMȩRSPLȩPCQC?PAFȩGLRMȩN?RCLRQ
ȩ?LBȩ?AAMSLRQȩDMPȩ?JKMQRȩϤȩMDȩRFCȩUMPJBȩRMR?J
Europe is currently in a good position regarding the quality of its research, with more than 30 %
MDȩRMNȩ'ȩNS@JGA?RGMLQ
ȩHSQRȩ@CFGLBȩRFCȩ31ȩȩϤȩ2FGQȩPCQSJRȩGQȩRFCȩDPSGRȩMDȩRFCȩFGEFȩJCTCJȩMDȩ
research funding and the intense inter-country collaboration provided by the framework pro-
grammes. Key areas of strength in Europe on which to build upon are automated and connected
vehicles, and robotics. Continued policy support seems key mantaining and improving Europe’s
position in an ecosystem which is rather polarised around a few big powers.
25 3. EU in the AI competitive global landscape
EU IN THE AI
COMPETITIVE
GLOBAL
LANDSCAPE
2FCGLRCPL?RGML?JNMJGAWAMLRCVR
In the context
Dutton (2018) ȩF?QȩGBCLRGȏCBȩ?RȩJC?QRȩȩAMSLRPGCQȩ
of strong global
4
to the President for Technology Policy, announced Science Foundation, the main agency funding R&D
the government’s goals: (1) maintain American on AI together with DARPA and the Department for
leadership in AI, (2) support the American worker, 2P?LQNMPR?RGMLȩGLȩRFCȩQNCAGȏAȩ?PC?ȩMDȩ?SRMLMKMSQȩ
(3) promote public R&D; and (4) remove barriers and unmanned systems), amounts to US$ 5.3 bil-
RMȩGLLMT?RGMLȩ2Mȩ?AFGCTCȩRFCQCȩM@HCARGTCQ
ȩ)P?RQGMQȩ lion in the 2019 budget.10
?LLMSLACBȩ?ȩLCUȩ1CJCARȩ!MKKGRRCCȩMLȩPRGȏAG?Jȩ'L-
telligence to advise the White House on interagency 2FCȧNMUCPȧMDȧRFCȧ31ȧRCAFȧEG?LRQȧGQȧMDȧAMSPQCȧLMRȧ
AI R&D priorities and to consider the creation of Fed- HSQRȧȏL?LAG?J
ȧ@SRȧKMPCȧAPSAG?JJWȧ?@MSRȧRFCȧT?QRȧ
eral partnerships with industry and academia.5 OS?LRGRGCQȧ MDȧ B?R?ȧ RFCWȧ ?PCȧ ?@JCȧ RMȧ E?RFCPȧ ?LBȧ
?L?JWQCȧDPMKȧ?JJȧMTCPȧRFCȧUMPJBȩ%MMEJCȩ?AAMSLRQȩ
In September 2018, DARPA, the government de- for 86 % of all internet searches in the world,11
fence research agency, announced an investment processing some 40 000 queries per second, or
plan of over US$ 2 billion to overcome some of the 3.5 billion per day.12 Facebook has some 2.2 billion
perceived limitations of current AI technologies, i.e. active users per month.13 It is thus the largest
their dependence on large amounts of high-quali- content manager in the world, although it does not
ty training data, poor ability to adapt to changing produce any of its own data. All the data, and more
conditions, limited performance guarantees, and GKNMPR?LRJWȩDMPȩ'ȩRP?GLGLE
ȩRFCȩAMLRCVRȩDMPȩRFCȩB?R?
ȩGQȩ
GL?@GJGRWȩRMȩNPMTGBCȩSQCPQȩUGRFȩCVNJ?L?RGMLQȩMDȩRFCGPȩ NPMTGBCBȩ@WȩGRQȩASQRMKCPQȩGLȩCVAF?LECȩDMPȩRFCȩQCPTGACȩ
PCQSJRQȩ2FCȩ~'ȩ,CVRȩNPMEP?KKCȩQCCIQȩRMȩCVNJMPCȩ provided by the platform. Its Like button has turned
new theories and applications that could make it the company into the largest recommendation
possible for machines to adapt to changing situa- NJ?RDMPKȩ GLȩ RFCȩ UMPJB
ȩ ?@JCȩ RMȩ NPMȏJCȩ ?LBȩ R?PECRȩ
RGMLQȩBCTCJMNGLEȩAMLRCVRS?JȩPC?QMLGLEȩA?N?@GJGRGCQ6 small groups and individuals for both marketing,
and as seen recently with the Cambridge Analytica
These are signals of continued support from the case, also for political purposes. As indicated in
Trump administration towards the development of Chapter 2, the development of AI rests largely on
AI, which will also be boosted by an undisclosed the ability to have large volumes of well-structured
part of the large USA defence budget. Compared to and labelled data, and in this respect the USA giants
other regions of the world where government plays have a clear lead in the West.
?ȩK?HMPȩN?PRȩGLȩ@MRFȩNMJGAWȩ?LBȩGLTCQRKCLR
ȩGLȩRFCȩ
USA, private companies play a central role in the -RFCPAMSLRPGCQ
development of technology in general as well as AI.
$BOBEB Canada announced its AI strategy in the
The USA stock market was worth some US$ 34 tril- 2017 budget, which allocates CAN$ 125 million
lion in April 2018, 43 % of the total world markets, MTCPȩȏTCȩWC?PQȩRMȩ?AFGCTCȩDMSPȩK?GLȩM@HCARGTCQ
compared to Europe’s 15 %, and Asia and Japan
15 %.7 Tech companies account for one quarter of • To increase the number of outstanding AI
this value8
ȩ?LBȩRFCȩRMNȩȏTCȩNNJC
ȩK?XML
ȩ%MMEJC
researchers and skilled graduates in Canada.
Alphabet, Microsoft and Facebook) account for
some US$ 4 trillion9, or 11 % of the total USA mar- • To establish interconnected nodes of scien-
ket, and 33 % of the total valuation of the Euro- ȩ RGȏAȩCVACJJCLACȩGLȩ!?L?B?QȩRFPCCȩK?HMPȩACL
pean market. Not surprisingly, the R&D investment tres for AI in Edmonton, Montreal and Toronto.
of companies like Amazon and Alphabet is very
QGELGȏA?LR
ȩ?Rȩ31ȩȩ@GJJGMLȩ?LBȩ31ȩȩ@GJJGMLȩ • To develop global thought leadership on the
respectively in 2017 (Knight, 2018), much more economic, ethical, policy and legal implica-
than the civilian investment of the government. tions of advances in AI.
In comparison, the total budget for the National
27 3. EU in the AI competitive global landscape
ɎɛɤǬ 1MKCCV?KNJCQMD'BCTCJMNKCLRQGLRFC31
$>@B?LLH is the biggest social media company in the world. It has Apple is the most valuable company in the world worth over
BPQ>?IFPEBA>$>@B?LLH'OBPB>O@E$'/QB>JTEF@EFPLKBLC 20QOFIIFLK. Apple’s main AI divisions are Siri team, and
QEBJLPQ>AS>K@BA
TFQEPBSBO>II>?P>OLRKAQEBTLOIA$>@B?LLH the Core ML team. Siri’s team focus is on NLP and computer uter
supports the open source AI libraries PyTorch and !>ȬB vision, both of which are necessary to power voice assistant tant
that compete with %LLDIB1BKPLO$ILT. The company has CB>QROBP >KA KBT
JLOB @RQQFKDBADB QB@EKLILDV PR@E >P
also released plans to develop its own AI chips. augmented reality apps that rely on object recognition. Core MLL is
the ML Application Programming Interface (API) PI)
Amazon uses AI extensively in its recommendation systems and QE>QMMIBI>RK@EBAI>PQVB>OQLEBIM'Q>PHP>KA'CL@RPBA>MMP
MMP
ILDFPQF@P'Q>IPLLȬBOP?LQE@LKPRJBO>KA?RPFKBPPLOFBKQBA' >KAPBOSF@BPCOLJQEFOAM>OQVABSBILMBOPORKJLOBBȯ@FBKQIVLK
VLK
products and services. Amazon Echo brings AI into the Apple devices.
ELJB QEOLRDE QEB FKQBIIFDBKQ SLF@B PBOSBO
IBU> $LO ?RPFKBPP
• To support a national research community think-tank) focusing very much on social inclusive-
on AI. ness: #AIforAll.
The strategy is led by the Canadian Institute for The strategy follows three distinct, yet inter-related
Advanced Research17 in close partnership with components:
the Canadian government and the three new AI
Institutes: the Alberta Machine Intelligence Insti- a) -NNMPRSLGRWȩRFCȩCAMLMKGAȩGKN?ARȩMDȩ'ȩDMPȩ
tute in Edmonton, the Vector Institute in Toronto, India.
and MILA in Montreal. Compared to other nation-
al strategies that have a strong emphasis also on b) 'ȩDMPȩ%PC?RCPȩ%MMBȩQMAG?JȩBCTCJMNKCLRȩ?LB
sectoral developments, data, and supporting in- inclusive growth.
dustry, the Canadian strategy is primarily focused
on research. c) 'ȩ %?P?ECȩ DMPȩ ȩ Ϥȩ MDȩ RFCȩ UMPJBȩ QMJSRGML
provider of choice for the emerging and
*OEJBA discussion paper for an AI strategy was pub- developing economies across the globe.
lished in June 2018 by NITI Aayog (a government
3. EU in the AI competitive global landscape 28
In relation to c) the strategy argues that India pro- Although the discussion paper acknowledges that
vides a perfect ‘playground’ for enterprises and QGELGȏA?LRȩ NS@JGAȩ GLTCQRKCLRȩ UMSJBȩ @Cȩ LCCBCBȩ RMȩ
institutions globally to develop scalable solutions GKNJCKCLRȩRFCȩQRP?RCEW
ȩGRȩBMCQȩLMRȩNSRȩ?ȩȏESPCȩMLȩ
which can be easily implemented in the rest of the it, leaving the matter to the political discussion.
developing and emerging economies. NITI Aayog
DMASQCQȩMLȩȏTCȩQCARMPQȩRF?Rȩ?PCȩCLTGQGMLCBȩRMȩ@CLC- +BQBO In 2015, the Japanese government an-
ȏRȩRFCȩKMQRȩDPMKȩ'ȩGLȩQMJTGLEȩQMAGCR?JȩLCCBQ
ȩ?LBȩ LMSLACBȩ ?ȩ ȏTCWC?Pȩ NJ?L
ȩ NJ?AGLEȩ 'ȩ ?LBȩ PM@MRGAQȩ
where only private-sector-led initiatives may not as the stepping stone of its renewed strategy for
lead to the desired societal outcomes: science, technology and innovation. Japan’s ap-
NPM?AFȩRMȩ?PRGȏAG?JȩGLRCJJGECLACȩGQȩ?ȩAMK@GL?RGMLȩMDȩ
a) Healthcareȩ GLAPC?QCBȩ ?AACQQȩ ?LBȩ ?ȎMPB? the USA and Chinese models. It is based on the 5th
bility of quality healthcare, 1AGCLACȩ ?LBȩ 2CAFLMJMEWȩ ?QGAȩ .J?Lȩ zȩ
of the Japanese Council for Science, Technology
b) Agriculture: enhanced farmers’ income, in- ?LBȩ'LLMT?RGMLȩ2FCȩNJ?LQȩM@HCARGTCȩGQȩRMȩCQR?@JGQFȩ
creased farm productivity and reduction of Japan as a super smart society (i.e. Society 5.0). The
wastage, programme is headed by the prime minister, and
GRQȩȏCJBQNCAGȏAȩNPMEP?KKCQȩ?PCȩFC?BCBȩ@WȩQCJCAR-
c) Education: improved access and quality ed corporate heads. In April 2016, the government
of education, established a Strategic Council for AI Technology
promoting research and development of AI tech-
d) Smart Cities and Infrastructure: improved nology, coordinating with industries related to the
connectivity for the rapidly increasing urban GLBSQRPGCQȩRF?RȩSRGJGQCȩ'ȩQMA?JJCBȩ~CVGRȩGLBSQRPGCQ
ȩ
population, and and moving forward with the social implementa-
tion of AI technology. The Council coordinates the
e) Smart Mobility and Transportation: smarter activities of three leading research centres:
and safer modes of transportation and bet-
ȩ RCPȩRP?ȑAȩ?LBȩAMLECQRGMLȩK?L?ECKCLR 1) The Centre for Information and Neural
Networks and Universal Communication
The strategy makes some 30 recommendations. Research Institute of the National Insti-
With respect to research, it proposes a two-tier tute of Information and Communications
QWQRCKȩ LCUȩ !CLRPCQȩ MDȩ 0CQC?PAFȩ #VACJJCLACȩ GLȩ Technology.
AI will focus on fundamental research and act as
technology feeders for the International Centres 2) The RIKEN Centre for Advanced Intelligence
for Transformational AI, which will focus on cre- ȩȩ ȩ .PMHCARȩ MDȩ RFCȩ 'LQRGRSRCȩ MDȩ .FWQGA?Jȩ ?LB
ating AI-based applications in domains of societal Chemical Research.
importance.
3) 2FCȩPRGȏAG?Jȩ'LRCJJGECLACȩ0CQC?PAFȩ!CLRPCȩMD
To facilitate adoption of AI, the strategy recom- the National Institute of Advanced Industrial
mends in particular: Science and Technology.
1) Establishing a market place for AI, and The AI Technology Strategy was published in March
ȩ'RȩGBCLRGȏCQȩDMSPȩNPGMPGRWȩ?PC?QȩDMPȩRFCȩBCTCJ-
2) Facilitating the creation of large found- opment and integration of AI: increased productiv-
ational annotated data sets. ity through user-driven hyper customisation of ser-
vices, medical healthcare and welfare to support an
increasingly ageing population, mobility to support
29 3. EU in the AI competitive global landscape
3) creation of an ecosystem built by connecting 4PVUI ,PSFB In 2016, the government introduced
the multiplying domains (2025-2030). a mid-to-long-term Master Plan for the Intelligent
'LDMPK?RGMLȩ 1MAGCRWȩ -LCȩ MDȩ RFCȩ NJ?LQȩ EM?JQȩ GQȩ RMȩ
foster the ‘establishment of the basis for AI tech-
nology’. It announced it would spend 1 trillion won
31ȩ ȩ KGJJGMLȩ @Wȩ ȩ RMȩ @MMQRȩ RFCȩ ?PRGȏAG?Jȩ
the most promising fence, medicine, and public safety and funding in-
frastructure and incubators for start-ups.
applications
L?JWQGLERFCICWDC?RSPCQ
MDRFC'J?LBQA?NC
of AI for many 2FCȩ ȏCJBȩ MDȩ 'ȩ GQȩ CVNCPGCLAGLEȩ ?ȩ NCPGMBȩ MDȩ GLRCLQCȩ
countries. progress, due to the consolidation of several key
technological enablers: faster processing, vastly in-
creased amounts of data, and better algorithms.
CA?SQCȩ'ȩGQȩCVN?LBGLEȩQMȩOSGAIJWȩ?APMQQȩKSJRGNJCȩ
sectors, and there has yet to be a single and agreed
BCȏLGRGMLȩ GLȩ UFGAFȩ RCAFLMJMEGCQȩ ?LBȩ ?NNJGA?RGMLQȩ
are included as ‘AI’, it is not possible to track its
CTMJSRGMLȩRFPMSEFȩMȑAG?JȩQR?RGQRGAQȩ?RȩRFGQȩQR?EC
ȩ?Qȩ
UMSJBȩ@CȩBMLCȩDMPȩKMPCCQR?@JGQFCBȩȏCJBQȩ
3. EU in the AI competitive global landscape 30
1EBȭ
1EBȭOPQPQBMFKQEBJBQELALILDVFPQLABȭKBQEB?LRKA>OFBPLCQEB HBVTLOAP QE>Q EBIMBA QL FABKQFCV QEB EFDEBPQ KRJ?BO LC 'OBI>QBA
TES (AI in this case), by detecting players that focus on AI as their MI>VBOP>KA/">@QFSFQFBPFPPELTKFK$FDROB-K@BTBABȭKBAQEB
MOFJ>OV LO PB@LKA>OV >@QFSFQV ÄI>VBOP >OB ABȭKBA >P research
MOFJ> boundaries of the TES and mapped the players, we examined their
centres,
cent academic institutions, and companies which have FKQBO@LKKB@QFLKP QL ABP@OF?B QEB B@LPVPQBJ 4B @LKPFABOBA AFȬBOBKQ
participated in one or more of the following economic activities: R&D
partic QVMBP LC OBI>QFLKP PR@E >P @LM>OQF@FM>QFLK FK /" >@QFSFQFBP
@L
MOL@BPPBP
FKARPQOF>IMOLAR@QFLK>KAJ>OHBQFKD
PMB@Fȭ@
MOL@ location, similarity in technology, etc. We used multilayer network
'OBI>QBAPBOSF@BP
'OB . The players´ activities may be explicitly stated, analysis to understand the relative importance of the players in the
e.g. in the description of the companies’ activities in business registers ecosystem and their positional advantages/disadvantages. We also
LOPBDJBKQPMB@Fȭ@ȭOJP}OBMLPFQLOFBP
LOABOFSBACOLJQEB>K>IVPFPLC
LOPB JLABIIBAQEBFKCLOJ>QFLKȮLTPQEOLRDELRQQEBKBQTLOH
>KAPQRAFBA
their R&D activities, e.g. text from patents, conference proceedings the network´s resilience over time. By clustering players by type of
and research projects. To carry out this analysis, we developed a technology, geographical location, and linkages to other players we
@LJMOBEBKPFSB
@LJM AF@QFLK>OV LC ALJ>FK PMB@Fȭ@ HBVTLOAP @LSBOFKD QEB >OB>IPL>?IBQLFABKQFCV@LRKQOVLOOBDFLK>IMOLȭIBPLCQB@EKLILDF@>I
technological
techn aspect of the TES (in this case AI). A selection of the specialisation and study their evolution over time.
Figure 3. AI players in the world by geographical zones (% over world total), 2009-2018
3. EU in the AI competitive global landscape 32
Figure 4. Top 10 AI players in the world and relation with GDP by geographical zones, 2009-2018
As shown, while Europe is well balanced in the tries publishing strongly in their own language, Fig-
number of research and non-research players (ap- SPCȩȩQFMUQȩAJC?PJWȩRFCȩ!FGLCQCȩCȎMPRȩRMȩCLRCPȩRFCȩ
NPMVGK?RCJWȩ ϤȩC?AFȩMDȩRFCȩEJM@?JȩLSK@CP
ȩRFCȩ R&D worldwide network and possibly come to dom-
31ȩF?Qȩ?NNPMVGK?RCJWȩRFPCCȩRGKCQȩ?QȩK?LWȩGLBSQ- inate in the future. This overwhelming ratio of R&D
trial/corporate players as research ones (41 % of all versus non-R&D players is also observed in South
industrial players in USA vs. 13 % R&D), and China )MPC?ȩ ?LB
ȩ RMȩ ?ȩ JCQQCPȩ CVRCLR
ȩ GLȩ 0SQQG?ȩ 2FCȩ FGEFȩ
F?Qȩ ?@MSRȩ QGVȩ RGKCQȩ ?Qȩ K?LWȩ PCQC?PAFȩ NJ?WCPQȩ ?Qȩ proportion of non-R&D players in the USA, India,
industrial ones (7 % industrial players and 42 % 'QP?CJȩ ?LBȩ !?L?B?ȩ PCȐCARQȩ RFCGPȩ TG@P?LRȩ GLBSQRPG?Jȩ
R&D of the world total in each category). While we CAMQWQRCKQ
ȩ UFGJCȩ RFCȩ @?J?LACȩ GLȩ RFCȩ #3ȩ PCȐCARQȩ
cannot forget that the TES analysis relies, so far, a very strong research and academic environment
only on R&D materials published in English and UGRFȩNMRCLRG?JȩRMȩLSPRSPCȩ?ȩȐMSPGQFGLEȩ'ȩGLBSQRPW
thus is possibly penalising China, and other coun- Figure 7 analyses the players that deserve special
Figure 6. R&D versus non-R&D players in top 10 countries by number of AI players, 2009-2018
Figure 7. Number of AI players in selected types of activity (% over world total), 2009-2018
3. EU in the AI competitive global landscape 34
?RRCLRGML
ȩJGICȩGLLMT?RGTCȩNJ?WCPQȩ?LBȩȏPKQȩAMLQGB- or research institutions. The importance of the EU
ered to be start-ups or receiving venture capital. GLȩRFGQȩȏCJBȩQRCKQȩDPMKȩJGTCJWȩ'ȩQAGCLRGȏAȩPCQC?PAFȩ
The highly developed industrial ecosystem in the activity supported by the EU framework pro-
USA puts this country at the forefront of AI-related grammes for R&D, which have fostered an intense
?ARGTGRGCQȩUGRFȩ ϤȩMDȩ?JJȩȏPKQȩPCACGTGLEȩTCLRSPCȩ inter-country collaboration and high participation
A?NGR?J
ȩ ?LBȩ Ϥȩ MDȩ QR?PRSNQȩ ?ARGTCȩ GLȩ RFCȩ ȏCJBȩ from most EU countries. Figure 8 shows the dis-
Both TCLRSPCȧA?NGR?Jȧ?LBȧQR?PRSNQȧ?PCȧAMLACL- tribution of players by country which participated
RP?RCBȧGLȧ?ȧDCUȧAMSLRPGCQ
ȧUGRFȧRFCȧ#3ȧDC?RSPGLEȧ GLȩ'PCJ?RCBȩPCQC?PAFȩNPMHCARQȩSLBCPȩRFCȩ$.ȩ?LBȩ
QRPMLEJWȧ UGRFȧ ȧ ϡȧ MDȧ QR?PRSNQȧ ?LBȧ ȧ ϡȧ MDȧ H2020 European research programmes in the peri-
TCLRSPCȧA?NGR?Jȧ od 2009-2018 with a good spread among the larg-
CPȩ ?LBȩ KMPCȩ PCQC?PAF?ARGTCȩ AMSLRPGCQ
ȩ %CPK?LW
ȩ
It is worth noting the number of start-ups in India UK, Italy, Spain, France and the Netherlands.
(9 %) and Canada (5 %), while the relatively low
LSK@CPȩGLȩ!FGL?ȩPCȐCARQȩ?ȩBGȎCPCLRȩDSLBGLEȩKCAF- 2CAFLMJMEGA?JA?N?AGRW
anism for new companies in that country.
Research, both basic and applied, is the backbone
China has a relatively strong position in venture of the technological capacity needed to bring the
capital (14 %), behind the USA and the EU. Moreover, European industry to a leading position in the inter-
in the past few years, China has conquered the top national landscape. In this section, we look at a few
position in patenting, with 57 % of patenting appli- technological sub-domains of the AI landscape to
cants in AI worldwide coming from that country. analyse the EU’s key strong areas with respect to
other world regions. The largest number of AI play-
Behind the USA, RFCȧ#3ȧF?Qȧ?ȧNPMKGLCLRȧNMQGRGMLȧ ers address AI domains related to ML (e.g. neural
GLȧ RFCȧ PCQC?PAFȧ QACLCȧ DPMLRGCPȧ PCQC?PAF
ȧ UGRFȧ networks), and applications such as face recognition,
ȧϡȧMDȧN?NCPQȧQS@KGRRCBȧRMȧRFCȧRMNȧ'ȧGLRCPL?- speech recognition, computer vision or those encom-
RGML?JȧAMLDCPCLACQ are coming from EU companies passed by connected vehicles.
1SKK?PW?LBAMLAJSQGMLQ
The overview of the global and European AI land-
scape we report in this chapter is the fruit of a
comprehensive analysis of over 35 000 key players
UMPJBUGBCȩ2FCȩ?L?JWQGQȩAMLȏPKQȩRFCȩGLRCLQCȩAMK-
petition in AI taking place worldwide with three
main leaders: the USA, Europe, and China. Each
region has about one quarter of all key players in
RFCȩ 'ȩ ȏCJB
ȩ GLAJSBGLEȩ @MRFȩ PCQC?PAFȩ ?LBȩ GLBSQRPW
ȩ
@SRȩ?ȩBGQRGLARGTCȩBGȎCPCLRȩKGVȩMDȩNJ?WCPQȩUFGJCȩ#S-
rope is well balanced in the number of research
?LBȩ LMLPCQC?PAFȩ NJ?WCPQ
ȩ RFCȩ 31ȩ F?Qȩ ?NNPMVG-
mately three times as many industrial/corporate
NJ?WCPQȩ?QȩPCQC?PAFȩMLCQ
ȩ?LBȩ!FGL?ȩF?Qȩ?@MSRȩQGVȩ
times as many research players as industrial ones.
The strength of the corporate world in the USA is
also indicated by its dominance in the number of
start-ups (almost half of the total worldwide) and
venture capital (more than one third of the total).
!FGL?
ȩMLȩRFCȩMRFCPȩF?LB
ȩGQȩK?IGLEȩ?ȩQRPMLEȩCȎMPRȩ
to turn research into patterns, and accounts for al-
most 60 % of the world total. China has also put
in place a strongly coordinated approach to AI, in-
cluding government policy, industrial applications
?LBȩ PCQC?PAFȩ UGRFȩ RFCȩ M@HCARGTCȩ MDȩ @CAMKGLEȩ RFCȩ
world leader in AI by 2030. This is an ambitious but
achievable target (Chapter 5).
Figure 9. Occurrence of AI topics (%) by geographical zone,
2000-2018 Europe is currently in a good position in the quality
of its research, with more than 30 % of top AI pub-
$PMKȩRFCȩ2#1ȩ?L?JWQGQ
ȩUCȩGBCLRGȏCBȩDMSPȩICWȩRMN- JGA?RGMLQ
ȩHSQRȩ@CFGLBȩRFCȩ31ȩȩϤȩ2FGQȩPCQSJRȩGQȩ
ics in the AI technological landscape for 2000- the fruit of the good level of research funding and
2018: ML methods; connected and automated the intense inter-country collaboration provided by
vehicles; speech recognition and natural language the framework programmes. Key areas of strength
processing; and face recognition. Figure 9 shows in Europe on which to build upon are automated
the key areas of attention/specialisation of each and connected vehicles, and robotics. Continued
geographical area. As indicated, the USA and Ja- policy support seems key to maintain and improve
pan have focused on the area of speech recogni- the European position in an ecosystem rather po-
tion and natural language; ML has captured great larised around a few big powers.
GLRCPCQRȩGLȩRFCȩ#3
ȩRFCȩ31
ȩ?LBȩRMȩ?ȩJCQQCPȩCVRCLRȩ
in China, while face recognition is in the spotlight
in China and Japan. The EU is the region present-
ing a more balanced coverage of all four topics.
4. AI in the EU 36
&VSPQFBUUIFDSPTTSPBETPGTFDVSFBOEFUIJDBM"*
SUMMARY
This chapter shows that K?LWȧ #SPMNC?Lȧ AMSLRPGCQȧ ?Qȧ UCJJȧ ?Qȧ RFCȧ #!ȧ ?PCȧ BCTCJMNGLEȧ
QRP?RCEGCQȧ?LBȧNPMEP?KKCQȧRMȧESGBCȧRFCȧBCTCJMNKCLRȧMDȧ', with shared concerns over the
LCCBȩDMPȩ?Lȩ?EPCCBȩCRFGA?JȩDP?KCUMPIȩ?LBȩ?NNJGA?RGMLQȩRF?RȩAJC?PJWȩ@CLCȏRȩ#SPMNC?LȩQMAGCRWȩ
?LBȩSNFMJBȩRFCȩ#SPMNC?LȩT?JSCQȩCLQFPGLCBȩGLȩRFCȩ2PC?RGCQȩ2FCȩ&GEF*CTCJȩ#VNCPRȩ%PMSNȩCQR?-
blished in 2018 by the European Commission is developing ethical and investment guidelines
that will provide a framework for subsequent developments.
+MQRȧL?RGML?JȧQRP?RCEGCQȧ?L?JWQCBȧQF?PCȧQGKGJ?Pȧ?RRCLRGMLȧRMȧQRPCLERFCLGLEȧRFCGPȧPCQC?PAFȧ
base, including the setting up of one or more national centres for AI, QSNNMPRȧDMPȧRFCGPȧGLBSQRPW
and SMEs and awareness of the need to share data better between all the stakeholders: the
public sector, industry, and the public. They also focus on applications aimed at KMBCPLGQGLEȧ
NS@JGAȧ?BKGLGQRP?RGMLQ
ȩ?QȩUCJJȩ?QȩQNCAGȏAȩQCARMPQȩQSAFȩ?QȩFC?JRF
37 4. AI in the EU
AI IN THE EU
1RP?RCEGCQ?LBNJ?LQ Many European
2FC#SPMNC?L3LGML countries
Many activities related to AI are currently taking
place In the EU. They include national strategies
as well as the EC
and programme, and coordination activities among
the Member States and the European Commission.
are developing strategies
Many of the enablers for the development of AI
and programmes to guide
F?TCȩ@CCLȩ?BBPCQQCBȩBSPGLEȩRFCȩJ?QRȩȏTCȩWC?PQȩSL-
der the Digital Single Market strategy. This is aimed
the development of AI
at ensuring access to online activities for individ-
uals and businesses under conditions of fair com-
PLQE>QFQ?BKBȭQP
petition, consumer and data protection, removing
geo-blocking and copyright issues.
all Europeans.
In April 2018, the EU Member States signed a market transitions and adaptation of social
%FDMBSBUJPOPGDPPQFSBUJPOPO"SUJҨDJBM*OUFMMJHFODF19 protection systems.
in which they agreed to work together on the most
important issues raised by AI, from ensuring Europe’s • Ensuring an appropriate ethical and legal
competitiveness in the research and deployment framework, based on the Union’s values
of AI, to dealing with social, economic, ethical and and in line with the Charter of Fundamental
legal questions. Rights of the EU. This includes forthcoming
ȩ ESGB?LACȩ MLȩ CVGQRGLEȩ NPMBSARȩ JG?@GJGRWȩ PSJCQ
During the same month, the EC issued a Communi- a detailed analysis of emerging challenges,
cation on AI for Europe (EC, 2018a) with three main and cooperation with stakeholders through
M@HCARGTCQȩ a European AI Alliance to develop AI ethics
guidelines.
• Boosting the EU’s technological and industrial
capacity and AI uptake across the economy, The Communication earmarked EUR 1.5 billion to
both by the private and public sectors. support AI research for 2018-2020, having already
This includes investments in research and invested some EUR 2.6 billion in AI-related research
innovation and better access to data. in the Horizon 2020 Framework Programme (EC,
@ȩ&MUCTCP
ȩRFCȩ?GKȩGQȩRMȩHMGLȩDMPACQȩ@CRUCCLȩ
• Preparing for socio-economic changes European, national, and private-sector invest-
brought about by AI by encouraging the ments to reach some EUR 20 billion per year for
modernisation of education and training sy- RFCȩLCVRȩBCA?BCȩQȩN?PRȩMDȩRFGQȩN?PRLCPQFGNȩCȎMPR
ȩ
stems, nurturing talent, anticipating changes the EC established the European AI Alliance as a
in the labour market, supporting labour multi-stakeholder forum for engaging in a broad
4. AI in the EU 38
• Interoperable dataset repositories (or ‘data In addition to the above regulatory package, oth-
spaces’) making quality data available for a er aspects are currently been addressed such
broad range of users, including trusted as: Liability (including the revision of the Product
39 4. AI in the EU
• The Clean Energy for all Europeans package In the following sections, we provide a summary of
was presented in November 2016 and aims selected national strategies on AI.
to provide the stable legislative framework
needed to facilitate the clean energy transition. $P?LAC
• The Commission Directive 2018/844 aims to France is one of the more active countries in devel-
ȩ GKNPMTCȩ CLCPEWȩ CȑAGCLAWȩ RFPMSEFȩ BGEGR?J oping a national AI strategy. The government has
solutions such as building automation and recently published three main reports which are re-
electronic monitoring of technical building viewed below:
systems.
5IF'SFODI"*QMBO '*"
MȎCPQȩ?ȩQRP?RCEWȩDMPȩ
WȧL?RSPC
ȧ'ȧRCAFLMJMEWȧUGJJȧNCLCRP?RCȧ?JJȧGLBSQ- the coming years focusing on research and educa-
RPG?JȧQCARMPQ
ȧBGEGR?JȧQCPTGACQȧ?LBȧQMAG?JȧJGDCȧ'RȧGQȧ tion, innovation, and the social and economic im-
RFCPCDMPCȩCVRPCKCJWȩBGȑASJRȧRMȧPCAMLAGJCȧRFCȧLCCBȧ pacts of AI.
DMPȧ ?ȧ AJC?Pȧ AMKKMLȧ DP?KCUMPIȧ ?LBȧ RFCȧ P?NGBȧ
?BMNRGMLȧGLȧQMKCȧBMK?GLQ when the technology is 5IFSFQPSUCZUIF0ҪDFPGUIF1BSMJBNFOUGPS4DJ
already mature to enter the market. To monitor the FODF BOE 5FDIOPMPHZ 01&$45
‘Toward a
BCTCJMNKCLRȩ?LBȩSNR?ICȩMDȩ'ȩGLȩBGȎCPCLRȩQCARMPQȩ !MLRPMJJCB
ȩ 3QCDSJȩ ?LBȩ "CKWQRGȏCBȩ PRGȏAG?Jȩ 'LRCJ-
and its impacts on work and society, in December ligence’ focuses on social and regulatory aspects
2018, the EC is launching an AI-Watch facility with and raises important issues to be addressed in de-
RFCȩDMJJMUGLEȩM@HCARGTCQȩ veloping a socially useful AI, whilst being realistic
?@MSRȩCVNCAR?RGMLQȩMLȩNMRCLRG?JȩGKN?ARQȩ
1) Develop an overview and analysis of the
European AI ecosystem, 5IF .JTTJPO 7JMMBOJ SFQPSU
ȩ ?BBPCQQCQȩ QGVȩ
main areas:
2) Monitor the uptake of AI applications across
the economy, 1. An innovative and ambitious industrial and
economic policy: the mission opted to con-
3) Monitor the progress of AI technology, centrate on some key sectors: health, trans-
portation, environment, and defence-secur
4) Assess the evolution of service robotics over ity. The policy will require public support but
the last 10 years, along with some structuring and precise
challenges.
5)ȩȩ%?RFCPȩGLDMPK?RGMLȩMLȩ?JJȩ#3ȩ+CK@CPȩ1R?RCQȩ
national initiatives on AI, 2. 2MȩBCTGQCȩ?ȩB?R?ȩNMJGAWȩȏRRCBȩDMPȩRFCȩQR?ICQ
ȩ AACQQȩ RMȩ ?ȩ QSȑAGCLRȩ ?KMSLRȩ MDȩ B?R?
6) Provide an overview on the use of AI in ȩ GQȩ ?ȩ K?HMPȩ GQQSCȩ GLȩ $P?LACȩ ?LBȩ #SPMNCȩ 2FCȩ
public services, mission is trying to favour wide access,
the creation of data ecosystems while pro-
7)ȩ "CTCJMNȩ ?Lȩ 'ȩ GLBCVȩ GLAJSBGLEȩ RFCȩ BGKCL viding new protection to users.
sions relevant for policymaking,
3. To anticipate and monitor the impact of AI
8) Make information available to the public on work and employment.
using an online tool.
4. AI as a tool for a sustainable and ecological
economy, providing a vision for a ‘greener’
41 4. AI in the EU
AI enabling an ecological transition. For with the suggestion to at least double the starting
instance, the EU could take a leading role salary for researches in the public sector in view of
ȩ GLȩ RFCȩ BCTCJMNKCLRȩ MDȩ QNCAGȏAȩ AFGNQȩ GLȩ RFC the high degree of competition with industry.
semi-conductor industry, preparing the EU
industry for the post-silicon era. 21 3LGRCB)GLEBMK
Most national
AI strategies focus
on strengthening
research, supporting
industry, sharing
data, and modernising
public administration.
$GLJ?LB -RFCP#3AMSLRPGCQ
The government appointed a steering committee in Several other Member States already have AI strat-
+?WȩȩBSCȩRMȩPCNMPRȩGLȩNPGJȩȩȩȏPQRȩPCNMPRȩ egies in place or are in the process of adopting
U?QȩNS@JGQFCBȩGLȩ-ARM@CPȩȩ$GLLGQFȩ%MTȩȩ them. From those illustrated above, most strategies
setting out a vision of a country embracing AI in F?TCȩQGKGJ?Pȩ?GKQȩ?LBȩM@HCARGTCQȩCK@P?AGLEȩ'ȩ?LBȩ
every aspect of life in an open and ethical way. It @CAMKCȩ ?ȩ JC?BGLEȩ AMSLRPWȩ GLȩ RFCȩ ȏCJB
ȩ QSNNMPRGLEȩ
GBCLRGȏCBȩICWȩ?PC?QȩDMPȩ?ARGMLȩGLAJSBGLEȩ innovation and business, promoting the use of AI
in the public sector, boosting R&D and skills, estab-
• Enhancing competitiveness by developing JGQFGLEȩMLCȩMPȩKMPCȩL?RGML?JȩACLRPCQȩMDȩCVACJJCLAC
ȩ
industrial ecosystems to help in the applica- and developing strategies to promote the sharing
tion of AI, and measures to facilitate the and use of data more widely between the public
access and use of AI and data for companies. and private sectors. A European strategy needs to
@SGJBȩMLȩRFCQCȩL?RGML?JȩCȎMPRQȩ?LBȩGLTCQRKCLRQȩRMȩ
• Increasing the quantity and quality of data make the whole greater than the sum of its parts.
shared in Finland, through legal frameworks
that are ‘based on the importance of the 1SKK?PW?LBAMLAJSQGMLQ
data to business operations (not on data
ȩ NPMRCARGMLȩ ȏPQR
ȩ PCESJ?RMPWȩ Q?LB@MVCQȩ DMP This chapter shows thatȧK?LWȧ#SPMNC?LȧAMSLRPGCQȧ
ȩ CVNCPGKCLR?RGML
ȩ GLAPC?QCBȩ ?AACQQȩ RMȩ RFC ?QȧUCJJȧ?QȧRFCȧ#!ȧ?PCȧBCTCJMNGLEȧQRP?RCEGCQȧ?LBȧ
public of the government’s Mydata network, NPMEP?KKCQȧ RMȧ ESGBCȧ RFCȧ BCTCJMNKCLRȧ MDȧ ',
and support to companies to turn their data with shared concerns over the need for an agreed
into products. ethical framework and applications that clearly
@CLCȏRȩ#SPMNC?LȩQMAGCRWȩ?LBȩSNFMJBȩRFCȩ#SPMNC?Lȩ
• Launching an AI accelerator pilot in 2018 values enshrined in the Treaties. The High-Level
based on open data, open code, open inter- #VNCPRȩ%PMSNȩCQR?@JGQFCBȩGLȩȩ@WȩRFCȩ#SPMNC?Lȩ
faces with companies providing anonymised Commission is elaborating ethical and investment
data for research, partnership with univer- guidelines that will provide a framework for subse-
sities to research on the data, and access to quent developments.
ȩ QK?JJȩAMKN?LGCQȩRMȩCVNCPGKCLRȩUGRFȩRFCȩSQCȩ
of AI-based solutions. In addition, a number +MQRȧ L?RGML?Jȧ QRP?RCEGCQȧ ?L?JWQCBȧ EGTCȧ QGKGJ?Pȧ
of open piloting and testing environments ?RRCLRGMLȧ RMȧ QRPCLERFCLGLEȧ RFCGPȧ PCQC?PAF base,
ȩ UGJJȩ@CȩQCRȩSNȩRMȩD?AGJGR?RCȩCVNCPGKCLR?RGMLȩ including the setting up of one or more national cen-
tres for AI, QSNNMPRȧ DMPȧ RFCGPȧ GLBSQRPW, and SMEs,
• #QR?@JGQFGLEȩ ?ȩ LCUȩ !CLRPCȩ MDȩ #VACJJCLACȩ DMP and awareness of the LCCBȧ RMȧ QF?PCȧ B?R?ȧ @CRRCP
AI and basic research, including a virtual between all the stakeholders: the public sector, in-
university and the creation of massive open dustry, and the public. They also focus on applica-
ȩ MLJGLCȩ AMSPQCQȩ ++-!ȩ RMȩ QSNNMPRȩ RFCȩ tions aimed at KMBCPLGQGLEȧNS@JGAȧ?BKGLGQRP?RGMLQ,
upskilling of the population and workforce. ?QȩUCJJȩ?QȩQNCAGȏAȩQCARMPQȩQSAFȩ?QȩFC?JRF
• 1SNNMPRGLEȩPCQC?PAFȩ?LBȩGLLMT?RGML
ȩ?LBȩCV
tending the application of AI in public service,
ȩ DMPȩ CV?KNJCȩ UGRFȩ RFCȩ BCTCJMNKCLRȩ MDȩ NCP
sonalised AI assistants, and new partnership
models between the public and private sector
to facilitate the adoption and use of AI.
5. The AI ecosystem in China 44
$IJOBJTJNQMFNFOUJOHJUTBNCJUJPVTTUSBUFHZPO"*
SUMMARY
This chapter highlights some of the main features of the AI developments in China,
UFGAFȩ F?Qȩ GBCLRGȏCBȩ 'ȩ ?LBȩ PCJ?RCBȩ ?NNJGA?RGMLQȩ ?Qȩ QRP?RCEGAȩ RMȩ GRQȩ DSRSPCȩ CAMLMKGAȩ
and social development, and to its role as a global superpower. As a result, it has put
in place a strongly coordinated approach to AI, including government policy, industrial
?NNJGA?RGMLQȩ?LBȩPCQC?PAFȩUGRFȩRFCȩM@HCARGTCȩMDȩ@CAMKGLEȩRFCȩUMPJBȩJC?BCPȩGLȩ'ȩ@Wȩ
2030. This is an ambitious but achievable target as the JRC analysis of the AI inno-
T?RGMLȩCAMQWQRCKȩGLȩ!FGL?ȩAMLȏPKQȩ2FGQȩMNGLGMLȩGQȩQF?PCBȩ@WȩK?GLȩK?PICRȩ?L?JWQRQȩ
In fact, AI deployments with a high impact on daily activities have already started,
including authentication processes, medical diagnosis, premium insurance, transpor-
tation and retail facilities, and security. Potential obstacles to the full development of
RFCȩQRP?RCEWȩPCJ?RCȩRMȩRFCȩBGȑASJRWȩMDȩF?TGLEȩ'ȩ?BMNRCBȩGLȩRP?BGRGML?JȩGLBSQRPGCQ
ȩ?LBȩ
prepare enough specialists in the country able to understand the domain of applica-
RGML
ȩGRQȩLCCBQȩ?LBȩCVNCAR?RGMLQ
ȩGBCLRGDWȩRFCȩ@CQRȩ?JEMPGRFKȩ?LBȩ?NNPM?AF
ȩ?LBȩRFCLȩ
customise it and develop it further.
45 5. The AI ecosystem in China
THE AI
ECOSYSTEM
IN CHINA
!FGL?QCAMLMKGA?LBNMJGAWAMLRCVR China has put
The development of AI is a global phenomenon, but
the case of China is particularly interesting and not
in place a strongly
as well known as that of the USA. For this reason,
we dedicate a slightly longer section to this country,
coordinated approach
drawing on a comprehensive study carried out for
RFCȩ(0!ȩ@Wȩ$CGHMMȩȩ
to AI, including
China is already a leading global force in the digital
government policy,
CAMLMKWȩ $MPȩ CV?KNJC
ȩ GRȩ F?Qȩ ȩ Ϥȩ MDȩ RFCȩ EJM@?Jȩ
share of e-commerce, it processes 11 times more
industrial applications
mobile payments than the USA, it is home to one-
third of the world’s unicorns22, and leads the im-
and research
NJCKCLR?RGMLȩMDȩ%ȩKM@GJCȩAMKKSLGA?RGMLQȩ5MCR-
zel et al., 2017). This digital success is fuelled by
with the objective
three main factors: (i) a large and young Chinese
market enabling rapid commercialisation of digital
of becoming
@SQGLCQQȩ KMBCJQȩ GGȩ ?ȩ PGAFȩ BGEGR?Jȩ CAMQWQRCKȩ CV-
panding quickly beyond a few large companies;
the world leader
and (iii) strong governmental support for compa-
nies through favourable economic and regulatory
FK'?V
conditions, and a multiple role as strategic investor,
consumer of digital technologies, and provider of driver to increase the quality of products and pro-
access to key data. BSARGTGRW
ȩ ?LBȩ CVN?LBȩ GLRCPL?Jȩ AMLQSKNRGML
ȩ RFSQȩ
BCAPC?QGLEȩ RFCȩ BCNCLBCLAWȩ MLȩ CVRCPL?Jȩ K?PICRQȩ
At the macroeconomic level, China can no longer Digital technologies in general, and AI in particular,
depend solely on increases in capital and labour to ?PCȩCVNCARCBȩRMȩJC?BȩRMȩFGEFCPȩCȑAGCLAWȩGLȩNPMBSARQȩ
achieve the desired levels of sustainable economic and services, achieving large productivity gains and
growth, nor on producing cheap goods to sell else- a more dynamic economy, with businesses able to
where as has been the predominant model for the AMKNCRCȩEJM@?JJWȩ?LBȩCTCLȩCVNMPRȩ~+?BCȩGLȩ!FGL?ȩ
last three decades. Against this background, there digital business models and solutions (Woetzel et
has been a recent shift into innovation as a strategic al., 2017).
5. The AI ecosystem in China 46
But there are other interests beyond mere economics. AMKNSRGLEȩ GQȩ PCJCT?LRȩ QGLACȩ GRȩ GQȩ CVNCARCBȩ RF?Rȩ ?ȩ
China, as a global power, is using initiatives such as considerable part of AI services will be provided
~-LCȩ@CJR
ȩMLCȩPM?BȩMPȩGLQRGRSRGMLQȩQSAFȩ?QȩRFCȩQG?Lȩ from the cloud. Therefore, market developments
Infrastructures Investment Bank to shape a geopo- in both AI and cloud computing will be considera-
litical environment more favourable to its interests bly aligned.
(Delage, 2017). Digital technologies, and AI in par-
ticular, are essential constituents of this strategy,
showcasing a state-of-the-art new industry fully
BCTCJMNCBȩGLȩ!FGL?ȩ?LBȩ?ȩBGȎCPCLRȩ?NNPM?AFȩDPMKȩ
the West to economy and policy through technology.
Since 2014,
The strict application of national laws to cyberspace the government
and the use of AI-related technologies to maintain
QMAG?JȩF?PKMLWȩ?LBȩAMLRPMJȩ?PCȩRFCȩK?GLȩCV?KNJCQȩ has launched a series
MDȩRFGQȩBGȎCPCLRG?RCBȩ?NNPM?AFȩ
of key national
The potential of AI is clear to China’s policymak-
ers. As stated by President Xi, China ‘… should un- economic initiatives
swervingly follow an independent innovation path
featuring Chinese characteristics, stick to the guid-
that are relevant to AI
ing principles of independent innovation, leap-frog-
ging development in key sectors, with development
with the goal of creating
supported by science and technology and oriented
towards the future’ (Xi, 2014, p. 134). In fact, since
a EUR 13 billion
2014, the government has launched a series of key AI market in China
national economic initiatives that are relevant to AI
with the goal of creating a EUR 13 billion AI market by 2018, and make
in China by 2018, and helping China to lead the world
in AI by 2030. China lead the world
In the case of AI, and in contrast to what happened in AI by 2030.
in the recent past, development of the sector re-
lies on a plan that encompasses all relevant play-
ers within an ecosystem, from universities and re-
QC?PAFȩACLRPCQȩRMȩCVGQRGLEȩAMKN?LGCQȩ?LBȩLCUȩȏPKQȩ
in the entrepreneurial / innovation milieu, which is %MTCPLKCLRNMJGAGCQ?LBGLGRG?RGTCQ
also under development in China. It will be, there-
DMPC
ȩ?ȩȏPQRȩPC?Jȩ?QQCQQKCLRȩMDȩ!FGL?QȩAF?LACQȩRMȩ In this section, we summarise the main govern-
APC?RCȩ ?Lȩ GLBCNCLBCLRȩ FMKCEPMUL
ȩ DSJJWȐCBECBȩ ment initiatives related to AI following a timeline
innovation and industrial ecosystem. up to 2018. The timeline is interesting because it
displays how NMJGAGCQȧ ?LBȧ GLGRG?RGTCQȧ QR?PRCBȧ ?Rȧ
However, AI is not an isolated ecosystem as it inter- GLBSQRPWȧ JCTCJȧ QJMUJWȧ EMȧ SNȧ RFCȧ T?JSCȧ AF?GLȧ RMȧ
?ARQȩ?LBȩ@CLCȏRQȩDPMKȩLMRȩMLJWȩRFCȩBCTCJMNKCLRȩ GLAJSBCȧ ?NNJGA?RGMLQȧ ?LBȧ AMLQSKCPȧ NPMBSARQ. It
of successful innovations such as ecommerce or is particularly relevant to follow the developments
mobile payments but also from cloud computing, RF?Rȩ ?JJMUCBȩ AMKN?LGCQȩ GLȩ BGȎCPCLRȩ QCARMPQȩ RMȩ
industry 4.0, robotics, IoT, blockchain, and IT se- share and access data to train newer and better
curity ecosystems. The particular case of cloud algorithms. Crucially then, the government issued
47 5. The AI ecosystem in China
• To nurture a number of key enterprises and • By 2030, AI theory, technologies and applica-
innovation teams to lead the global develop- tions will be world leaders. China will become
ment of AI. ȩ RFCȩUMPJBQȩK?HMPȩ'ȩGLLMT?RGMLȩACLRPCȩ
robotic innovation centres and encourages banks including for social governance, enhance
and private investors to support the development public safety and security based on AI and
of robotics and robots. promote sharing and mutual trust in social
interactions.
/FX(FOFSBUJPO"*%FWFMPQNFOU1MBO
4UBUF$PVODJM
+VMZ
• To strengthen military and civilian integra-
This is the key strategy for AI where guidelines, ȩ RGMLȩGLȩRFCȩȏCJBȩMDȩ'
ȩNPMKMRCȩRFCȩRUMU?Wȩ
strategic goals, key tasks and supporting measures conversion of AI technology between military
for a new-generation AI development by 2030 are ȩ ?LBȩAGTGJG?LȩQCARMPQȩ?LBȩHMGLRJWȩ@SGJBȩSNȩ?LB
QCRȩSNȩ2FCȩNJ?LȩBCȏLCQȩTCPWȩAJC?PJWȩRFCȩQRP?RCEGAȩ share military and civilian innovation resources.
goals in AI development:
•ȩ 2MȩAMLQRPSARȩ?ȩS@GOSGRMSQ
ȩQ?DCȩ?LBȩCȑAGCLR
• By 2020, most AI technologies and applica- intelligent infrastructure system and strength-
tions will be on a par with the most advanced en the upgrading of infrastructures such as
levels worldwide, and the AI industry will networks, big data and high-performance
become a new important economic growth computing.
net contributor. AI will have an impact on
our daily lives. bȩ 2Mȩ NJ?Lȩ QGELGȏA?LRȩ QAGCLACȩ ?LBȩ RCAFLMJMEW
NPMHCARQ
ȩ?LBȩQRPCLERFCLȩMTCP?JJȩAMMPBGL?RGML
49 5. The AI ecosystem in China
perceptionȩMDȩAMLQSKCPQȩRMȩCVNCPGKCLRȩUGRFȩ?NNJGA
ations unheard of outside China. This fact perme- ɎɛɤǮ1MKCCV?KNJCQMD'?NNJGA?RGMLQ
GMLQ
ates the AI innovation ecosystem, but arguably, the GL!FGL?
foremost instance of alignment between consumers,
companies and government is the implementation Alibaba’s core business is selling goods and providing ding a
of the so-called ‘social credit system’, tentatively platform for trade. Just to give a sense of scale,, durin during
ng
scheduled for 2020. This AI-based system, which |0FKDIBP}">V} a creation of the company that takess place cee
would be controversial in other countries, will be LK ,LSBJ?BO
IF?>?> MOL@BPPBA >Q MB>H QFJB JLOB
OB QE>K
QE>K
>KK
able to collect user behavioural data in both phys- LOABOP MBO PB@LKA QEOLRDE MLMRM PQLOBP PQLOBP
ical space and cyberspace and provide a rating of PBIIFKDMOLAR@QPȭQQBATFQE3/JFOOLOPCLOSFOQR>IQOVLRQPK'
PK'
citizen reputation. This rating could then be used to fashion consultant helped match items with the one selected.
elected.
give or deny access to a range of services provided In one day it sold JLOBQE>K20?FIIFLKTLOQELC OQELC
by the state. goods V @LKQO>PQ
LK !V?BO +LKA>V ,LSBJ?BO ?BO
QEB?FDDBPQLKIFKBPELMMFKDA>VFKQEB20
>IIOBQ>FIBOP@LJ?FKBA
J?FKBA
Military involvement is another salient feature of the brought in 20?FIIFLK)KFDEQ
AI ecosystem in China: civilian AI breakthroughs are
applied for military use (under the national strat- 1BK@BKQ}P J>FK PLRO@B LC A>Q> FP 4B!E>Q TEF@E
FK
egy of ‘military-civil fusion’) and, vice versa, mili- reached more than ?FIIFLKJLKQEIV>@QFSBRPBOP OP. Its
tary-based developments are transferred to civilian Ȯ>DPEFMMOLGB@QFPFQPEB>IQE@>OBMI>QCLOJQL?LLH>MMLFKQJBKQP
QJBKQP
industry. According to the Central Military Commis- >KAJ>HBM>VJBKQPTEF@E
FK
was available in
sion for Science and Technology, AI could accelerate JBAF@>I C>@FIFQFBP PBOSFKD JFIIFLK @RPQLJBOP LJBOOP.
military transformation by means of intelligent and 'K
FQI>RK@EBAFQP'MLTBOBAAF>DKLPQF@JBAF@>IFJ>DFKD
J>DFKDD
autonomous unmanned systems, AI-enabled intel- D over
PBOSF@B FK ELPMFQ>IP 1EB PVPQBJ FP QO>FKBA RPFKD
ligence analysis, war-gaming simulation and train- ?FIIFLK FJ>DBP COLJ 1BK@BKQ PL@F>I KBQTLOH
BQTLOH
GLE
ȩBCDCLAC
ȩMȎCLAC
ȩ?LBȩAMKK?LBȩGLȩGLDMPK?RGMLȩ complemented by anonymised patient data.
warfare; and intelligent support to command deci-
sion-making (Kania, 2017). In the other direction, F$IVQB@E
>CLOJBOPQ>OQRM
FPKLT>@LKPLIFA>QBA@LJM>KV
LJM>KV
!FGL?ȩU?LRQȩRMȩQGELGȏA?LRJWȩGLAPC?QCȩRFCȩQNGJJMTCPȩMDȩ PMB@F>IFPBA FK RPBO FKQBOC>@BP >KA SLF@B OB@LDKFQFLK 'QP '
military developments into the civilian industries. enabled general practitioner medical robot passed the written
test of China’s national medical licensing examination ation in
Another feature of the AI innovation ecosystem ,LSBJ?BOThe robot can automatically capture apture
in China is the competition among cities and re- and analyse patient information and make
ke an
gions for talent, in particular from the new policies initial diagnosis.
launched by second-tier cities. As a result, there
?PCȩ AMLQGBCP?@JCȩ BGȎCPCLACQȩ GLȩ RFCȩ ?AASKSJ?RGMLȩ 1EBOB>OBJ>KVPQ>OQRMPFKQEB>OB>LCC>@BOB@LDKFQFLKJLKD
JLKKD
of talent and opportunities in new tech industries fy
them Megvii claims that their cameras are able to identify
between East and West China. people per second in a crowded train station, while LLVision
FP ABSBILMFKD 'BK>?IBA DI>PPBP PQLOFKD RM QL
ȩȏL?JȩDC?RSPCȩMDȩRFCȩCAMQWQRCKȩPCDCPQȩRMȩRFCȩJGKGR- images of suspects on the device to achieve faster ter face
ed role awarded to critical views of AI in China. Such recognition. They are part of an ecosystem of companies
mpanies
views could be perceived as a lack of loyalty to a supporting the government’s objective to set up a
policy that is highly supportive of AI. However, this national facial recognition database that willl store
?@QCLACȩMDȩAPGRGAGQKȩAMSJBȩJC?BȩRMȩ?ȩJ?AIȩMDȩTCPGȏ FKCLOJ>QFLK>?LRQQEB@LRKQOV}P?FIIFLK@FQFWBKP
QFWBKP,
able algorithms, trustworthy systems, or a situation and be able to identify them within three seconds.
in which moral responsibilities are outsourced to
algorithms. The calls for policy support of algorithmic
51 5. The AI ecosystem in China
$ÀQDOIHDWXUH
sector investment, and research. China has identi-
ȏCBȩ'ȩ?LBȩPCJ?RCBȩ?NNJGA?RGMLQȩ?QȩQRP?RCEGAȩRMȩGRQȩ
future economic and social development, and to
of the ecosystem its role as a global superpower. As a result, it has
put in place a strongly coordinated approach to AI,
SUMMARY
In this chapter, we highlight some of the key dimensions of the ethical and societal debates on
AI. As shown, RFCȧ BC@?RCȧ ?@MSRȧ CRFGA?Jȧ ?LBȧ QMAG?Jȧ GKNJGA?RGMLQȧ MDȧ 'ȧ DMPȧ GLBGTGBS?JQȧ ?LBȧ
QMAGCRGCQȧLCCBQȧRMȧKMTCȧDMPU?PBȧ?LBȧD?QR. Political and regulatory frameworks seem to be
lagging behind AI developments, which will soon pervade almost every aspect of our daily lives.
To counter this situation, ‘regulatory foresight’ and ‘ethics foresight analysis’ at the same
level of ‘technological foresight’, are needed to keep up with emerging implications of AI. This,
however, cannot happen without a strong commitment to the following issues: DMFBSFUIJDBMGSB
NFXPSLTBOEHVJEFMJOFT, including the right to choose between being cared for by a human or
?ȩPM@MR
ȩ?LBȩRFCȩPGEFRȩRMȩPCDSQCȩ@CGLEȩNPMȏJCB
ȩRP?AICB
ȩMPȩKC?QSPCB
ȩ?LBȩSFTQPOTJCMF"*EFTJHO
which is necessary to build trust in the applications.
We conclude that, to build and retain trust in AI, we need a multi-layered approach that includes
the critical engagement of civil society to discuss the values guiding and being embedded into
'
ȩNS@JGAȩBC@?RCQȩGLȩBGȎCPCLRȩDMP?ȩRMȩRP?LQJ?RCȩRFCQCȩT?JSCQȩGLRMȩQRP?RCEGCQȩ?LBȩESGBCJGLCQ
ȩ?LBȩ
responsible design practices that encode these values and guidelines into AI systems, so that
they are ethical by design.
55 6 Ethical and Societal Perspective
ETHICAL AND
SOCIETAL
PERSPECTIVES
'LRPMBSARGML
To build and retain
When addressing ethical and social impacts of
RCAFLMJMEW
ȩGRȩGQȩLMRȩHSQRȩ?@MSRȩ?TMGBGLEȩBCRPGKCL- trust in AI we need
tal or unintended consequences, or guaranteeing
that humans have control over their technologies. critical engagement
1SAFȩ CVRCPL?JGQRȩ ?LBȩ GLQRPSKCLR?JGQRȩ NCPQNCARGTCQȩ
tend to separate technologies from humans. That of civil society
is, technologies as mere neutral tools devoid of
T?JSCQ
ȩ ?LBȩ FSK?LQȩ ?Qȩ QMJCȩ K?QRCPQȩ BCȏLGLEȩ RFCȩ to discuss the values
terms of engagement.
guiding AI and
In reality, the relationship between technologies and
FSK?LQȩ GQȩ KSAFȩ KMPCȩ AMKNJCVȩ -Lȩ RFCȩ MLCȩ F?LB
ȩ responsible design
RCAFLMJMEGCQȩ?PCȩ@SGJRȩ@WȩQNCAGȏAȩNCMNJCȩ?LBȩMPE?L-
GQ?RGMLQȩ GHICPȩ CRȩ ?J
ȩ
ȩ QMȩ RFCWȩ CK@MBWȩ ?LBȩ practices that encode
replicate social norms, values, and other economic,
ecological, political, or cultural forces at any given these values and
RGKCȩ-LȩRFCȩMRFCPȩF?LB
ȩRCAFLMJMEGCQȩQF?NCȩFMUȩUCȩ
work, move, communicate and ultimately live. There- guidelines into AI
fore, CRFGA?Jȧ?LBȧQMAG?JȧGKNJGA?RGMLQȧMDȧRCAFLMJMEWȧ
LCCBȧRMȧAMLQGBCPȧRFGQȧDSLB?KCLR?JȧGLRCPRUGLGLEȧMDȧ systems.
RFCȧ FSK?Lȧ ?LBȧ RFCȧ RCAFLMJMEGA?Jȧ BMK?GLQ. ‘Hu-
K?LQȩ?PCȩRCAFLMJMEGA?Jȩ@CGLEQ
ȩHSQRȩ?QȩRCAFLMJMEGCQȩ
are social entities’ (Verbeek, 2011, p.4). collaborative work, between governments, industry
and ethicists to design technologies for common
Calls for the development and use of AI to be EMMBȩ ?LBȩ GBCLRGDWȩ QNCAGȏAȩ NPGLAGNJCQȩ DMPȩ ?AAMSLR-
placed ‘within limits of our fundamental norms, ability, transparency, safety and social good (Pau-
values, freedoms and human rights’ (EESC, 2017) wels, 2018). In this respect, we should also mention
are coming from a variety of viewpoints, including Floridi’s (2018) plea for the EU to use ‘soft’ digital
academia, civil society organisations, practitioners, ethics25 as a good approach for AI, because it can
think-tanks and businesses. There are encouraging support regulation and legislation and balance dif-
signs of a commitment, or at least an interest in ferent values and interests.
6 Ethical and Social Perspective 56
-TCPTGCUMDGLBGTGBS?J?LBAMJJCARGTC
GKNJGA?RGMLQMD'
!F?JJCLECQ?RGLBGTGBS?JJCTCJ It is crucial
'Rȩ GQȩ GKNMPR?LRȩ RMȩ RFGLIȩ ?@MSRȩ FMUȩ ?PRGȏAG?Jȩ GLRCJJG-
gence might bring new challenges in relation to in-
to think how
BGTGBS?JȩFSK?Lȩ@CGLEQȩ'LȩRFGQȩAMLRCVR
ȩGRȩGQȩAPSAG?JȩRMȩ
consider how the concepts of autonomy and identity
the concepts
of individuals as well as security, safety and privacy
GQQSCQȩKGEFRȩAF?LECȩSLBCPȩRFCȩGLȐSCLACȩMDȩ'
of autonomy
?SRMLMKW
and identity
Autonomy is one of the central values in West-
ern ethics (Juth, 2009). It represents the idea that
of individuals
everyone has the capacity to know what is good or
bad for them, to live according to their standards as well as security,
and that they have power over their thoughts and
actions, thus promoting individual choice, rights safety and privacy
and freedoms. AI might contribute to human devel-
MNKCLRȩ@WȩCVRCLBGLEȩFSK?LȩA?N?@GJGRGCQ
ȩMPȩAMSJBȩ issues might change
XQGHUWKHLQÁXHQFH
stimulate productivity and prosperity and lead to
active work until a later age. It could also have the
MNNMQGRCȩCȎCARQ
ȩ?QȩBGQASQQCBȩGLȩ!F?NRCPȩ
of AI.
57 6 Ethical and Societal Perspective
When it comes to interaction, there is also a need 2017), which is still a controversial proposal when
for people to know if they are interacting with an- considering, for instance, that at the present time
other person or a machine. It is often not clear for accountability is ultimately related to human re-
us today if we are communicating via digital media sponsibility (EECS, 2016).
with a bot or a human being. Also, the content pre-
sented to us and selected by algorithms interferes B.PGT?AW?LBB?R?NPMRCARGML
with our freedom to receive and impart informa- In the world of hyper-connected devices, crucial
tion (Rathenau Institute, 2017). questions that are posed relate to privacy, security
and data protection. Smart meters, toys, fridges
@'BCLRGRW ?LBȩ NFMLCQ
ȩ RMȩ KCLRGMLȩ HSQRȩ ?ȩ DCU
ȩ ?JJȩ F?TCȩ @SGJR
According to Fearon (1999), identity is seen either in AI systems that are sending our data to the
as a social category with its membership rules or manufacturers of these devices, often without our
‘a set of attributes, beliefs, desires or principles of knowledge. AI applications in healthcare are even
action that a person thinks distinguish herself in more sensitive, for instance when suggesting diag-
socially relevant ways and that the person takes a nosis or treatments (AI Now, 2017) or when data
special pride in’. In this case, the meaning of iden- is (mis)used by insurance companies or technology
tity becomes very close to dignity or pride. As we companies (Powles and Hodson, 2017). The right
interact and even develop close relationships with to protection of personal information and privacy
AI systems or robots, we need to understand better is therefore increasingly recognised as crucial in
possible transformations of how we perceive them #SPMNC?LȩQMAGCRGCQȩ#%#
ȩȩ
and how they shape our conception of the world.
$MPȩGLQR?LAC
ȩNPMȏJGLE
ȩR?PECRCBȩ?BTCPRGQGLEȩMPȩMRFCPȩ 2FCȩ LCUȩ %".0ȩ RF?Rȩ A?KCȩ GLRMȩ DMPACȩ GLȩ +?Wȩ ȩ
'NMUCPCBȩRCAFLGOSCQȩA?LȩBCCNJWȩ?ȎCARȩMSPȩGBCL- GQȩP?GQGLEȩCVNCAR?RGMLQȩGLȩPCJ?RGMLȩRMȩRFCȩNPMRCARGMLȩ
tities (Floridi, 2015). The way in which human intel- of personal data used by algorithms. The full im-
JGECLACȩ?LBȩAMELGRGTCȩA?N?AGRGCQȩ?PCȩ?ȎCARCBȩ@WȩRFCȩ pact of the Regulation will only emerge in the years
interaction with machines and AI is an important RMȩAMKC
ȩ@SRȩGRȩGQȩAJC?PJWȩ?ȩK?HMPȩGQQSCȩRF?RȩLCCBQȩ
area of research, as indicated in Section 2.3. monitoring.
A"GELGRW
Human dignity is the right of a person to be re- !F?JJCLECQ?RQMAGCR?JJCTCJ
spected and valued and treated in an ethical man-
ner, as mentioned in the Article 1 of the Charter of AI and big data have broader consequences for soci-
Fundamental Rights of the EU. It should be one of ety and the well-being of communities, and nations
the basic notions used for the protection from harm worldwide. These changes have direct impact on re-
caused to humans, and vulnerable groups in par- shaping of power relations and the transformation
ticular, and it should be respected while developing MDȩ RFCȩ QMAG?Jȩ AMLRP?ARȩ 'Rȩ GQȩ GKNMPR?LRȩ RMȩ CV?KGLCȩ
new technologies (Rathenau Institute, 2017). these changes in order to mitigate risks and dangers.
the latter, research has shown that the use of algo- CAMJMEGA?JȩAF?LECQȩRMȩMSPȩCVNCPGCLAC
ȩAPGRGA?JȩA?N?AG-
rithms could discriminate against particular groups ty and perceived reality (Borgmann, 1987; Feenberg,
MPȩ GLBGTGBS?JQ
ȩ DMPȩ GLQR?LACȩ GLȩ RFCȩ APGKGL?Jȩ HSQRGACȩ 1991, 1999; Mitcham, 1980; Coeckelbergh, 2018;
system (Chouldechova, 2017) and in recruitment Higgs et al., 2000). In this sense, it confronts us
NPMACQQCQȩ-,CGJJ
ȩȩ G?QȩAMSJBȩAMKCȩDPMKȩRFCȩ with who we are and how we want to live in our
training data or the algorithms, or from the biases society pursuing goals of well-being (Montréal
of the people who build them (The Future Society, Declaration 2017; IEEE, 2018).
2017; CNIL, 2017; see also Section 2.4). Besides
technical research (such as de-biasing or fairness A0CQNMLQG@GJGRW
?AAMSLR?@GJGRW
evaluation tools), and education of developers and ?LBRP?LQN?PCLAW
society as a whole to be alert about potential un-
fairness, there is a need for the active involvement 3FTQPOTJCJMJUZBOEBDDPVOUBCJMJUZ
of government in fostering the culture of equity, We should think of responsibility in congruence
free from stereotypes, and equal access ‘across with human rights and values (CoE, 2017). Account-
?LBȩ UGRFGLȩ QMAGCRGCQȩ #%#
ȩ ȩ RMȩ @CLCȏRȩ DPMKȩ ?@GJGRWȩ GQȩ AMLLCARCBȩ RMȩ PCQNMLQG@GJGRWȩ ?LBȩ GRȩ GQȩ CV-
the opportunities provided by AI. tremely important because it deals with biases and
BGQAPGKGL?RGMLQȩA?SQCBȩ@WȩB?R?ȩKGLGLEȩ?LBȩNPMȏJGLEȩ
@!MJJCARGTCFSK?LGBCLRGRW?LBRFC~EMMBJGDC Accountability is seen as a necessary condition for
AI impacts what we can consider the ‘good life’, the social acceptability of AI (Mission Villani, 2018).
that is, it can deeply transform how we live today CQGBCQȩRFCȩAMKNJCVGRWȩMDȩRFCȩMLJGLCȩCLTGPMLKCLR
ȩ
and in the future. Similar to other technologies, locating responsibility and accountability becomes
AI can bring about social, economic, political and KMPCȩBGȑASJRȩUGRFȩRFCȩ@JSPPCBȩPCJ?RGMLQFGNȩ@CRUCCLȩ
59 6 Ethical and Social Perspective
people and data, action and consequences, which man beings, their behaviour, needs and aspirations
could be considered as a wicked problem without a (Markham et al., 2018, p.4), as well as control over
AJC?Pȩ?LQUCPȩ+?PIF?KȩCRȩ?J
ȩȩ'LȩRFCȩAMLRCVRȩ the users’ social behaviour and consumer prefer-
of AI, liability often follows responsibility. Current CLACQȩ ?I?PBHGCT?ȩ?LBȩ%CFJ
ȩȩ
laws and regulations struggle with the emerging
issues as discussed in Chapter 7. Connected to mass surveillance is the appearance
of a phenomenon of voluntary self-surveillance that
5SBOTQBSFODZ E?GLCBȩNMNSJ?PGRWȩRFPMSEFȩRFCȩQMA?JJCBȩ/S?LRGȏCBȩ
Transparency means not only transparency of algo- Self movement. Self-surveillance is seen through
PGRFKQȩMDRCLȩPCDCPPCBȩRMȩ?Qȩ~@J?AIȩ@MVCQ
ȩ@SRȩ?JQMȩ the use of tracking devices and corresponding plat-
of data and Automated Decision Making (ADM). The forms, with the goal of controlling one’s indicators
importance of the latter is particularly salient when for the allegedly better management of life and
ADM is used by public agencies, such as predictive FC?JRFȩ 4CQLGAJSHCTGAȩ CRȩ ?J
ȩ ȩ 5FGJCȩ RFGLI-
NMJGAGLEȩ MPȩ PGQIȩ ?QQCQQKCLRȩ GLȩ RFCȩ APGKGL?Jȩ HSQRGACȩ ing about controlling their lives, users are often
system (AI Now, 2018). The decisions made by al- not aware of the fact that there are more parties
EMPGRFKQȩK?WȩLMRȩ@CȩSLBCPQRMMBȩMPȩCVNJ?GLCBȩ?LBȩ involved in the technology and that the data they
it is not clear who is responsible for them. There- leave are not only available to themselves. A right
fore, transparency is seen as key for accountabili- ‘not to be measured, analysed or coached’ by AI is
ty, together with a right to meaningful information needed (Rathenau Institute, 2017).
GLȩ ?SRMK?RCBȩ BCAGQGMLQȩ ?Qȩ DMPCQCCLȩ @Wȩ RFCȩ %".0
ȩ
MPȩ CTCLȩ ?ȩ ~PGEFRȩ RMȩ CVNJ?L?RGMLȩ 1CJ@QRȩ ?LBȩ .MU- D"CKMAP?AW?LBRPSQR
les, 2017; Edwards and Veale, 2017; see Chapter 7). While dealing with ethical and societal implications
Although it is not likely that the code will ever be of using algorithms, it is crucial to tackle their im-
completely transparent because of IP rights, other pacts on democracy and the trust of citizens. The
information such as variables used, with their val- CȎCARQȩ MDȩ LCUȩ NCPT?QGTCȩ RCAFLMJMEGCQȩ MLȩ NMUCPȩ
ues and deviations, and the amount and type of relationships between governments, citizens and
RP?GLGLEȩB?R?ȩSQCBȩAMSJBȩ@CȩK?BCȩCVNJGAGRȩ?LBȩAML- businesses are not straightforward. As we have
RPG@SRCȩRMȩ?Lȩ~CȎCARGTCȩRP?LQN?PCLAWȩ!M#
ȩ@ȩ discussed above, the lack of autonomy, privacy, re-
sponsibility, accountability, transparency and pos-
Besides transparency, there is a need to audit al- sibility for mass surveillance can impact deeply our
gorithms, i.e. checking that they conform to certain democratic systems. In addition to issues discussed
properties (Kroll et al., 2016). Auditing should be above, we should consider:
done in collaboration with government and civil so-
ciety. However, lack of access to the training data is 1PMJUJDBMQSPҨMJOH
the main problem for public auditing of algorithms Big data may be used not only for commercial ad-
(Villani, 2018). TCPRGQGLEȩ @SRȩ ?JQMȩ DMPȩ NMJGRGA?Jȩ NPMȏJGLE
ȩ R?PECRGLEȩ
?LBȩK?LGNSJ?RGMLȩȩPCACLRȩCV?KNJCȩGQȩ!?K@PGBECȩ
B1SPTCGJJ?LAC
B?R?ȍA?RGML Analytica and the way it used algorithms to target
Digital politics and media researchers argue that USA voters in the electoral campaign for the presi-
we live in a mass-surveillance culture, character- dential election in 2016. The accumulation of large
GQCBȩ@WȩB?R?ȏA?RGMLȩMDȩGLBGTGBS?JQȩJGTCQȩRF?RȩGQȩBGȑ- amounts of data in the hands of one company or
ASJRȩRMȩCQA?NCȩ4?Lȩ"GHAI
ȩȩ0?RFCL?Sȩ'LQRGRSRC
ȩ political party may have serious consequences for
ȩ)MPȎȩCRȩ?J
ȩȩ2FCȩUMPJBQȩ@GEECQRȩBGEGR?Jȩ the erosion of democracy (Brundage et al., 2018).
companies control a large part of the online public Social scoring systems based on AI optimisations
sphere and hold most personal data. Through the of social processes might be dangerous for privacy,
analysis of big data, they obtain ‘truths’ about hu- equality and freedom (Botsman, 2017).
6 Ethical and Social Perspective 60
needed to keep up with the emerging implications This ?NNPM?AFȧ RMȧ PCQNMLQG@JCȧ BCQGELȧ GQȧ LCACQ-
of AI. This however cannot happen without a strong Q?PWȧ RMȧ @SGJBȧ RPSQRȧ GLȧ RFCȧ ?NNJGA?RGMLQ, but it is
commitment to the following issues: not by itself enough. As introduced in Section 6.1,
technology is a social product which embodies and
$MFBSFUIJDBMGSBNFXPSLTBOEHVJEFMJOFT replicates social norms, values, and other economic,
There is a recognition in Europe at both EC, and na- ecological, political, or cultural forces at any given
tional level that a clear ethical framework is need- time. Therefore, it is crucial to develop a multi-
ed. This is a rapidly evolving area with guidelines layered approach to AI design, including:
DPMKȩRFCȩ&GEF*CTCJȩ#VNCPRȩ%PMSNȩCVNCARCBȩ@WȩRFCȩ
end of 2018, as well as panels on ethics set up by • 2FCȧAPGRGA?JȧCLE?ECKCLRȧMDȧAGTGJȧQMAGCRW in
L?RGML?JȩEMTCPLKCLRQȩ5Cȩ?PCȩ?JQMȩCVNCARGLEȩUMPIȩ the development and use of algorithms in
DPMKȩ RFCȩ -#!"
ȩ RFCȩ 3,
ȩ ?LBȩ NPMDCQQGML?Jȩ MPE?LG- ȩ BGȎCPCLRȩ ?NNJGA?RGMLȩ ?PC?Qȩ UGRFȩ BGQASQQGML
sations such as the IEEE to contribute to the de- ȩ ?@MSRȩUFMȩ@CLCȏRQ
ȩ?LBȩUF?RȩT?JSCQȩQFMSJB
bate. Then we will need to see how these proposed ȩ @CȩCLAMBCBȩGLRMȩRFCȩQWQRCKQȩ(?Q?LMȎ
ȩ
frameworks align and what gaps or inconsistencies, Boucher et al., 2014);
GDȩ?LW
ȩRFCWȩJC?TCȩRȩJC?QRȩGLȩ#SPMNC
ȩUCȩA?LȩCVNCARȩ
that RFCȧCRFGA?JȧDP?KCUMPIȧ?LBȧESGBCJGLCQȧQFMSJBȧ • 2FCȧ CQR?@JGQFKCLRȧ MDȧ KSJRGQR?ICFMJBCPȧ
@CȧAMKN?RG@JCȧUGRFȧRFCȧ#3ȧNPGLAGNJCQȧ?LBȧPCESJ?- fora to promote such public debate and trans-
RMPWȧDP?KCUMPIQȧ late their outcomes into socio-political strate-
gies for AI enforcing ethical and social values
In reviewing the issues, two new rights are suggested: (Cath et al., 2018; Stilgoe, 2017);
3FTQPOTJCMF"*EFTJHO
2FCȧ RP?LQJ?RGMLȧ MDȧ T?JSCQȧ ?LBȧ LMPKQȧ GLRMȧ RFCȧ
BCQGELȧ ?LBȧ MNCP?RGMLȧ MDȧ 'ȧ QWQRCKQȧ QFMSJBȧ @Cȧ
N?PRȧ MDȧ PCESJ?RMPWȧ DP?KCUMPIQȧ ?LBȧ ESGBCJGLCQ
For instance, ‘privacy by design’ or ‘data protec-
tion by design and by default’ are now part of the
%".0ȩ 1GKGJ?PJW
ȩ UCȩ QFMSJBȩ RFGLIȩ MDȩ BCQGELGLEȩ 'ȩ
applications that are ‘transparent, comprehensible,
monitorable and accountable by design’, backed
up by frameworks for auditing and evaluating with
agreed international standards.
7 Legal perspective 62
5IF(%13IBTCFFOBTPVSDFPGJOTQJSBUJPOGPSMFHJTMBUPSTPVUTJEF&VSPQF
SUMMARY
In this chapter, we highlight the main legal issues raised by AI that concern, among others,
DSLB?KCLR?JȩPGEFRQ
ȩGLAJSBGLEȩNCPQML?JȩB?R?
ȩRFCȩRP?LQN?PCLAWȩ?LBȩCVNJ?GL?@GJGRWȩMDȩ?JEMPGRFKQ
?LBȩ RFCȩ QSGR?@GJGRWȩ MDȩ CVGQRGLEȩ JG?@GJGRWȩ PSJCQȩ 5Cȩ ?JQMȩ PCTGCUȩ RFCȩ #SPMNC?Lȩ JCE?Jȩ DP?KC
work with respect to data ownership, access and sharing regimes and intellectual property
PGEFRQ
ȩ?LBȩAMLQGBCPȩRFCȩBGȎCPCLRȩ?NNPM?AFCQȩRMȩPCESJ?RCȩBGQPSNRGTCȩRCAFLMJMEGCQȩ5CȩLMRCȩRFCȩ
RCLQGMLQȩ@CRUCCLȩNPMRCARGLEȩPGEFRQȩMDȩGLBGTGBS?JQȩ?LBȩȏPKQȩ?LBȩCLAMSP?EGLEȩGLLMT?RGMLȩUGRFȩ
RPWGLEȩRMȩK?VGKGQCȩMNCLLCQQȩ?LBȩRP?LQN?PCLAWȩ2FCȩR?QIȩMDȩNMJGAWK?IGLEȩGQȩRMȩK?L?ECȩAF?LECȩ
and regulate the adoption of new technologies to ensure that they are accepted to society
and respect our fundamental values. We conclude that Europe is well placed to establish a
BGQRGLARGTCȩDMPKȩMDȩ'ȩRF?RȩGQȩCRFGA?JJWȩPM@SQRȩ?LBȩNPMRCARQȩRFCȩPGEFRQȩMDȩGLBGTGBS?JQ
ȩȏPKQ
ȩ?LBȩ
QMAGCRWȩ?RȩJ?PECȩ$MPȩCV?KNJC
ȩRFCȩ%CLCP?Jȩ"?R?ȩ.PMRCARGMLȩ0CESJ?RGML
ȩMNNMQCBȩ@WȩK?LWȩUFCLȩ
in preparation, is now perceived as a European asset and is inspiring similar approaches out-
QGBCȩ#SPMNCȩ#VRCLBGLEȩRFGQȩLMRGML
ȩUCȩQFMSJBȩAMLQGBCPȩRFCȩFGEFȩQR?LB?PBQȩMDȩRFCȩ#SPMNC?Lȩ
legal and regulatory landscape in a similar way as those in environmental quality which are
an asset for Europeans and their future generations to build upon, not a barrier.
63 7 Legal perspective
LEGAL PERSPECTIVE
+?GLJCE?JAF?JJCLECQGBCLRGȍCB
GL#SPMNC?L'QRP?RCEGCQ The task of
As indicated in Chapter 4, several European Mem- policymaking
ber States, as well as the European Commission,
are considering the challenges and opportunities is to manage
?ȎMPBCBȩ@Wȩ'ȩ2FGQȩQCARGMLȩQSKK?PGQCQȩRFCȩK?GLȩ
legal challenges raised by widespread use of AI as change and regulate
GBCLRGȏCBȩGLȩ'ȩQRP?RCEGCQȩ?LBȩNMJGAWȩBMASKCLRQ26.
Section 7.2 and 7.3 develop more in detail data and the adoption of new
Intellectual Property (IP) related issues.
technology so that
-LCȩMDȩRFCȩKMQRȩAPGRGA?JȩGQQSCQȩGLȩRFCȩQRP?RCEGCQȩCV-
amined is how to ensure that AI algorithms operate they are acceptable
in full respect of the European values and funda-
mental rights27 as well as of its ethical principles to society and respect
(see Chapter 6). Key elements of concern are po-
tential forms of discrimination by algorithms, and our values.
the need to develop not only ethical guidelines but
also tools and design principles such as ‘ethics by into force, there is a need to monitor its applica-
BCQGELȩ-RFCPȩJGLCQȩMDȩ?ARGMLȩGLAJSBCȩK?LB?RGLEȩRFCȩ RGMLȩGLȩRFCȩ'ȩAMLRCVRȩ1MKCȩ?SRFMPQȩOSCQRGMLȩRFCȩ
assessment of impact on human rights or discrim- QSGR?@GJGRWȩMDȩRFCȩ%".0ȩRMȩBC?JȩUGRFȩ'ȩQCCȩ.MSJJCRȩ
GL?RGMLȩ UFCLȩ ?JEMPGRFKQȩ ?ȎCARȩ GLBGTGBS?JQȩ MPȩ ?PCȩ ?ȩ ?LBȩ @ȩ "CJDMPECȩ CRȩ %CP?PBȩ ȩ 5?RAFCPȩ
used in public administration, or require algorithm ȩMLȩRFCȩ@?QGQȩMDȩRFCȩBGȑASJRWȩRMȩAMKNJWȩUGRFȩ
?SBGRGLEȩKCAF?LGQKQȩ5GRFGLȩRFGQȩAMLRCVR
ȩRFCPCȩGQȩ the principles of purpose limitation (since AI sys-
?ȩ LCCBȩ RMȩ PCȐCARȩ MLȩ GDȩ ?LBȩ UFCLȩ ?SRMK?RCBȩ BC- tems are by nature general-purpose systems) and
cision-making should be allowed. Naturally, some proportionality, as well as the requirement to ob-
SQCPQȩ ?LBȩ QCARMPQȩ CEȩ HSQRGAC
ȩ FC?JRFȩ ?PCȩ KMPCȩ tain legitimate consent. Criticism also concerns the
sensitive than others in this regard. perceived limitations as regards the so-called right
RMȩCVNJ?L?RGMLȩ
In terms of QFSTPOBM EBUB QSPUFDUJPO
certain pro-
TGQGMLQȩ GLȩ RFCȩ %CLCP?Jȩ "?R?ȩ .PMRCARGMLȩ 0CESJ?RGMLȩ 5GRFGLȩRFGQȩAMLRCVR
ȩUSBOTQBSFODZ and FYQMBJOBCJMJUZ
%".0ȩ #!
ȩ ?ȩ F?TCȩ ?BBPCQQCBȩ QMKCȩ MDȩ RFCȩ of algorithms are regarded as essential to under-
concerns mentioned above. These include: i) data standing how decisions are made and give citizens,
protection by design and by default, ii) privacy im- users and operators the possibility to challenge
N?ARȩ ?QQCQQKCLRQ
ȩ GGGȩ ?ȩ PCJ?RGTCȩ PGEFRȩ RMȩ CVNJ?L them. However, it is not yet clear how these re-
ation as concerns the logic involved in automated quirements should be addressed. Some referenc-
BCAGQGMLK?IGLE
ȩ?LBȩGTȩRFCȩPGEFRȩLMRȩRMȩ@CȩQS@HCARȩ es may be found in public documents concerning:
to a decision based solely on automated process- i) the processes to be put in place, (ii) the inter-
ing28. These provisions could serve as inspiration for ference with IP protection, iii) the responsible ac-
MRFCPȩ ?PC?Qȩ Qȩ RFCȩ %".0ȩ F?Qȩ MLJWȩ PCACLRJWȩ AMKCȩ tors to scrutinise algorithm decision making, and
7 Legal perspective 64
GTȩ RFCȩ BCTCJMNKCLRȩ MDȩ ESGB?LACȩ RMȩ ?QQGQRȩ GLȩ CV- UIF MJBCJMJUZ BOE TBGFUZ GSBNFXPSLT Dor AI, the IoT
plaining AI. The EC is analysing the issue and has and robotics.33
commissioned a study, AlgoAware29, to shed light
on these (and related) aspects. AI products or services, like everything else, can-
not be 100% guaranteed to be safe. A possible ap-
-JBCJMJUZ is another issue frequently raised in the NPM?AFȩ RMȩ K?L?ECȩ Q?DCRWȩ GQȩ RMȩ BCȏLCȩ ?AACNR?@JCȩ
legal literature and in policy debates. This is an es- JCTCJQȩMDȩQ?DCRWȩDMPȩGBCLRGȏCBȩPGQIQȩRMȩ@CȩAF?P?ARCP-
sential aspect to ensure that possible victims have ised by the probability of occurrence and severity
CȑAGCLRȩPCBPCQQȩQWQRCKQ
ȩ@SRȩ?JQMȩRF?RȩGLBSQRPWȩF?Qȩ criteria. This requires assigning quality levels for
JCE?Jȩ ACPR?GLRWȩ 2FCȩ AMKNJCVGRWȩ MDȩ 'ȩ QWQRCKQȩ ?LBȩ software and processes applicable from design to
the variety of actors intervening in the value chain, validation, according to the criticality of the soft-
coupled with its self-learning and autonomous abil- ware modules and corresponding datasets contrib-
GRGCQ
ȩA?LȩK?ICȩGRȩTCPWȩBGȑASJRȩRMȩ?JJMA?RCȩPCQNMLQG- SRGLEȩ RMȩ RFCȩ PGQIQȩ GBCLRGȏCBȩ BBGRGML?Jȩ KGRGE?RGMLȩ
bilities. Moreover, since the liability regime has been KC?QSPCQȩ MDȩ ?ȩ RCAFLGA?Jȩ CEȩ BGTCPQGȏCBȩ N?P?JJCJȩ
MLJWȩN?PRG?JJWȩF?PKMLGQCB
ȩRFGQȩQS@HCARȩGQȩ?JQMȩ?ȩK?R- developments) or operational nature (e.g. a cer-
ter of national law. tain level of human control) may need to be im-
plemented when residual risks are considered un-
The main question is therefore: does the current acceptable.
liability and safety framework provide adequate
mechanisms to deal with AI products and services In addition to the areas mentioned above, nation-
JG?@GJGRWȩ 'Dȩ LMR
ȩ UF?Rȩ ?BHSQRKCLRQȩ ?PCȩ LCACQQ?PWȩ al AI strategies also refer to the challenges posed
2FGQȩGQQSCȩGQȩ@CGLEȩCVNJMPCBȩ@WȩRFCȩ#VNCPRȩ%PMSNȩMLȩ by cybersecurity (see Chapter 10), and the need to
Liability and New Technologies, recently created by facilitate testing platforms, including regulatory
RFCȩ#!ȩQCCȩ!F?NRCPȩȩUFGAFȩGQȩCVNCARCBȩRMȩPCNMPRȩ Q?LB@MVCQ
ȩ RMȩ QSNNMPRȩ GLLMT?RGMLȩ ?Qȩ UCJJȩ ?Qȩ MRF-
in mid-2019. The group is split into two assemblies. er legal areas such as consumer protection and
2FCȩ ȏPQRȩ ?QQCK@JWȩ UGJJȩ DMASQȩ MLȩ RFCȩ .PMBSARȩ *G?- competition law. Both legal commentators and the
bility Directive30ȩ ?LBȩ UGJJȩ CV?KGLCȩ RMȩ UF?Rȩ CVRCLRȩ general press have recently warned of possible an-
the provisions of the Directive are adequate to ti-competitive behaviour that could take place in
solve the questions of liability in relation to tra- RFGQȩAMLRCVRȩ1SAFȩAMLACPLQȩPCJ?RCȩRMȩAMJJSQGMLȩNP?A-
ditional products, new technologies and new so- RGACQȩGLAJSBGLE
ȩDMPȩCV?KNJC
ȩR?AGRȩAMJJSQGMLȩGLȩNPGACȩ
cietal challenges31. The second assembly, dealing ȏVGLE
ȩNPGACȩBGQAPGKGL?RGML
ȩB?R?ȩAMLACLRP?RGMLȩ?LBȩ
with new technologies, ‘will assess whether and to to the role of privacy in competition assessment.
UF?Rȩ CVRCLRȩ CVGQRGLEȩ JG?@GJGRWȩ QAFCKCQȩ ?PCȩ ?B?NR- National public authorities and stakeholders have
ed to the emerging market realities following the recalled the need to remain vigilant in this regard
development of the new technologies such as Arti- (UK House of Lords 2018). The increasing power of
ȏAG?Jȩ'LRCJJGECLACȩ9x;ȩ?LBȩ?QQGQRȩRFCȩ!MKKGQQGMLȩGLȩ certain platforms also raises concerns as regards
developing EU-wide principles which can serve as their accountability as quasi-public actors in the
guidelines for possible adaptations of applicable digital society (EPSC 2018).
laws at EU and national level as regards the new
RCAFLMJMEGCQȩ9x;32 The regulatory regime for non-personal machine-
generated data (or sensor data) has been a recur-
WȩKGB
ȩRFCȩEPMSNȩGQȩCVNCARCBȩRMȩGQQSCȩ?ȩESGB- ring question in the policy debate concerning AI or,
ance document on the interpretation of the Product more generally, the industry 4.0 revolution. This
Liability Directive in light of technological develop- QNCAGȏAȩGQQSCȩGQȩCVNJMPCBȩDSPRFCPȩ@CJMU
ments and to publish a report on the broader im-
plications for potential gaps in and orientations for
65 7 Legal perspective
. -ULCPQFGN
?AACQQ?LBB?R?QF?PGLE essential facilities doctrine as well as the criteria
developed to assess possible abuse of a dominant
The discussion on the ownership of data has been position in refusals to licence make traditional com-
CVRCLQGTCJWȩ BC@?RCBȩ GLȩ RFCȩ FGQRMPWȩ MDȩ GLDMPK?RGMLȩ petition law tests of limited use to promote access
technology law. The advent of the big data era RMȩB?R?ȩ"PCVJȩCRȩ?J
ȩ"PCVJȩ
ȩ.MSJJCRȩ@ȩ0C-
brought a new impetus to this discussion both for ACLRȩQRSBGCQȩNPCBGARȩRF?RȩAMLȐGARQȩ?PCȩJGICJWȩRMȩ?PGQCȩ
@MRFȩ NCPQML?Jȩ ?LBȩ LMLNCPQML?Jȩ B?R?ȩ -Q@MPLCȩ in the near future, but recognise that legal inter-
Clarke, 2016). This section will focus mainly on TCLRGMLȩ K?Wȩ @Cȩ NPCK?RSPCȩ ?Rȩ RFGQȩ QR?ECȩ -Q@MPLCȩ
the current discussion on the legal regime for non- Clarke, 2016 and in a more nuanced sense also
personal machine-generated data although in Deloitte, 2018).
ACPR?GLȩA?QCQȩRFCȩBGQRGLARGMLȩK?Wȩ@Cȩ?PRGȏAG?JȩQCCȩ
also Section 12.1). The need to create a new intellectual property right
to incentivise data production and collection, com-
The issue of the lack of a comprehensive legal mercialisation, and access is something that has
framework for machine-generated data was raised @CCLȩ CVNJMPCBȩ @Wȩ QAFMJ?PQȩ UGRFȩ BGTCPEGLEȩ TGCUQȩ
in the Communication on Building a European Data $MPȩ CV?KNJC
ȩ 8CAFȩ ȩ ?LBȩ 4?Lȩ Q@PMCAIȩ CRȩ
Economy (EC 2017a). The EC, worried about the al. (2017) favour the introduction of new owner-
SLBCPCVNJMGR?RGMLȩ ?LBȩ J?AIȩ MDȩ RP?BCȩ GLȩ K?AFGLCȩ QFGNȩPGEFRQȩDMPȩGLBSQRPG?JȩB?R?
ȩUFGJCȩ"PCVJȩ?
ȩ
generated data, put forward a series of legislative Hugenholtz (2018) and Ramalho (2017a) are quite
and non-legislative options for discussion, among critical of such an idea. In short, recent economic
them the creation of a new data producer’s right. research falls short of making a clear case for cre-
However, in the later Communication Towards a ating new IP rights for data (Kerber, 2016; Kerber &
common European data space (EC 2018c), data Frank, 2017; Duch-Brown et al., 2017).
ownership is hardly mentioned. Instead, the EC
focuses on access to data and on fundamental While discussions on ownership are still inconclu-
measures such as a proposal to review the PSI sive, the debate has shifted to the issue of data
Directive (EC, 2018d), a recommendation on ac- ?AACQQȩ 'Lȩ RFGQȩ PCE?PB
ȩ BGȎCPCLRȩ MNRGMLQȩ ?PCȩ @CGLEȩ
ACQQȩ RMȩ ?LBȩ NPCQCPT?RGMLȩ MDȩ QAGCLRGȏAȩ GLDMPK?RGMLȩ AMLQGBCPCB
ȩGLAJSBGLEȩQNCAGȏAȩPCESJ?RGML
ȩAPC?RGLEȩ?ȩ
(EC, 2018i) and a guidance document on the busi- new RVBMJҨFEright to access data, or a system of
LCQQRM@SQGLCQQȩ?LBȩ@SQGLCQQRMEMTCPLKCLRȩCV- compulsory licences to grant access to data, either
change (EC, 2018f). Recently, the EC has set up an on a horizontal or sectoral basis34ȩ "PCVJȩ @
ȩ
CVNCPRȩ EPMSNȩ RMȩ ?QQGQRȩ GLȩ ?QQCQQGLEȩ GQQSCQȩ ?PMSLBȩ JIIP 2018; Mezzanotte, 2017; Weber, 2017). Some
business-to-government data sharing. QAFMJ?PQȩF?TCȩCTCLȩQSEECQRCBȩ?ȩQNCAGȏAȩAMNWPGEFRȩ
CVACNRGML
ȩ?ȩD?GPȩSQCȩMPȩ?LȩMNCLȩLMPKȩRF?RȩAMTCPȩ'ȩ
There is no legal or statutory title providing for own- and other related uses without the authorisation
ership of data either by traditional property rights MDȩRFCȩAMNWPGEFRȩFMJBCPQȩ?KMLEȩMRFCPQ
ȩ%CGECPȩCRȩ
or by intellectual property since data per se is not al., 2018, and Schafer et al., 2015). Here we should
?ȩAMNWPGEFRȩMPȩN?RCLR?@JCȩQS@HCARȩK?RRCPȩRȩKMQR
ȩ recall that in 2016 the EC tabled a legislative pro-
under certain circumstances data could become posal that, among other things, proposed a man-
protected by the database’s TVJHFOFSJT right or by B?RMPWȩ CVACNRGMLȩ DMPȩ RCVRȩ ?LBȩ B?R?ȩ KGLGLEȩ 2"+ȩ
the Trade Secrets Directive (EC, 2016c), provided for reQC?PAFȩNSPNMQCQȩQS@HCARȩRMȩ?ȩQCPGCQȩMDȩAMLBG-
that certain conditions are met. In practice, provi- tions (Article 3 in EC 2016b).35 Although generally
sions on data access, use and sharing are regulated welcomed by the research community and by copy-
at the contractual level on the basis of a de facto PGEFRȩQAFMJ?PQ
ȩRFCȩNPMNMQ?JȩF?QȩLMRȩ@CCLȩCVCKNRCB
ownership. Focusing on competition law, some au- from criticism in relation to the conditions under
thors point out that the strict requirements of the which it should operate, being more restrictive than
7 Legal perspective 66
RFCȩPCEGKCȩ?NNJGA?@JCȩGLȩMRFCPȩAMSLRPGCQȩ%CGECPȩCRȩ 2FCNPMRCARGMLMD'GLTCLRGMLQ
?J
ȩȩ1?KSCJQML
ȩȩJJȩGLȩ?JJ
ȩAMNWPGEFRȩCV- APC?RGMLQ@WGLRCJJCARS?J
ceptions would only authorise the re-use but would NPMNCPRWPGEFRQ
not, strictly speaking, facilitate access to datasets.
National AI strategies have so far paid little at-
As indicated at the beginning of this section, some tention to the challenges AI poses to the IPR legal
scholars have noted that the distinction between framework. However, the increasing importance of
personal and non-personal data is becoming more 'ȩRCAFLMJMEGCQȩ?LBȩRFCȩE?NQȩGBCLRGȏCBȩ@WȩQAFMJ?PQȩ
and more blurred. It is not only that non-personal GLȩ@MRFȩRFCȩAMNWPGEFRȩ?LBȩN?RCLRȩQWQRCKȩCEȩ%S?B-
B?R?ȩ MPȩ ?LMLWKGQCBȩ B?R?ȩ A?Lȩ @Cȩ QS@HCARȩ RMȩ RCAF- ?KSXȩȩ+GAF?SVȩ
ȩ0?K?JFMȩȩ@ȩ
niques linking them back to individuals, but also Schönberger 2018 or WEF 2018) reveal the need
that recent reforms have made clear that the no- for further investigation.
tion of personal data includes data that allow in-
dividualisation, even if they do not reveal the indi- As regards the patentability of AI, the announce-
vidual’s civil or legal identity36 (Poullet, 2018b). This KCLRȩ MDȩ RFCȩ #SPMNC?Lȩ .?RCLRȩ -ȑACȩ #.-ȩ MDȩ QNC-
must be taken into account when considering spe- AGȏAȩ ESGB?LACȩ MLȩ N?RCLR?@GJGRWȩ APGRCPG?ȩ DMPȩ 'ȩ GQ
AGȏAȩPCEGKCQȩDMPȩQCLQMPȩMPȩGLBSQRPG?JȩB?R?ȩRF?RȩK?Wȩ N?PRGASJ?PJWȩUCJAMKCBȩ2FCȩLCUȩQCARGMLȩMLȩPRGȏAG?Jȩ
also include data susceptible to being considered Intelligence and Machine Learning provides some
as personal data. AJ?PGȏA?RGMLȩMLȩUFCLȩ'PCJ?RCBȩQS@HCARȩK?RRCPȩF?Qȩ?ȩ
technical character.37 The protection of AI-generated
works or inventions seem to be more problematic. In
light of the humanist approach of copyright law, it is
questionable that AI-generated works deserve cop-
yright protection. As regards patent laws, although
a priori nothing prevents AI-generated inventions
The EU can from being patented, the assessment of the non-
regulators, inform the public and policymakers and world and informing good practices for the use of
QSNNMPRȩNCMNJCȩRMȩȏLBȩPCBPCQQȩ+GJJCPȩCRȩ?J
ȩ personal data even beyond EU data markets. The
European policymaker can have a role in the setting
1SKK?PW?LBAMLAJSQGML of standards for human-centred AI, as has already
been done in relation to privacy.
'ȩ GQȩ KMQRȩ JGICJWȩ EMGLEȩ RMȩ F?TCȩ QGELGȏA?LRȩ GKN?ARQȩ
on our lives, even more than past waves of digit- Access and use of quality data are fundamental for
?JGQ?RGMLȩ Qȩ UGRFȩ ?LWȩ K?HMPȩ RCAFLMJMEGA?Jȩ AF?LEC
ȩ many AI applications. However, empirical evidence
RFGQȩ UGJJȩ @PGLEȩ QGELGȏA?LRȩ QMAGCR?Jȩ @CLCȏRQ
ȩ @SRȩ UGJJȩ shows that an optimal framework for trading and
also pose new challenges across many economic sharing of data has still to be realised (see Sec-
segments, including transport, energy, healthcare, RGMLȩ ȩ 5GRFGLȩ RFGQȩ AMLRCVR
ȩ QAFMJ?PQȩ F?TCȩ NSRȩ
BCDCLAC
ȩ CBSA?RGML
ȩ JCGQSPC
ȩ D?PKGLEȩ ?LBȩ ȏL?LACȩ DMPU?PBȩ?ȩQCPGCQȩMDȩNPMNMQ?JQȩRMȩ?BHSQRȩRFCȩPCESJ?-
The task of policymaking is to manage change and tory framework for non-personal machine-gener-
regulate the adoption of new technology in order to ated data. These go from enacting new ownership
ensure that they are acceptable to society and re- rights on data, to establishing access regimes or
spect our fundamental values. The EU can provide incentivising data sharing through soft-law instru-
guidance to the European countries on regulatory ments. Sectoral approaches and solutions focused
issues of AI while fostering the development of a on regulating access (rather than on privileging the
single market for new technologies. creation of new rights) are gaining prominence. In a
AMLRCVRȩUFCPCȩRFCȩ#SPMNC?LȩB?R?ȩJ?LBQA?NCȩGQȩBC-
To foster the development and uptake of AI, citizens centralised and fragmented (in comparison with that
and industry operators need to be reassured that of other regions), the discussion on data governance
it complies with ethical and regulatory frameworks. becomes even more relevant and opens opportuni-
!MLQSKCPQȩ ?LBȩ SQCPQȩ MDȩ 'ȩ BCTGACQȩ QFMSJBȩ @CLCȏRȩ RGCQȩDMPȩBGȎCPCLRȩKMBCJQȩRMȩCKCPECȩ1CCȩȩ
from mechanisms allowing redress in case of dam-
ages and from tools that allow them to supervise In addition, the potential capacity of AI systems to
decisions taken by AI systems. Economic actors also generate inventions or creations has attracted the
LCCBȩ QSȑAGCLRȩ JCE?Jȩ ACPR?GLRWȩ RMȩ GLTCQRȩ GLȩ 'ȩ RCAF- attention of scholars, some of them sceptical about
nology. The initiatives adopted both at the European RFCȩA?N?AGRWȩMDȩRFCȩCVGQRGLEȩ'.ȩDP?KCUMPIȩRMȩ?AAMK-
and national levels provide some hints on how these modate this phenomenon. Further economic and
aspects may be addressed. JCE?Jȩ PCQC?PAFȩ GQȩ LCCBCBȩ RMȩ ?QQCQQȩ RMȩ UF?Rȩ CVRCLRȩ
?BHSQRKCLRQȩRMȩRFCȩJCE?JȩDP?KCUMPIȩMPȩRFCȩAPC?RGMLȩ
The future EC guidelines on the ethical develop- of new rights are needed at all.
KCLRȩ MDȩ 'ȩ ?LBȩ RFCȩ ȏLBGLEQȩ MDȩ MLEMGLEȩ QRSBGCQȩ MLȩ
RP?LQN?PCLAWȩ ?LBȩ CVNJ?GL?@GJGRW
ȩ ?JMLEȩ UGRFȩ N?P?JJCJȩ *?QRȩ@SRȩLMRȩJC?QR
ȩUCȩF?TCȩ@PGCȐWȩPCDCPPCBȩRMȩRFCȩ
initiatives undertaken by others stakeholders, may needs and tensions in the general debate on how to
lay the foundations for a fairer AI. The work of the better regulate AI. In the discussion around regulat-
#VNCPRȩ %PMSNȩ MLȩ *G?@GJGRWȩ ?LBȩ ,CUȩ 2CAFLMJMEGCQȩ GQȩ ing AI, RFCȧOSCQRGMLȧGQȧLMRȧMLJWȧGDȧRFCPCȧGQȧ?ȧLCCBȧ
?JQMȩCVNCARCBȩRMȩ@PGLEȩAJ?PGRWȩMLȩRFCȩKMQRȩQSGR?@JCȩ DMPȧPCESJ?RMPWȧGLRCPTCLRGMLȧ@SRȧK?GLJWȧUFGAFȧ?N-
rules to cope with unanticipated damages caused by NPM?AFȧ QFMSJBȧ @Cȧ ?BMNRCBȧ RMȧ ȏLBȧ ?ȧ @?J?LACȧ RMȧ
AI systems. QSNNMPRȧGLLMT?RGMLȧ?LBȧ?RȧRFCȧQ?KCȧRGKCȧNPMRCARȧ
UGBCPȧQMAGCR?JȧGLRCPCQRQȧThe question is also how
Compared with the other AI champions, such as the to ensure that policymakers are well equipped to
USA and particularly China, Europe is noted for its make adequate and timely decisions in a rapidly
high regulatory standards for personal data pro- changing, technology- and market-driven environ-
RCARGMLȩ2FCȩ%".0ȩGQȩGLQNGPGLEȩPCESJ?RGMLȩ?APMQQȩRFCȩ ment with an intrinsic global dimension.
8 Educational perspective 70
"*XJMMDIBOHFXIBUBOEIPXXFMFBSO
SUMMARY
From an educational perspective, we observe in this chapter that AI has potential positive
impacts on shortages of skills, learning, and teaching. Three crucial points stand out from
RFCȩPCTGCUȩȏPQRJW
ȩRFCȩLCCBȩRMȩSLBCPQR?LBȩ@CRRCPȩFMUȩRFCȩGLRCP?ARGMLȩUGRFȩ'ȩGKN?ARQȩFSK?L
intelligence in cognitive capacities in both adults, and even more importantly, children.
Secondly, we need to think beyond current needs and practices, and consider how AI is likely
to change the relationship between education and work, and human development. Thirdly, we
highlight possible risks related to AI in education, particularly privacy and ethical ones. In this
AF?NRCP
ȩUCȩ?JQMȩNPMTGBCȩ?LȩGLGRG?JȩMTCPTGCUȩ?LBȩECMEP?NFGAȩBGQRPG@SRGMLȩMDȩRFCȩ?A?BCKGAȩMȎCPȩ
of study topics related to AI. This is only the beginning of a monitoring and analysis process
MDȩ?A?BCKGAȩQSNNJWȩ@SRȩGRȩ?JPC?BWȩFGEFJGEFRQȩNMRCLRG?JȩNPGMPGRWȩ?PC?QȩUFCPCȩEPC?RCPȩCȎMPRȩGQȩ
LCCBCBȩRMȩNPCN?PCȩQMAGCRWȩRMȩDSJJWȩF?PLCQQȩRFCȩ@CLCȏRQȩMDȩ'ȩ
71 8 Educational perspective
EDUCATIONAL
PERSPECTIVE
'LRPMBSARGML
Education and
Since the beginning of the 1980s, and until re-
cently, educational applications of AI have mainly training are crucial
focused on the knowledge-based approach (see
Sleeman and Brown, 1982). The most prominent to harness AI, but
line of research has been concerned with Intelli-
gent Tutoring Systems, or ITS (Woolf 2009). These AI can also help
systems have been successful mainly in relatively
limited and unambiguous domains, such as mathe- us rethink what
K?RGAQȩ?LBȩNFWQGAQȩ0GRRCPȩCRȩ?J
ȩȩ%P?CQQCPȩCRȩ
al., 2005). competences
As student testing plays an important role in many and skills will be
CBSA?RGML?Jȩ QWQRCKQ
ȩ LSKCPMSQȩ NPMHCARQȩ RPWȩ RMȩ
use AI for automatic test generation and assess- needed in the future
ment. AI is also used to diagnose student attention,
emotion, and conversation dynamics in comput- QLIFSB>CRIȭIIFKD
CPQSNNMPRCBȩ JC?PLGLEȩ CLTGPMLKCLRQ
ȩ DMPȩ CV?KNJCȩ
for course development and management, in an life, and master
attempt to generate optimal groups for collabora-
tive learning tasks, and to recognise patterns that the digital
predict student drop-out (Nkambou et al., 2018;
0MQĸȩCRȩ?J
ȩȩ2MȩBMȩRFGQȩCȎCARGTCJW
ȩJ?PECȩB?R?- transformation
sets are needed for training the systems, and the
student behaviour needs to be actively monitored of our society.
to provide feedback for personalised learning. This
creates technical needs to monitor students unob- QA?LQȩDMPȩQRSBCLRQȩ?RȩPGQI
ȩ?LBȩBCRCARQȩBWQJCVG?ȩ@Wȩ
RPSQGTCJW
ȩ DMPȩ CV?KNJCȩ SQGLEȩ TGBCMȩ NPMACQQGLEȩ ?LBȩ tracking reader eye movements (Jakobbson, 2017).
remote eye-tracking, with associated ethical and AI-based systems have also been successfully de-
regulatory challenges. veloped for the diagnosis of autism spectrum dis-
MPBCPȩ?LBȩ?RRCLRGMLBCȏAGRȩBGQMPBCPQ
In special needs education, AI-based approaches
have shown potential, for instance, in the early de- This section will take a closer look at some of these
RCARGMLȩMDȩBWQJCVG?ȩ"PGE?Qȩ?LBȩ'M?LLGBMS
ȩȩȩ challenges related the impact of AI on skills de-
UCJJNS@JGQFCBȩ CV?KNJCȩ GQȩ RFCȩ 1UCBGQFȩ AMKN?LWȩ mand, and on learning and teaching.
*CVNJMPCȩRF?RȩF?QȩBCTCJMNCBȩ?ȩQWQRCKȩRF?RȩOSGAIJWȩ
8 Educational perspective 72
'GKN?ARMLQIGJJQBCK?LB
JC?PLGLE to be massive needs for high-level AI competences.
?LBRC?AFGLE Another issue is the likely impact of AI on changing
QIGJJQȩBCK?LBQȩDMPȩRFCȩCVGQRGLEȩUMPIDMPACȩ?LBȩRFCȩ
"GPCAR'GKN?ARML?BT?LACBQIGJJQ population at large. Some of these are mentioned
BCK?LB GLȩRFCȩLCVRȩQCARGMLȩMLȩRFCȩGKN?ARȩMDȩ'ȩMLȩJC?PLGLEȩ
'Lȩ1CARGMLȩ
ȩUCȩPCNMPRȩMLȩ?ȩȏPQRȩQA?LȩMDȩRFCȩRWNCȩ
The development of new AI and ML models requires and distribution of AI-related study topics in Euro-
very high levels of competence in several areas. This pean countries.
GQȩMLCȩMDȩRFCȩPC?QMLQȩUFWȩ'ȩCVNCPRQȩ?PCȩLMUȩ@CGLEȩ
N?GBȩTCPWȩFGEFȩQ?J?PGCQȩ2FCȩLSK@CPȩMDȩ'ȩLCSP?JȩCV- 'KN?ARMD'MLJC?PLGLE
perts may be doubling annually, but the basic knowl-
edge needed for state-of-the-art work in this area The way in which human intelligence and cogni-
PCOSGPCQȩ?BT?LACBȩJCTCJQȩMDȩQAGCLRGȏA
ȩK?RFCK?RGA?Jȩ RGTCȩA?N?AGRGCQȩ?PCȩ?ȎCARCBȩ@WȩRFCȩGLRCP?ARGMLȩUGRFȩ
and technical skills that are not easy to acquire. De- machines and AI is an important area of research.
velopment of new AI methods requires a good un- 5FGJQRȩ PCACLRȩ QAGCLRGȏAȩ JGRCP?RSPCȩ F?Qȩ DMASQCBȩ MLȩ
BCPQR?LBGLEȩMDȩQR?RGQRGAQ
ȩJGLC?Pȩ?JEC@P?
ȩBGȎCPCLRG?Jȩ the interactions between AI systems and adults,
equations, as well as computer architectures and RFCPCȩ ?PCȩ GKNMPR?LRȩ BGȎCPCLACQȩ GLȩ RFCȩ U?Wȩ AFGJ-
esoteric39 programming approaches and tools. The BPCLȩ BC?Jȩ UGRFȩ ?PRGȏAG?Jȩ QWQRCKQȩ RF?Rȩ LCCBȩ RMȩ @Cȩ
required skill set is scarce, and estimates of the ac- researched further.
RS?JȩLSK@CPȩMDȩNCMNJCȩUGRFȩ'ȩQIGJJQȩT?PWȩQGELGȏA?LRJW
ȩ
ranging from tens of thousands to a hundred thou- 'LȩECLCP?JȩRCPKQ
ȩ'ȩA?Lȩ@CȩSQCBȩGLȩRFPCCȩBGȎCPCLRȩ
sand. It is estimated that there are around 22 000 U?WQȩRF?RȩK?WȩF?TCȩBGȎCPCLRȩGKNJGA?RGMLQȩDMPȩRFCȩ
PhD researchers in AI and some 5 000 people who development of human cognitive capabilities both
have written academic articles or presented at AI in children and adults.
conferences in recent years.40
$GPQR
ȧ 'ȧ A?Lȧ QSNNMPRȧ CVGQRGLEȧ A?N?@GJGRGCQ. When
'RȩGQȩCVNCARCBȩRF?RȩRFCȩFGEFȩTGQG@GJGRWȩMDȩ'ȩ?LBȩRFCȩ competences are understood as combinations of
current demand will relatively rapidly direct talent BMK?GLQNCAGȏAȩ CVNCPRGQCȩ ?LBȩ @CF?TGMSP?Jȩ PCNCP-
RMȩRFGQȩ?PC?ȩQȩ?LȩCV?KNJC
ȩQGLACȩGRQȩJ?SLAFȩGLȩ+?Wȩ toires42, AI can now reduce the need for domain spe-
2018, about 90 000 students from over 80 coun- AGȏAȩILMUJCBECȩ?LBȩRFCPCDMPCȩK?ICȩRP?LQTCPQ?Jȩ?LBȩ
RPGCQȩF?TCȩCLPMJJCBȩGLȩRFCȩQGVUCCIȩ#JCKCLRQȩMDȩ'ȩ domain-independent generic skills more important.
zAMSPQCȩMPE?LGQCBȩ?QȩN?PRȩMDȩRFCȩ'ȩ#BSA?RGMLȩNPM-
gramme at the Finnish Centre of AI.41 Due to the 1CAMLB
ȧ 'ȧ A?Lȧ QNCCBȧ SNȧ AMELGRGTCȧ BCTCJMNKCLRȧ
FGEFȩU?ECȩBGȎCPCLRG?JQ
ȩASPPCLRȩQRSBCLRQȩGLȩQR?RGQ- ?LBȧAPC?RCȧAMELGRGTCȧA?N?@GJGRGCQȧRF?RȧUMSJBȧLMRȧ@Cȧ
tics, mathematics, mathematical physics, computer NMQQG@JCȧUGRFMSRȧRCAFLMJMEW. The mechanisation of
and chip design, and perhaps neurophysiology may human work has made possible things that would be
PCAMLQGBCPȩRFCGPȩA?PCCPȩN?RFQȩ?LBȩȏLBȩLCUȩMNNMPRS- impossible without technology; similarly, the mech-
LGRGCQȩ?QȩCVNCPRQȩGLȩ'ȩ+MPCMTCP
ȩFGEFJCTCJȩ'ȩAMK- anisation of cognitive work makes possible new ac-
NCRCLACQȩK?Wȩ?JQMȩCKCPECȩDPMKȩSLCVNCARCBȩNJ?ACQ
tivities that have not been possible before. This has
DMPȩCV?KNJC
ȩRFPMSEFȩMNCLȩQMDRU?PCȩ?LBȩMNCLȩF?PB already happened. It would be impossible to design
ware communities. a modern microprocessor or a neural chip without
AMKNSRCP?GBCBȩBCQGELȩRMMJQȩRF?RȩSQCȩCVRCLQGTCȩ@MB-
-LCȩP?RFCPȩGKKCBG?RCȩPCQSJRȩMDȩRFGQȩQGRS?RGMLȩGQȩRF?Rȩ ies of design knowledge.
high-level AI talent could probably be provided as a
service, similarly to the Infrastructure of software 2FGPB
ȧ'ȧK?WȧPCBSACȧRFCȧGKNMPR?LACȧMDȧQMKCȧFS-
as a service. This may mean that there is not going K?LȧAMELGRGTCȧA?N?@GJGRGCQ
ȧMPȧK?ICȧRFCKȧM@QMJCRC.
73 8 Educational perspective
$MPȩCV?KNJC
ȩ?Qȩ'ȩA?LȩAMLTCPRȩQNCCAFȩRMȩRCVRȩ?LBȩ CRFGA?Jȩ GKNJGA?RGMLQȩ 5FCL
ȩ DMPȩ CV?KNJC
ȩ QRSBCLRQȩ
vice versa, and do mathematical calculations, dys- and their achievements are assessed using such AI
JCVG?ȩ MPȩ BWQA?JASJG?ȩ K?Wȩ @CAMKCȩ QMAG?JJWȩ JCQQȩ GK- systems, the assessment is necessarily based on
portant than it has been in the past. This has clear APGRCPG?ȩRF?RȩPCȐCARȩASJRSP?Jȩ@G?QCQȩ?LBȩFGQRMPGA?JJWȩ
@CLCȏRQȩ DMPȩ GLBGTGBS?JQ
ȩ @SRȩ RFCȩ MTCP?JJȩ GKN?ARȩ MDȩ salient measures of success. Supervised learning
making skills redundant through AI is not easy to algorithms create unavoidable biases, and these
predict. From a pedagogic point of view, it may be ?PCȩASPPCLRJWȩ@CGLEȩBC@?RCBȩCVRCLQGTCJWȩ
KMPCȩ@CLCȏAG?JȩRMȩSQCȩ'ȩRMȩFCJNȩNCMNJCȩRMȩBCTCJMNȩ
AMKNCRCLACQȩ RF?Rȩ ?JJMUȩ RFCKȩ RMȩ MTCPAMKCȩ BGȑ- The rapid advances in NLP and AI-based hu-
culties in reading and counting, instead of using AI man-machine interfaces will also generate new
to make redundant skills that underpin important NCB?EMEGA?JȩNMQQG@GJGRGCQȩ$MPȩCV?KNJC
ȩJC?PLGLEȩ@Wȩ
cognitive capabilities. teaching machines shows clear potential, while
real-time machine translation also opens up new
It is also often assumed that AI systems enable possibilities in language learning.
new levels of personalisation and diversity for in-
formation systems. Much of this personalisation, 5FGJQRȩGRȩGQȩNMQQG@JCȩRMȩGK?EGLCȩK?LWȩCVAGRGLEȩNMQ-
FMUCTCP
ȩ PCQSJRQȩ DPMKȩ ȏLCEP?GLCBȩ A?RCEMPGQ?RGMLȩ sibilities for AI in teaching, UGRFMSRȧ AJC?Pȧ NMJGAGCQ
RF?RȩNSRQȩSQCPQȩGLRMȩNPCBCȏLCBȩAJ?QQCQȩJRFMSEFȩ that put emerging technical possibilities in the
RFCQCȩQWQRCKQȩK?Wȩ@Cȩ?@JCȩRMȩCȑAGCLRJWȩQGKSJ?RCȩ @PM?BCPȩ AMLRCVRȩ MDȩ RFCȩ RP?LQDMPK?RGMLȩ MDȩ CBSA?-
personalisation, they do not necessarily support RGMLȧ ?LBȧ RFCȧ DSRSPCȧ MDȧ JC?PLGLE
ȧ CBSA?RGML?Jȧ 'ȧ
BCCNCPȩJCTCJQȩMDȩBGTCPQGRWȩ'ȩQWQRCKQȩA?Lȩ@CȩCVACJ- UGJJȧNPM@?@JWȧK?GLJWȧ@CȧNPMTGBCBȧ?QȧQMJSRGMLQȧRMȧ
lent predictive machines, but this strength may be CVGQRGLEȧNPM@JCKQ. Instead of renewing the system
an important weakness in domains where learning and orienting it towards the needs of a post-indus-
and development are important.43 trial economy and knowledge society, AI may there-
fore mechanise and reinvent outdated teaching
'KN?ARMD'MLRC?AFGLE
NP?ARGACQȩ ?LBȩ K?ICȩ RFCKȩ GLAPC?QGLEJWȩ BGȑASJRȩ RMȩ numbers from undergraduate courses in national
change. It is therefore crucial to look beyond the languages. Notwithstanding this limitation, to be
current practices and ask fundamental questions ?BBPCQQCBȩGLȩDSRSPCȩUMPI
ȩUCȩGBCLRGȏCBȩȩQRSBWȩ
about what competences and skills are needed in topics related to AI.
a digitally transformed society, and how we should
teach them. $GESPCȩȩQFMUQȩRFCȩAMSLRPWȩNPMȏJCQȩDMPȩ?A?BCK-
GAȩMȎCPȩ?Rȩ?JJȩJCTCJQȩ@WȩRFCK?RGAȩȏCJBȩMDȩRFCȩNPM-
'QIGJJQ?LB?A?BCKGAQSNNJW grammes, which are the result of the combination
MDȩ RCAFLGOSCQȩ ?LBȩ ?NNJGA?RGMLȩ ȏCJBQȩ R?SEFRȩ GLȩ RFCȩ
2MȩF?TCȩ?ȩȏPQRȩSLBCPQR?LBGLEȩMDȩRFCȩASPPCLRȩ?A?BCK- academic programmes in the AI domain: comput-
ic supply on AI, we analysed all the 780 universities er vision and natural language processing, ML and
in the EU with a website containing both study pro- "*
ȩ?LBȩPM@MRGAQȩ2FCȩȏPQRȩMLCȩGQȩ?ȩAMK@GL?RGMLȩMDȩ
EP?KKCQȩ?LBȩICWUMPBQȩPCJ?RCBȩRMȩ'ȩȩȏPQRȩQAPCCL- RUMȩQS@ȏCJBQȩKCRFMBQȩ?LBȩBCTCJMNKCLRQȩGLȩGK?ECȩ
ing showed that a higher number of bachelor studies NPMACQQGLE
ȩ M@HCARȩ BCRCARGMLȩ ?LBȩ AMKNSRCPȩ TGQGML
ȩ
have pages in local languages compared to English, ?LBȩRFCȩȏCJBȩRF?RȩRPC?RQȩL?RSP?JȩJ?LES?EC
ȩGLAJSBGLEȩ
while master studies are mostly advertised in En- speech recognition, machine translation and com-
glish and doctoral studies are almost only in Eng- NSR?RGML?JȩJGLESGQRGAQȩ2FCȩȏESPCQȩQFMUȩRF?RȩGLȩKMQRȩ
lish. This implies that our analysis, based on Eng- countries a high proportion of programmes focus
lish only, has been able to capture almost all doc- on robotics (81% in all EU), followed by computer
toral programmes in the EU countries, and most vision and NLP (12% in all EU) and computer vision
K?QRCPQ
ȩ @SRȩ AJC?PJWȩ SLBCPCQRGK?RCQȩ RFCȩ MȎCPGLEȩ and NLP (7%).
In Figure 11, we show a geographical distribu- impacts human intelligence in cognitive capacities
RGMLȩMDȩSLGTCPQGRGCQȩMȎCPGLEȩQRSBWȩRMNGAQȩPCJ?RCBȩRMȩ in both adults, and even more importantly, children.
AI. The locations are superimposed on the distri- Secondly, we need to think beyond current needs and
bution of science and technology skills at NUTS2 practices, and consider how AI is likely to change the
JCTCJ
ȩRMȩQFMUȩUFCPCȩRFCPCȩ?PCȩQGELGȏA?LRȩE?NQȩ?LBȩ relationship between education and work, and human
opportunities to upskill the local workforce (see development. Thirdly, we have highlighted possible
also Chapter 13). It is worth underlying that this is risks related to AI in education, particularly privacy
only a preliminary analysis and that the academic and ethical ones (for further reading see Tuomi, 2018).
MȎCPȩ GQȩ SLBCPPCNPCQCLRCBȩ UFCPCȩ QRSBWȩ RMNGAQȩ ?PCȩ
MȎCPCBȩ GLȩ RFCȩ L?RGML?Jȩ J?LES?EC
ȩ ?Qȩ ?Rȩ RFGQȩ QR?ECȩ We have also provided an initial overview and geo-
we only analysed material available in English. EP?NFGAȩBGQRPG@SRGMLȩMDȩRFCȩ?A?BCKGAȩMȎCPȩMDȩQRSBWȩ
topics related to AI. The academic supply of study
1SKK?PW?LBAMLAJSQGMLQ topics related to AI shows a strong focus on robot-
GAQ
ȩPCȐCARGLEȩMLCȩMDȩRFCȩASPPCLRȩ?PC?QȩMDȩQRPCLERFȩ
'Lȩ RFGQȩ AF?NRCP
ȩ UCȩ F?TCȩ GBCLRGȏCBȩ RF?Rȩ 'ȩ ?JPC?BWȩ in Europe. Further research is needed to improve
contributes to education particularly through intel- on this analysis, which nevertheless provides some
ligent tutoring systems, student assessment, and K?RCPG?JȩDMPȩPCȐCARGMLȩMLȩ?PC?QȩMDȩRFCȩASPPCLRȩJMUȩ
helping to identify potential learning challenges. level of science and technology skills where rein-
forcing the provision of courses may be consid-
5Cȩ F?TCȩ CVNJMPCBȩ NMRCLRG?Jȩ GKN?ARQȩ MLȩ QFMPR?ECQȩ ered important. This is relevant to the discussion in
of skills, on learning and on teaching. Three crucial Chapters 12 and 13 on possible strategies to start
NMGLRQȩ QR?LBȩ MSRȩ DPMKȩ RFCȩ PCTGCUȩ ȏPQRJW
ȩ RFCȩ LCCBȩ preparing society, and the most vulnerable regions,
to understand better how the interaction with AI to the challenges that AI will bring.
Figure 11. Distribution of universities offering AI study topics over human resources in science and technology 2017.
Source: Eurostat Regional Yearbook 2018, and JRC
9 Economic perspective 76
"*IBTBXJEFSBOHFPGQPUFOUJBMFDPOPNJDJNQMJDBUJPOTGPSFNQMPZNFOUBOEJODPNFEJTUSJCVUJPO
SUMMARY
In this chapter, we analyse the literature and evidence available to date on the potential
impacts, both positive and negative, with respect to work, growth and inequality. In relation to
UMPI
ȩUCȩȏLBȩRF?RȩLCGRFCPȩRFCMPWȩLMPȩCTGBCLACȩ?PCȩTCPWȩAMLAJSQGTCȩ?RȩRFCȩNPCQCLRȩRGKCȩ'ȩAMSJBȩ
complement and enhance human activity, replace an increasing number of routine tasks, or
@MRFȩLMRFCPȩ?PC?ȩMDȩSLACPR?GLRWȩGQȩRFCȩCVRCLRȩRMȩUFGAFȩ'ȩF?QȩRFCȩNMRCLRG?JȩRMȩQNSPȩCAMLMKGAȩ
EPMURFȩ5FCLȩAMLQGBCPCBȩ?Qȩ?ȩECLCP?JNSPNMQCȩRCAFLMJMEW
ȩ'ȩAMSJBȩQNPC?Bȩ?APMQQȩK?LWȩHM@Qȩ
?LBȩGLBSQRPG?JȩQCARMPQ
ȩ@MMQRGLEȩNPMBSARGTGRW
ȩ?LBȩWGCJBGLEȩQRPMLEȩNMQGRGTCȩEPMURFȩ2MȩRFCȩCVRCLRȩ
that ML generates new insights from data, it may also contribute to the production of new
GBC?Qȩ?LBȩGLLMT?RGMLȩGRQCJDȩ#AMLMKGAȩEPMURFȩKMBCJQȩ?PCȩQR?PRGLEȩRMȩCVNJMPCȩT?PGMSQȩQACL?PGMQȩ
but there is no empirical evidence yet that favours one or the other.
5FCLȩGRȩAMKCQȩRMȩGLCOS?JGRW
ȩUCȩȏLBȩRF?Rȩ'ȩA?Lȩ?ȎCARȩSLD?TMSP?@JWȩRFCȩBGQRPG@SRGMLȩMDȩGLAMKCȩ
RFPMSEFȩK?LWȩAF?LLCJQȩ2FCȩKMQRȩBGQASQQCBȩAMLACPLȩHM@ȩNMJ?PGQ?RGML
ȩPCBSARGMLȩGLȩHM@ȩOS?JGRWȩ
?RȩRFCȩJMUCPȩCLB
ȩ?LBȩ?JQMȩEPC?RCPȩBGȑASJRWȩDMPȩJMUCPQIGJJCBȩUMPICPQȩRMȩ?BHSQRȩRMȩAF?LECȩ?LBȩ
ȏLBȩLCUȩHM@Q
ȩUGRFȩJMLECPȩNCPGMBQȩMDȩSLCKNJMWKCLRȩRF?LȩRFMQCȩUGRFȩFGEFCPȩOS?JGȏA?RGMLQȩ?LBȩ
skills. Some regions of Europe are more vulnerable to these challenges if no action is taken
to prepare society. Therefore, a very proactive strategy needs to be put in place to build the
resilience of regions across Europe.
77 9 Economic perspective
ECONOMIC
PERSPECTIVE
In this chapter, we discuss the potential impact of
'ȩ MLȩ HM@Q
ȩ EPMURFȩ ?LBȩ GLCOS?JGRGCQ
ȩ @?QCBȩ MLȩ RFCȩ History suggests
QAGCLRGȏAȩJGRCP?RSPCȩ?LBȩCTGBCLACȩ?T?GJ?@JCȩRMȩB?RCȩȩ
There are concerns over the potential impact of AI that technological
on the labour market and income inequalities. Some
?J?PKGQRȩQRSBGCQȩNPCBGARȩK?QQGTCȩHM@ȩJMQQCQȩ?Qȩ'ȩPC- innovation may
NJ?ACQȩFSK?LȩJ?@MSPȩ-LȩRFCȩMRFCPȩF?LB
ȩFGQRMPGAȩCT-
idence shows that previous waves of innovation re- be a substitute for
placing workers with machines ultimately generated
KMPCȩHM@Qȩ?LBȩFGEFCPȩGLAMKCQȩ5CȩCV?KGLCȩGDȩRFCPCȩ human work but
?PCȩPC?QMLQȩUFWȩRFGQȩRGKCȩRFGLEQȩAMSJBȩ@CȩBGȎCPCLRȩ
in the case of AI. AI is likely to improve productivity ultimately increases
and economic growth over a wide range of sectors
in the economy. This could give a welcome boost employment. The
to the current productivity slow-down. At the same
time, the non-rival and general-purpose character- nature of AI may
istics of AI could speed up change across multiple
sectors and lead to greater impacts than past waves accelerate and boost
of innovation, creating more friction in labour mar-
kets. We also focus attention on the distribution- economic growth and
?JȩGKN?ARȩMDȩ'ȩ?LBȩRFCȩPGQIȩRF?RȩGRȩK?WȩCV?ACP@?RCȩ
?KMLEȩCVGQRGLEȩPCEGML?Jȩ?LBȩGLAMKCȩBGQN?PGRGCQ create new jobs. We
.MRCLRG?JGKN?ARMD'MLHM@Q need to ensure that
Debates on the impact of technological change on QEFP?BKBȭQPRP>II
employment go back at least to the beginning of
the Industrial Revolution. Back then, the Luddites Do we have any reasons to assume that this time
attacked spinning machines because they displaced UGJJȩ@CȩBGȎCPCLR
ȩMPȩA?LȩUCȩAMLRGLSCȩRMȩBP?UȩAMK-
FSK?LȩJ?@MSPȩGLȩRFCȩRCVRGJCȩGLBSQRPWȩ&MUCTCP
ȩRFCȩ DMPRȩDPMKȩRFCȩFGQRMPGA?JȩCTGBCLACȩRMȩB?RCȩȩ
long-run historical evidence eases our fears about Traditional economic theory revolves around the
being made redundant by machines. Ever since the K?ELGRSBCȩ MDȩ RFCȩ QS@QRGRSRGMLȩ CȎCARȩ @CRUCCLȩ
Industrial Revolution, and despite many subsequent workers and machines. It suggests that machines
waves of innovation and mechanisation, human (including AI algorithms in computers) and human
employment and incomes have strongly increased, labour are not perfect substitutes. Machines may
LMRȩ BCAPC?QCBȩ 1RGJJ
ȩ UGRFȩ CTCPWȩ K?HMPȩ LCUȩ GLTCL- replace workers but cannot do entirely without
RGML
ȩRFCQCȩDC?PQȩPCQSPECȩzȩ?QȩUGRFȩ'ȩ RFCKȩ RFCWȩ ?PCȩ RMȩ QMKCȩ CVRCLRȩ AMKNJCKCLR?PW
9 Economic perspective 78
When the demand for machines increases be- for workers and machines but without a realloca-
cause they are more productive and cheaper than RGMLȩ MDȩ RFCQCȩ NPMBSARGMLȩ D?ARMPQȩ RMȩ QNCAGȏAȩ R?QIQȩ
workers, this will also increase demand for keep- -RFCPȩ CȎCARQȩ LCCBȩ RMȩ @Cȩ ?BBCBȩ RMȩ AMKNJCRCȩ RFCȩ
ing workers who are necessary to operate the ma- picture. Machines may increase the productivity of
chines as the goods produced with the machines workers for their remaining tasks and thereby push
become cheaper. Moreover, machines will increase up wages and/or reduce product prices. Changes in
workers’ productivity and wages for the remaining PCJ?RGTCȩNPGACQȩ?APMQQȩNPMBSARQȩUGJJȩ?ȎCARȩBCK?LBȩ
human tasks. In this view, technological improve- DMPȩNPMBSARQȩDPMKȩBGȎCPCLRȩQCARMPQȩ?LBȩAF?LECȩRFCȩ
ment boosts the demand for labour. The long-run composition of the product basket in the economy.
historical evidence seems to support this.
Recent empirical evidence (Acemoglu and Restre-
More recently, however, economists have started to NM
ȩ Aȩ @?QCBȩ MLȩ 31ȩ B?R?ȩ MȎCPQȩ QMKCȩ QSN-
look at this from a new perspective. First, recent port for this task-based model of labour markets
evidence shows that while employment may be CȎCARQȩMDȩ?SRMK?RGMLȩ2FCȩQF?PCȩMDȩU?ECQȩGLȩ%".ȩ
growing in advanced industrial economies, a rapid has been declining strongly in manufacturing, but
increase in the capital share is causing a relative not in services. The authors show that the tradi-
decline in the labour share in value added (or in total tional price-driven substitution and productivity ef-
income generated by the economy) (Karabarbou- DCARQȩ?PCȩRMMȩUC?IȩRMȩCVNJ?GLȩRFGQȩBCAJGLCȩ2FCȩK?GLȩ
nis and Neiman, 2013). #TGBCLACȧMDȧPGQGLEȧGLAMKCȧ drivers of the decline have been the change in task
GLCOS?JGRWȧJCLBQȧDSPRFCPȧQSNNMPRȧRMȧRFCȧQACNRGA?Jȧ AMLRCLRȩ?LB
ȩRMȩ?ȩJCQQCPȩCVRCLR
ȩRFCȩQCARMPȩAMKNMQG-
TGCUȧ MLȧ RFCȧ GKN?ARȧ MDȧ PCACLRȧ RCAFLMJMEGA?Jȧ ?B- RGMLȩCȎCARȩ2FCWȩBCAMKNMQCȩRFCȩR?QIȩAMLRCLRȩCȎCARȩ
T?LACKCLRȧ MLȧ J?@MSPȧ K?PICRQȧ That triggered the GLȩ@MRFȩ?ȩBGQNJ?ACKCLRȩ?LBȩPCGLQR?RCKCLRȩCȎCARȩ'Lȩ
QC?PAFȩ DMPȩ LCUȩ CAMLMKGAȩ KMBCJQȩ RMȩ CVNJ?GLȩ RFCQCȩ the USA at least, displacement due to automation
observations. MDȩCVGQRGLEȩR?QIQȩF?Qȩ@CCLȩQRPMLECPȩRF?LȩEPMURFȩGLȩ
new tasks.
A recent task-based model of employment (Ace-
moglu and Restrepo, 2016, 2017, 2018a, 2018b) #TGBCLACȩ DMPȩ LCUJWȩ APC?RCBȩ HM@Qȩ GQȩ @?QCBȩ MLȩ LCUȩ
NPMTGBCQȩ ?ȩ @CRRCPȩ CVNJ?L?RGMLȩ DMPȩ RFCQCȩ NFCLMKC- MAASN?RGML?Jȩ RGRJCQȩ GLȩ HM@ȩ QR?RGQRGAQȩ 'Rȩ GQȩ LMRȩ AJC?P
ȩ
na. This model starts from the observation that the however, whether new titles represent new tasks
NPGK?PWȩCȎCARȩMDȩ?SRMK?RGMLȩGQȩRMȩPCNJ?ACȩUMPICPQȩ MPȩMLJWȩ?ȩPC@SLBJGLEȩMDȩCVGQRGLEȩMLCQȩ2FCPCȧGQȧLMȧ
with machines when the latter are more productive AMLQCLQSQȧ MLȧ RFCȧ BCȏLGRGMLȧ MDȧ R?QIQȧ RF?Rȧ K?Wȧ
?Rȩ ?ȩ QNCAGȏAȩ R?QIȩ 2F?Rȩ BGQNJ?ACKCLRȩ CȎCARȩ GLCT T?PWȧ ?APMQQȧ BGȎCPCLRȧ JCTCJQȧ MDȧ EP?LSJ?PGRWȧ It is
itably reduces the wage share of value added for not clear how distinct tasks are from other related
that task and increases the share of capital or prof- R?QIQ
ȩFMUȩQIGJJQȩRF?RȩA?Lȩ@CȩBMK?GLQNCAGȏAȩMPȩBM-
its in value added. However, technological innov- K?GLECLCP?Jȩ ?ȎCARȩ RFCȩ ?@GJGRWȩ RMȩ NCPDMPKȩ ?ȩ R?QI
ȩ
ation may also lead to the creation of new tasks for and how the automation/replacement of particular
UMPICPQȩRF?RȩBGBȩLMRȩCVGQRȩNPCTGMSQJWȩ?LBȩA?LLMRȩ@Cȩ R?QIQȩ?ȎCARQȩRFCȩQRPSARSPCȩMDȩGLBGTGBS?JȩMAASN?RGMLQ
BMLCȩ WCRȩ @Wȩ K?AFGLCQȩ 2FGQȩ PCGLQR?RCKCLRȩ CȎCARȩ
may increase human employment. The combination %PCEMPWȩ CRȩ ?Jȩ ȩ ?NNJWȩ ?ȩ AMKN?P?@JCȩ R?QI
MDȩ BGQNJ?ACKCLRȩ ?LBȩ PCGLQR?RCKCLRȩ CȎCARQȩ PC?JJM- based framework to EU data for the period 1999-
cates tasks between workers and machines. As such, ȩ2FCWȩAMLȏPKȩRFCȩCVGQRCLACȩMDȩ?ȩQRPMLEȩCK-
displacement and reinstatement are in addition to NJMWKCLRPCBSAGLEȩQS@QRGRSRGMLȩCȎCARȩ@SRȩ?JQMȩȏLBȩ
RFCȩRP?BGRGML?JȩCȎCARQȩGLȩRFCȩQS@QRGRSRGMLȩKMBCJȩ RF?RȩAMKNJCKCLR?PWȩBCK?LBȩ?LBȩQNGJJMTCPȩCȎCARQȩ
more than compensate for this, so that the net em-
2FCȩAPSAG?JȩBGȎCPCLACȩUGRFȩRFCȩRP?BGRGML?JȩQS@QRGRS- NJMWKCLRȩCȎCARȩMDȩRCAFLMJMEWȩGQȩNMQGRGTCȩ&MUCTCP
ȩ
RGMLȩ CȎCARȩ GQȩ RF?Rȩ RFCȩ J?RRCPȩ AF?LECQȩ RFCȩ BCK?LBȩ RFGQȩȏLBGLEȩBCNCLBQȩMLȩA?NGR?JȩGLAMKCȩE?GLQȩDPMKȩ
79 9 Economic perspective
technological progress feeding back into product A second research direction was to focus on the
demand. If only wage income gains feedback into impact of industrial robots on employment and
BCK?LB
ȩRFCȩRMR?JȩJ?@MSPȩCȎCARȩGQȩMLJWȩF?JDȩ?QȩJ?PECȩ wages. Robots constitute a mechanically embod-
This underlines the importance of income redistri- ied form of AI that is more easily observable and
bution policies (see Section 9.3). measurable than algorithms. However, they are an
GKNCPDCARȩNPMVWȩKC?QSPCȩDMPȩ'ȩ@CA?SQCȩPM@MRQȩ?PCȩ
Note that the historical period covered by the USA rival products that can only be used for one task at
and EU studies dates back long before AI emerged the time while AI algorithms are non-rival and can
?Qȩ?Lȩ?SRMK?RGMLȩRCAFLMJMEWȩQȩQSAF
ȩGRȩMȎCPQȩMLJWȩ be used for many tasks at the same time. In fact,
a general view on the impact of technological innov- neither the task-based model nor the pure labour
?RGMLȩMLȩCKNJMWKCLR
ȩLMRȩ?ȩQNCAGȏAȩ'ȩNCPQNCARGTC displacement studies consider the implications of
the non-rival nature of AI. Also, robots are mainly
#AMLMKGQRQȩF?TCȩRPGCBȩRMȩȏLBȩKMPCȩPCACLRȩCKNGP- employed in manufacturing, especially car manu-
ical evidence that is more closely related to the facturing, not in services. This results in selection
GLRPMBSARGMLȩMDȩ'ȩRCAFLMJMEW
ȩGLȩRUMȩU?WQȩȩȏPQRȩ bias in the evidence. Some evidence from the USA
avenue was to try to be forward-looking and es- suggests a negative impact of robots on employ-
timate the risk of automation of occupations. KCLRȩ?LBȩU?ECQȩ2FCPCȩGQȩAMLȐGARGLEȩCTGBCLACȩDMPȩ
Some alarmist studies produced estimates of the EU where one study suggests a negative im-
the percentage of human occupations at risk of N?ARȩ UFGJCȩ ?ȩ QCAMLBȩ QRSBWȩ DMPȩ %CPK?LWȩ AMKCQȩ RMȩ
being automated in the foreseeable future, vary- the opposite conclusion (Chiacchio et al., 2018;
GLEȩ DPMKȩ ?JKMQRȩ ȩ Ϥȩ $PCWȩ ?LBȩ -Q@MPLC
ȩ ȩ Dauth et al., 2018).
down to 13 or 9 % (Arntz et al., 2016; Nedelkoska
and Quintini, 2018).44ȩȩK?HMPȩNPM@JCKȩUGRFȩRFCQCȩ Although the literature is not conclusive on the
studies is that they focus only on the displace- LCRȩ CKNJMWKCLRȩ CȎCARQȩ MDȩ PM@MRGQ?RGML
ȩ RFCPCȩ GQȩ
KCLRȩ CȎCARȩ ?LBȩ GELMPCȩ ?JJȩ RFCȩ NMQGRGTCȩ CKNJMW- ?KNJCȩ CTGBCLACȩ NMGLRGLEȩ RMȩ K?HMPȩ PC?JJMA?RGMLQȩ
KCLRȩ CȎCARQȩ RF?Rȩ 'ȩ AMSJBȩ GLBSACȩ zȩ ?Qȩ CVNJ?GLCBȩ and broad structural changes. The speed and ef-
in the task-based model by Acemoglu and Re- ȏAGCLAWȩ MDȩ RFCQCȩ AF?LECQȩ A?Lȩ ?JQMȩ GLȐSCLACȩ RFCȩ
strepo (2018c). Another problem is that the level LCRȩCKNJMWKCLRȩCȎCARȩ)MPGLCIȩ?LBȩ1RGEJGRXȩ
ȩ
MDȩ EP?LSJ?PGRWȩ MDȩ RFCȩ BCȏLGRGMLȩ MDȩ R?QIQȩ APC?RCQȩ DMPȩ CV?KNJC
ȩ BGQASQQȩ RFCȩ NMQQG@GJGRWȩ MDȩ RCAFLMJME-
FGEFȩT?PG?@GJGRWȩGLȩRFCȩPCQSJRQȩ-AASN?RGML?JȩMPȩCTCLȩ ical unemployment as a transition phenomenon.
sub-occupational level approaches to skills are too Such a case gets strong support from the recent-
coarse-grained to be reliable. Both problems lead ly emerged view among scholars of globalisation
RMȩ ?Lȩ MTCPCQRGK?RGMLȩ MDȩ HM@ȩ BGQNJ?ACKCLRȩ CȎCARQȩ that the reallocation of workers among sectors is
?LBȩCVACQQGTCJWȩ?J?PKGQRȩPCQSJRQ not frictionless, it can take many years, and the
implied costs may be equivalent to multiple years
2FCȧ BCEPCCȧ MDȧ PMSRGLCȧ GLȧ R?QIQȧ GQȧ ?Lȧ GKNMPR?LRȧ of lost income for workers (see Hornok and Koren,
APGRCPGMLȧRMȧ?QQCQQȧUFCRFCPȧRFCWȧA?Lȧ@CȧPCNJ?ACBȧ
ȩDMPȩ?LȩMTCPTGCUȩ'RȩGQȩPC?QML?@JCȩRMȩCVNCARȩ
@Wȧ'ȧ PWLHMJDQQMLȩCRȩ?J
ȩ
ȩ?JRFMSEFȩAPC?RGTCȩ that AI-induced reallocations would face similar
and social interaction tasks are not necessarily be- challenges.
yond the scope of today’s ML algorithms provided
that large quantities of data are available to train 2FCȧ QNCCBȧ MDȧ 'ȧ SNR?ICȧ GQȧ RFSQȧ GKNMPR?LRȧ LMRȧ
the algorithm. The organisation of work in a par- MLJWȧDMPȧRFCȧCVNCARCBȧNPMBSARGTGRWȧE?GLQ
ȧbut for
RGASJ?Pȩ QMAG?Jȩ AMLRCVR
ȩ P?RFCPȩ RF?Lȩ RFCȩ R?QIȩ GRQCJD
ȩ RFCȧGKNJGCBȧPC?JJMA?RGMLȧNPMACQQ, too. However, at-
may also be an obstacle to automation (Fernan- RCKNRQȩRMȩNPCBGARȩRFGQȩQNCCBȩ?PCȩQS@HCARȩRMȩUGBCȩSL-
dez-Macias and Bisello, 2017). certainty +A)GLQCWȩ%JM@?Jȩ'LQRGRSRC
ȩ
9 Economic perspective 80
ȩȏL?J
ȩKMPCȩNFGJMQMNFGA?JȩNMGLRȩGQȩRMȩPCAMELGQCȩRF?Rȩ at a steady pace, although an initial increase in the
CKNJMWKCLRȩGQȩLMRȩHSQRȩN?GBȩK?PICRȩUMPIȩ'Rȩ?JQMȩGL- share of AI machines (capital) in the value of output
cludes work at home or in communities, and may may slow down growth.
have an intrinsic value. As stated by Korinek and
1RGEJGRXȩ
ȩ|HM@QȩNPMTGBCȩLMRȩMLJWȩGLAMKCȩ@SRȩ?JQMȩ The second type of scenario focuses on the impact
other mental services such as meaning, dignity and of AI on the production of innovative ideas which,
DSJȏJKCLRȩ RMȩ FSK?LQ}ȩ 2Mȩ AMSLRCP?ARȩ RFCȩ NMRCLRG?Jȩ so far, has been the unique property of human la-
JMQQȩMDȩN?GBȩHM@Q
ȩNMJGAGCQȩK?WȩLCCBȩRMȩNPMKMRCȩMRFCPȩ bour. The invention of new ideas can be seen as
DSJȏJJGLEȩU?WQȩRMȩQNCLBȩRGKCȩ1RCTCLQML
ȩ. a production process with a series of tasks, some
of which can be automated and taken over by AI.
.MRCLRG?JGKN?ARMD'MLEPMURF E?GL
ȩUCȩA?LȩQGKSJ?RCȩ?LȩCVRPCKCȩQACL?PGMȩUFCPC-
by all tasks for the production of new ideas are tak-
5Cȧ RCLBȧ RMȧ JMMIȧ ?Rȧ RFCȧ CKNJMWKCLRȧ CȎCARQȧ MDȧ en over by AI. This would lead to a ‘singularity’46
'ȧDPMKȧ?ȧUMPPGQMKCȧ?LEJCȧzȩRFCȩPGQIȩMDȩUMPICPQȩ scenario whereby economic growth would become
@CGLEȩ BGQNJ?ACBȩ @Wȩ K?AFGLCQȩ zȩ ?LBȧ DMPECRȧ ?@MSRȧ GLȏLGRCJWȩFGEFȩGLȩȏLGRCȩRGKCȩ&MUCTCP
ȩCTCLȩRF?RȩQAC-
RFCȧ NPMKGQGLEȧ CȎCARQȧ MDȧ 'ȧ 'ȧ K?AFGLCQȧ A?Lȧ nario will run into constraints, including physical
@MMQRȧ NPMBSARGTGRWȧ AMKN?PCBȧ RMȧ FSK?Lȧ J?@MSPȧ AMLQRP?GLRQȩRMȩA?PPWȩMSRȩ?LȩGLȏLGRCȩLSK@CPȩMDȩK?-
?LBȧRFCPCDMPCȧECLCP?RCȧKMPCȧCAMLMKGAȧ@CLCȏRQȧ AFGLCȩR?QIQȩ*CQQȩCVRPCKCȩQACL?PGMQȩJC?BȩRMȩ?ȩQRCN-
DMPȧ?JJ This would be very welcome in the current wise increase in the level of the economic growth
NCPGMBȩUFCPCȩCAMLMKGCQȩ?PCȩQSȎCPGLEȩDPMKȩQJMUGLEȩ P?RCȩ@SRȩUGRFMSRȩ@CAMKGLEȩCVNJMQGTC
productivity growth.
2FCQCȧEPMURFȧQACL?PGMQȧPCK?GLȧP?RFCPȧRFCMPCRGA?J
Economists see human labour, (AI) machines, and In terms of empirical evidence, RFCWȧ PSLȧ GLRMȧ RFCȧ
innovative ideas as production factors in the growth Q?KCȧNPM@JCKQȧ?QȧCKNJMWKCLRȧDMPCA?QRQȧRFCPCȧ
equation (Aghion et al., 2017). These factors pro- ?PCȧLMȧB?R?ȧWCRȧRMȧE?SECȧRFCȧGKN?AR. In addition,
duce an output that is sold, the value of which is available evidence for previous episodes of mas-
shared between labour and machines (or capital). QGTCȩKCAF?LGQ?RGMLȩKGEFRȩLMRȩȏRȩRFCȩNCASJG?PȩDC?-
%PMURFȩ CAMLMKGQRQȩ JMMIȩ ?Rȩ RFCȩ P?RCȩ MDȩ EPMURFȩ MDȩ tures of the AI revolution. Still, growth economists
that production as well as the distribution of the are trying to push forward the ‘time frontier’ in the
value of production between capital and labour. empirical evidence, either by looking at past waves
2FCWȩ SQCȩ CVGQRGLEȩ KMBCJQȩ MDȩ CAMLMKGAȩ EPMURFȩ RMȩ MDȩGLLMT?RGMLȩGLȩMRFCPȩRCAFLMJMEGCQȩMPȩ@WȩCV?KGLGLEȩ
simulate two types of future AI-driven scenarios. the economic nature of AI as a new technology.
.MRCLRG?JGKN?ARMD'MLGLCOS?JGRW 2FCPCȧGQȧCTGBCLACȧDMPȧ#SPMNC
ȧRMM
ȧRF?RȧJ?@MSPȧK?P-
ICRȧNMJ?PGQ?RGMLȧJC?BQȧRMȧ?ȧUGBCLGLEȧMDȧU?ECȧE?NQ
2FCȧ K?HMPGRWȧ MDȧ RFCȧ JGRCP?RSPCȧ NPCBGARQȧ ?Lȧ SL- %MMQȩCRȩ?JȩȩȏLBȩRF?RȩGKNPMTCBȩRCAFLMJMEWȩF?Qȩ
D?TMSP?@JCȧ GKN?ARȧ MDȧ 'ȧ MLȧ RFCȧ BGQRPG@SRGMLȧ MDȧ led to increased demand for both well-paid, high-
GLAMKCQȧThe most widely discussed and debated QIGJJCBȩ?QȩUCJJȩ?QȩJMUN?GBȩJMUQIGJJCBȩHM@QȩUFGJCȩRFCȩ
aspect is the increase in labour income inequality. BCK?LBȩ DMPȩ KGBBJCGLAMKCȩ HM@Qȩ BCAPC?QCB
ȩ RFSQȩ
Evidence suggests that labour market polarisation supporting the hypothesis that technological pro-
plays an important role in this. We observe polar- gress can lead to income inequality. Yet, there are
ising labour markets because tasks that are not QS@QR?LRG?JJWȩ BGȎCPGLEȩ RPCLBQȩ GLȩ J?@MSPȩ K?PICRȩ NM-
easily performed by AI tend to be found at opposite J?PGQ?RGMLȩ@CRUCCLȩ#SPMNC?LȩAMSLRPGCQȩ%MMQȩCRȩ?J
ȩ
ends of the skills spectrum while AI tends to replace ȩ "?PT?Qȩ ?LBȩ 5MJȎ
ȩ
ȩ UFGAFȩ A?Lȩ @Cȩ CV-
humans in tasks that correspond to the ‘mid-skill’ NJ?GLCBȩ@WȩAMSLRPWQNCAGȏAȩGLQRGRSRGMLQȩ?LBȩNMJGAGCQȩ
category (Autor et al., 2003). Acemoglu and Autor (Fernández-Macías, 2012; Fernández-Macías and
(2011) and Autor and Salomons (2017) show sug- Hurley, 2016).
ECQRGTCȩ CTGBCLACȩ DPMKȩ RFCȩ 31ȩ MLȩ FMUȩ HM@ȩ NMJ?P
isation translates into wage polarisation or even a ȩPCNMPRȩ@WȩRFCȩ-#!"ȩȩQFMUQȩ?ȩBGȎCPCLRȩRWNCȩ
polarisation in working conditions. of polarisation that is regional and occurs within
AMSLRPGCQȩ $MPȩ GLQR?LAC
ȩ RFCȩ QF?PCȩ MDȩ HM@Qȩ ?Rȩ FGEFȩ
risk of automation varies by 12 % between regions
Ɏɛɤǯ2FCGKN?ARMD'MLUMPIGLE in Spain but only by 1 % between regions in Canada.
AMLBGRGMLQ Technological progress tends to perpetuate the de-
velopmental divide within countries as regions that
Because its use in actual work processes is still very limited,
?PCȩ CVNCARCBȩ RMȩ @Cȩ KMPCȩ LCE?RGTCJWȩ ?ȎCARCBȩ @Wȩ
there is very little hard evidence yet on the impact of AI on
RCAFLMJMEGA?JȩNPMEPCQQȩ?JQMȩCVFG@GRȩJMUȩNPMBSARGTGRWȩ
working conditions. A recent Eurofound report based on the
growth and high unemployment rates.
NR>IFQ>QFSB>K>IVPFPLCȭSBBJBODFKDQB@EKLILDFBPFK#ROLMB>K
manufacturing (including advanced robotics and the Internet
Despite similar positive trends in labour demand
of Things, which make intensive use of AI) concludes that there
DMPȩ@MRFȩFGEFȩ?LBȩJMUN?WGLEȩHM@Q
ȩUCȩM@QCPTCȩBG-
are some concerns in this sense, in particular with respect to the
TCPEGLEȩRPCLBQȩGLȩPCQNCARGTCȩHM@ȩOS?JGRWȩ-LȩRFCȩMLCȩ
degree of autonomy, privacy and control of workers (Eurofound
hand, technological progress leads to increasing
"FDFQ>I C>@QLOFBP TEBOB >II L?GB@QP >OB BNRFMMBA TFQE
U?ECQȩGLȩFGEFN?WGLEȩHM@QȩRF?RȩPCOSGPCȩQIGJJQȩUFGAFȩ
connected sensors and where workers collaborate with
complement AI (Deming, 2017). In contrast, tech-
advanced robots can easily become digital panopticons, where
nological progress causes even further reductions
human operators feel permanently monitored and controlled. It
in wages at the lower end of the wage distribution
PBBJPAFȯ@RIQQLJ>FKQ>FK>KVPBKPBLCMOFS>@V down to a level that does not support a reasonable
at work if every object is a monitoring device. And standard of living (Autor and Salomons, 2017). The
while management through algorithms and big data analytics
accompanying digitalisation of the economy and
@>KPFDKFȭ@>KQIVFJMOLSBQEBBȯ@FBK@VLCQEBI>?LROMOL@BPP
FQ
the emergence of platforms causes an increase in
@>K>IPLIB>AQLOLRQFKFP>QFLKLCQ>PHP
TLOHFKQBKPFȭ@>QFLK>KA
precarious forms of self-employment that are char-
QEB>PMEVUF>QFLKLC>KVPBKPBLC>RQLKLJV-KQEBLQEBOE>KA
acterised by a limited duration, such as seasonal or
the introduction of advanced robots, connected on-call work, as well as the absence of social secu-
devices and big data in the workplace can also PGRWȩAMTCP?ECȩ-#!"
ȩȩ2FGQ
ȧRMM
ȧAMLRPG@SRCQȧ
contribute to a decline of repetitive and routine RMȧGLAPC?QGLEȧGLCOS?JGRWȧCTCLȧDSPRFCP
work, as well as a reduction in the number of hazardous tasks.
'BK>?IBATLOHMI>@BP>OBIFHBIVQL?BP>CBO
TFQEJLOBPHFIIBA
As discussed in a previous subsection, the speed
workers carrying out less repetitive work.
of adoption of AI in the labour market could cause
83 9 Economic perspective
countries. Winner countries will have higher income or the reading of medical images. Even creative and
levels, and more room for domestic redistributive social tasks are not out of the realms of AI abil-
policies (Lee, 2017). Third, as time evolves, AI may GRGCQȩ PWLHMJDQQMLȩ?LBȩ+GRAFCJJ
ȩȩ'LȩRFCȩCLB
ȩ
enable improved health and skills, leading to forms 'ȩK?WȩNPMBSACȩBCNMJ?PGQGLEȩCȎCARQ
of human enhancement. If not limited by policies,
the ability to ‘purchase’ skills and health will fur- 1SKK?PW?LBAMLAJSQGMLQ
RFCPȩ UGBCLȩ NPCCVGQRGLEȩ GLCOS?JGRGCQȩ &?P?PG
ȩ ȩ
Korinek and Stiglitz, 2017). 2MȧB?RC
ȧRFCȧRFCMPCRGA?Jȧ?LBȧCKNGPGA?JȧCAMLMKGAȧ
PCQC?PAFȧJGRCP?RSPCȧGQȧ?K@GESMSQȧMLȧRFCȧEPMURF
ȧ
It is commonly agreed that policy measures are CKNJMWKCLRȧ?LBȧU?ECȧCȎCARQȧMDȧ'. It can be nega-
LCCBCBȩRMȩAMSLRCP?ARȩRFCȩLCE?RGTCȩCȎCARQȩMDȩRCAF- tive if machines only substitute human labour, but
nological progress on equality. Besides increasing positive if machines instead complement human
?AACQQȩRMȩFGEFN?WGLEȩHM@QȩP?GQGLEȩRFCȩMTCP?JJȩQIGJJȩ workers and increase overall productivity. Empirical
JCTCJȩ RFPMSEFȩ GLAPC?QCBȩ CBSA?RGMLȩ CVNCLBGRSPCQ
ȩ studies use historical data that go back long be-
policies should further ensure a reasonable stand- fore the rise of AI. They can tell us something about
ard of living. The literature discusses several types technological change in general but little about AI
of policies to achieve this goal, such as universal QNCAGȏA?JJWȩ ȩ PCACLRȩ 31ȩ QRSBWȩ ȏLBQȩ ?ȩ LCE?RGTCȩ
basic income or guaranteed employment (Furman GKN?ARȩ MDȩ RCAFLMJMEWȩ MLȩ HM@Qȩ ?LBȩ U?ECQȩ Lȩ #3ȩ
and Seamans, 2018), policies that aim at a redis- QRSBWȩȏLBQȩ?ȩNMQGRGTCȩGKN?AR
ȩ?JQMȩ@CA?SQCȩA?NGR?Jȩ
tribution from ‘winners’ to ‘losers’ and policies that gains feedback into overall demand. Studies that
QFGDRȩ RFCȩ R?V?RGMLȩ MDȩ FSK?Lȩ J?@MSPȩ RMU?PBQȩ RFCȩ SQCȩPM@MRGAQȩB?R?ȩ?Qȩ?ȩPGT?JȩNPMVWȩDMPȩLMLPGT?Jȩ'ȩ
R?V?RGMLȩ MDȩ A?NGR?Jȩ )MPGLCIȩ ?LBȩ 1RGEJGRX
ȩ ȩ 'Lȩ investments generate inconclusive evidence about
any case, the within-country regional variation of the impact of AI. Some forward-looking studies es-
the impact of technological progress suggests that RGK?RCȩRFCȩLSK@CPȩMDȩHM@Qȩ?RȩFGEFȩPGQIȩMDȩ'BPGTCLȩ
NMJGAGCQȩQFMSJBȩ@Cȩ?BHSQR?@JCȩRMȩJMA?JȩLCCBQ
ȩUFCPCȩ ?SRMK?RGMLȩ 2FCWȩ NPMBSACȩ CVACQQGTCJWȩ ?J?PKGQRȩ PC-
JMA?JȩMȑACQȩA?LȩFCJNȩGLȩRFCȩBCQGELȩMDȩR?PECRCBȩNMJ- sults because they only look at substitution and omit
icies. It is important to be aware that such policies complementarity.
K?WȩJC?BȩRMȩGLCȑAGCLAGCQȩCOSGRWCȑAGCLAWȩRP?BC
MȎ
ȩPCBSAGLEȩRFCȩQGXCȩMDȩRFCȩNGCȩRMȩ@CȩBGQRPG@SRCBȩ $MASQGLEȩ MLJWȩ MLȩ CKNJMWKCLRȩ CȎCARQȩ GELMPCQȩ RFCȩ
Further empirical analysis is necessary to assess potential of AI for economic growth which could
RFCȩCȎCARGTCLCQQȩMDȩRFCQCȩNMJGAGCQ ECLCP?RCȩ @CLCȏRQȩ DMPȩ ?JJȩ 'ȩ ?Qȩ ?ȩ ECLCP?JNSPNMQCȩ
technology can rapidly spread across industry sec-
Despite these negative prospects of technological RMPQȩ?LBȩWGCJBȩQRPMLEȩNMQGRGTCȩEPMURFȩCȎCARQȩ2MȩRFCȩ
progress on equality, there might be some bene- CVRCLRȩRF?Rȩ+*ȩECLCP?RCQȩLCUȩGLQGEFRQȩDPMKȩB?R?
ȩ
ȏRQȩDPMKȩRFCȩNCASJG?PȩDC?RSPCQȩMDȩ'ȩQȩ?ȩECLCP?J it may contribute to the automation of production
purpose technology AI could yield equality en- of new ideas and innovation itself. The ‘productiv-
F?LAGLEȩCȎCARQȩ$MPȩGLQR?LAC
ȩ?AAMPBGLEȩRMȩACKM- GRWȩN?P?BMVȩ@CAMKCQȩKMPCȩ?NN?PCLRȩ?QȩRFCȩP?NGBȩ
glu and Restrepo (2016), AI can create new tasks growth in ML applications does not seem to be re-
which can be performed by high-skilled workers in ȐCARCBȩWCRȩGLȩRFCȩNPMBSARGTGRWȩEPMURFȩQR?RGQRGAQȩ
the short run. Yet, as these tasks become stand-
ardised in the long run, low-skilled workers can also The macroeconomic outcomes of AI are likely to be
@CLCȏRȩDPMKȩRFCKȩ'Lȩ?BBGRGML
ȩ'ȩQFMUQȩNMRCLRG?Jȩ QF?NCBȩ@WȩȏPKȩ@CF?TGMSPȩ'LȩRFGQȩPCQNCAR
ȩRFCȩGQQSCQȩ
to disrupt the spiral of labour market polarisation. of market structure, organisation and sectoral re-
It may be able to perform high-skill tasks that were allocation seem particularly relevant. In perspect-
previously beyond the abilities of technology, such ive, policy interventions might be needed precisely
?QȩRFCȩAJ?QQGȏA?RGMLȩMDȩA?QCȩBMASKCLRQȩDMPȩJ?UWCPQȩ in these areas in order to: i) ensure a competitive
85 9 Economic perspective
AI as a
general-purpose
technology can
rapidly spread
across industry
sectors and yield
strong positive
growth effects.
stance of the market that incentivises innovation; ii) QSEECQRQȩ RF?Rȩ NMJGAGCQȩ QFMSJBȩ ?JQMȩ @Cȩ ?BHSQR?@JCȩ
avoid that economies of scale in data handling lead to local needs.
RMȩ CVACQQGTCȩ K?PICRȩ AMLACLRP?RGML
ȩ ?LBȩ GLȩ ECLCP?Jȩ
other competitive advantages stemming from dif- 5FCRFCPȩ MPȩ LMRȩ NMJGAWȩ UGJJȩ @Cȩ CȎCARGTCȩ GLȩ KGRGE?R-
ferences in national regulations; and iii) ensure that GLEȩRFCȩNMRCLRG?Jȩ?BTCPQCȩCȎCARQȩMDȩ?SRMK?RGMLȩGQȩ
sectoral reallocation takes place with limited social an empirical question. 2FCȧL?RSPCȧMDȧ'ȧ?Qȧ?ȧECL-
AMQRQ
ȩCEȩDPMKȩHM@ȩK?PICRȩBGQNJ?ACKCLR CP?JNSPNMQCȧ RCAFLMJMEWȧ MȎCPQȧ QMKCȧ PMMKȧ DMPȧ
FMNCȧRF?RȧRFCȧCȎCARȧMDȧ'ȧMLȧCOS?JGRWȧK?WȧLMRȧ@Cȧ
'ȩ A?Lȩ SLD?TMSP?@JWȩ ?ȎCARȩ RFCȩ BGQRPG@SRGMLȩ MDȩ GL- ?JJȧLCE?RGTC. It can be positive if AI boosts the cre-
come through many channels. The most discussed ?RGMLȩ MDȩ LCUȩ R?QIQȩ DMPȩ JMUQIGJJȩ UMPICPQȩ ?LBȩ CV-
?PCȩ HM@ȩ NMJ?PGQ?RGML
ȩ PCEGML?Jȩ BGȎCPCLACQȩ GLȩ 'ȩ pands its abilities to perform high-skill tasks.
adoption, or regional, sectoral or individual dif-
DCPCLACQȩ GLȩ RFCȩ QNCCBȩ MDȩ ?BHSQRKCLRȩ RMȩ QRPSARSP?J %GTCLȧRFCQCȧSLACPR?GLRGCQ
ȧRFCPCȧGQȧ?ȧLCCBȧDMPȧ?ȧ
labour market changes. Preliminary empirical ev- QRPMLEȧ KMLGRMPGLEȧ DP?KCUMPIȧ RMȧ ?JQMȧ BCRCARȧ ?Rȧ
GBCLACȩQCCKQȩRMȩAMLȏPKȩRFCQCȩAMLACPLQȩ2FCPCȩGQȩ PCEGML?Jȧ?LBȧQS@PCEGML?JȧJCTCJQȧRFCȧNMRCLRG?JȧGK-
?JQMȩ ?ȩ QRPMLEȩ A?QCȩ DMPȩ NMRCLRG?Jȩ GLCȑAGCLAGCQȩ GLȩ N?ARQ of AI deployment and to quickly put in place
the implied labour reallocation process, which are appropriate intervention. We return to this import-
JGICJWȩ RMȩ FSPRȩ QNCAGȏAȩ EPMSNQȩ BGQNPMNMPRGML?RC- ant issue in Chapter 13 on resilience.
ly. It is commonly agreed that policy measures
?PCȩLCACQQ?PWȩRMȩAMSLRCP?ARȩRFCȩLCE?RGTCȩCȎCARQȩ
of technological progress on equality. Strong
within-country variation in technological progress
10 Cybersecurity Perspective 86
$ZCFSTFDVSJUZPQFSBUJPOTXJMMCFOFҨUGSPN"* CVUBMTPGBDFOFXDIBMMFOHFTGSPNJU
SUMMARY
'LȩRFGQȩAF?NRCP
ȩUCȩPCȐCARȩMLȩRFCȩRP?LQDMPK?RGMLQȩ?LBȩGKN?ARQȩ@PMSEFRȩ@WȩRFCȩ?BTCLRȩ
MDȩ 'ȩ RMȩ AW@CPQCASPGRWȩ ?LB
ȩ AMLTCPQCJW
ȩ FMUȩ 'ȩ ?JEMPGRFKQȩ RFCKQCJTCQȩ ?PCȩ ?ȎCARCBȩ
by security concerns. When it comes to cybersecurity, it is crucial to be aware of the
fundamental dual nature of AI. It will empower human operators, professionals and
GLTCQRGE?RMPQȩ?LBȩGRȩUGJJȩ@PGLEȩ@CLCȏRQȩRMȩAW@CPQCASPGRWȩ&MUCTCP
ȩRFMQCȩUFMȩQCCIȩRMȩ
?RR?AIȩQWQRCKQȩ?LBȩLCRUMPIQȩ?PCȩCOS?JJWȩCVNCARCBȩRMȩR?ICȩ?BT?LR?ECQȩMDȩ'ȩRMȩA?PPWȩ
out faster and smarter cyber-attacks.
Moreover, AI systems based on ML techniques are often not robust enough against
malicious attacks, introducing a range of new and poorly understood vulnerabilities.
This could pose a danger for the security of the systems using them. To review all
RFCQCȩBCTCJMNKCLRQȩGLȩAMLRCVR
ȩUCȩBCQAPG@Cȩ?ȩP?LECȩMDȩPCACLRȩ'ȩ?NNJGA?RGMLQȩGLȩAW@CP-
QCASPGRW
ȩ MSRJGLCȩ RFCȩ QNCAGȏAȩ TSJLCP?@GJGRGCQȩ MDȩ 'ȩ QWQRCKQȩ ?LBȩ PCJ?RCBȩ ?RR?AIQ
ȩ ?LBȩ
suggest ways of increasing AI robustness and introduce security and safety by design
principles.
87 10 Cybersecurity Perspective
CYBERSECURITY
PERSPECTIVE
?AIEPMSLB'?LBAW@CPQCASPGRW 'TFII?OFKD?BKBȭQP
!W@CPQCASPGRWȩGQȩRFCȩȏCJBȩ@PM?BJWȩAMLACPLCBȩUGRFȩRFCȩ to cybersecurity and
QEBȭDEQ>D>FKPQ
security of digital information, systems and services,
including the security of cyber-physical48 systems. It
encompasses notions such as SFTJMJFODF, EFUFSSFODF
against malicious actors or cybercrime and EFGFODF crime, but will also
(see Chapter 13 for a societal perspective on resili-
CLACȩ 'Lȩ ?ȩ PCACLRȩ HMGLRȩ !MKKSLGA?RGMLȩ RMȩ BCQAPG@Cȩ introduce new
@E>IIBKDBPFKQEBȭBIA
the technological and policy dimensions of cyber-
security, the European Union recognised its emerg-
ing importance for European societies (EC, 2017b).
The application of partly autonomous algorithms amplify the importance of cybersecurity even fur-
in cybersecurity is not entirely new, although trad- ther in the coming years.
itionally those systems were usually not referred
RMȩ?Qȩ~PRGȏAG?Jȩ'LRCJJGECLACȩ!W@CPQCASPGRWȩAMLRPMJQȩ 2FCȩK?GLȩJGLCQȩMDȩBCTCJMNKCLRȩUCȩA?LȩCVNCARȩGLȩRFCȩ
capable of functioning autonomously and taking coming years include:
intelligent decisions to protect information systems
?LBȩ QCPTGACQȩ F?TCȩ CVGQRCBȩ DMPȩ OSGRCȩ QMKCȩ RGKCȩ • /FXDBQBCJMJUJFT enabling cybersecurity to do
They started to play a role many years ago with things that were not possible until recently,
the development of smart security applications, including those increasing the resilience of
for instance for deciding whether or not to allow systems and services (see Section 10.2 for
a certain network communication, to autonomous- more details on some recent developments)
JWȩ ȏJRCPȩ QN?Kȩ KCQQ?ECQ
ȩ MPȩ ?B?NRȩ RMȩ LCUȩ AGPASK as well as investigative tools and capabilities
QR?LACQȩQSAFȩ?QȩRFCȩGBCLRGȏA?RGMLȩMDȩNPCTGMSQJWȩSL- to assist in the deterrence of crime, e.g.
seen forms of cyber-attacks. aiding law enforcement in the prosecution
of criminals.
1GLACȩRFCL
ȩRFCȩȏCJBȩMDȩAW@CPQCASPGRWȩF?QȩSLBCPEMLCȩ
rapid transformation due to the developments in • The integration of AI into widespread digital
ML, deep, and reinforcement learning, which have products and applications, and into the con-
resulted in notable successes in addressing com- trols of cybersecurity itself, may introduce
puter vision, NLP and autonomous decision-making new, and especially DPODFQUVBMMZ EJҧFSFOU
QCCȩ CEȩ %MMBDCJJMUȩ CRȩ ?J
ȩ ȩ PSLB?ECȩ CRȩ ?J
ȩ BOE OPU ZFU GVMMZ VOEFSTUPPE, vulnerabilities
ȩ-QM@?ȩCRȩ?J
ȩȩ+GQQGMLȩ4GJJ?LG
ȩȩ'RȩGQȩ ȩ RF?Rȩ A?Lȩ @Cȩ CVNJMGRCBȩ @W malicious actors
likely that these transformations will continue and (see Section 10.4 for an overview). These
10 Cybersecurity Perspective 88
vulnerabilities, given the crucial importance of With recent successes in DL, we are starting to
data for AI systems, also raise the importance see a number of AI methods based on neural net-
of data protection. works and DL gradually moving from research into
workable cybersecurity applications. They employ
• Challenges to private and public security deep neural network architectures and big data to
from the possible abuse of AI systems to devise increasingly accurate cybersecurity learning
enhance cyber-attacks and malicious use. systems, e.g. for anomaly detection in malware and
ȩ 'KNMPR?LRȩ CV?KNJCQȩ GLAJSBCȩ GLAPC?QCBȩ ?LBȩ AMKNSRCPȩLCRUMPIȩ?L?JWQGQ
ȩKCQQ?ECȩȏJRCPGLEȩMPȩGLȩ
ȩ KMPCȩ CVRCLBCBȩ AW@CP?RR?AIQ
ȩ KMPCȩ BGȑ assisting human security operators (e.g. Crawford
ȩ ASJRGCQȩRMȩ?RRPG@SRCȩ?RR?AIQȩRMȩ?ȩQNCAGȏAȩ?ARMP
et al., 2015; Radford 2018; Meidan 2018). In all
the targeting of human vulnerabilities likelihood, these trends will continue, but will also
through autonomous social engineering, so- come hand in hand with a proliferation of AI-backed
cial media and propaganda manipulation, cyber-attacks (Brundage, 2018).
the production of credible fake content in
news or reporting, attacks on cyber-physical 1 "CRCPPCLAC?LBȍEFR?E?GLQRAPGKC
systems such as autonomous vehicles, or the
development of autonomous weapon sys- Recent developments strengthen the resilience of
tems (see, e.g. Brundage 2018). cybersecurity systems, reduce risks and increase
their capability to withstand threads and malicious
1 NNJGA?RGMLQMD'GLAW@CPQCASPGRW intent reliably. Another element is that research
into AI in cybersecurity systems plays a crucial part
#?PJWȩ CV?KNJCQȩ MDȩ 'ȩ QWQRCKQȩ ?NNJGCBȩ GLȩ AW@CP in developing cyber deterrence capabilities. Firstly,
security include systems for network intrusion AI systems are being and will increasingly be used
detection to identify previously unknown cyber- by cyber criminals (e.g. Brundage et al., 2018), and
?RR?AIQȩ .?VML
ȩ ȩ ?LBȩ ?LRGTGPSQȩ ?NNPM?AFCQȩ thus research into their capabilities and weakness-
RMȩBCRCARȩLCUȩK?JU?PCȩ1?LMI
ȩȩ2FCȩCVNJM- es (see Section 10.4) will play a crucial part in de-
sion in the practical use of ML in the early 2000s fending against such malicious usage of AI. Sec-
@PMSEFRȩDSPRFCPȩR?LEG@JCȩ@CLCȏRQȩRMȩRFCȩAW@CPQCAS- ondly, of course, law enforcement will increasingly
PGRWȩBMK?GLȩ2FCȩKMQRȩQRPGIGLEȩCV?KNJCQȩUCPCȩNPM@- engage in active usage of AI systems to reinforce
?@JWȩRFCȩȏPQRȩPM@SQRȩ?B?NRGTCȩQWQRCKQȩRMȩBCRCARȩ?LBȩ investigative capabilities and to strengthen digital
ȏJRCPȩQN?Kȩ?LBȩK?JGAGMSQȩKCQQ?ECQȩ?SRMLMKMSQJWȩ evidence-making in court. Most developments aim
QCCȩ?JQMȩ MVȩȩGLȩ!F?NRCPȩ at leveraging new tools for three main operative
EM?JQ
ȩRFCȩJMA?JGQ?RGMLȩMDȩ?ȩAPGKC
ȩRFCȩGBCLRGȏA?RGMLȩ
Most AI-based methods currently in use in opera- of victims and perpetrators, and the determination
tional controls are based on ML approaches, using a of the content of the crime.
FMQRȩMDȩUCJJRCQRCBȩ?JEMPGRFKQȩ?LBȩCVNCPRȩQAFCKCQȩ
and are usually embedded within a traditional cy- 2FCȩKMQRȩNPCT?JCLRȩCV?KNJCQȩA?Lȩ@CȩDMSLBȩGLȩBGEG
@CPQCASPGRWȩ?PAFGRCARSPCȩDMPȩ?ȩPCACLRȩCV?KNJCȩQCCȩ tal forensics and in the employment of biometric
IEEE 2017). They are largely TVQFSWJTFE MFBSOJOH QWQRCKQȩDMPȩGLTCQRGE?RGTCȩNSPNMQCQȩ2FCȩUGBCȩȏCJBȩ
methods, i.e. AI systems that evolve their models MDȩBGEGR?JȩDMPCLQGAQȩCLAMKN?QQCQȩTCPWȩBGȎCPCLRȩ?N-
SQGLEȩ?T?GJ?@JCȩJ?@CJJCBȩB?R?ȩ?QȩCV?KNJCQȩ2WNGA?J- plications, ranging from computer and hard-drive
JW
ȩRFCWȩ?PCȩNCPDMPKGLEȩAJ?QQGȏA?RGMLȩMDȩKCQQ?ECQ
ȩ forensics to fraud detection in large databases. The
digital events or computer code into acceptable or spread of online services and digital devices has
non-acceptable classes. These AI-based controls led to a proliferation of digital content relevant to
are capable of limited forms of adaptation, mostly the prosecution of criminal activities. In this con-
through retraining on new samples. RCVR
ȩ'ȩQWQRCKQ
ȩDMPȩGLQR?LACȩDMPȩGK?EC
ȩ?SBGMȩ?LBȩ
89 10 Cybersecurity Perspective
RCVRȩ ?L?JWQGQ
ȩ MPȩ DMPȩ SLQSNCPTGQCBȩ ?L?JWQGQȩ MDȩ SL- use secure design principles, have a clear view of
ordered data volumes, have the potential to assist where vulnerabilities are likely to occur, and put in
law enforcement, not only in the investigation of NJ?ACȩCȎCARGTCȩQCASPGRWȩAMLRPMJQȩ'LȩAMLRP?QR
ȩ'ȩQWQ-
cyber-dependent and cyber-enabled crime, but also RCKQȩ ?PCȩ DSLB?KCLR?JJWȩ KMPCȩ AMKNJCV
ȩ CQNCAG?J-
in traditional forms of crime where digital content ly if they are based on ML architecture. They are
can play a key role in the investigation. composed of a possibly non-linear feedback loop
system between a human-designed algorithm and
1 0M@SQRLCQQMD'?JEMPGRFKQ?E?GLQR a human (or even AI) assembled dataset. Together,
K?JGAGMSQ?ARGML these constitute a learning model that acts as the
actual ‘AI’ and is basically a new algorithm. These
With an increasing number of AI systems employed AI models are then embedded into a program, of-
in cybersecurity, not only are we making progress ten combined with other pieces of code or software
but we are also introducing new vulnerabilities that ?LBȩNMQQG@JWȩGKNJCKCLRCBȩUGRFȩ?ȩFMQRȩMDȩBGȎCPCLRȩ
then open the window for new types of attacks. For programming tools. The situation is depicted in
this reason, these AI systems are now coming un- Figure 12.
der increased scrutiny.
LWȩTSJLCP?@GJGRWȩMPȩBCQGELȩȐ?UȩGLȩRFGQȩAMKNJCVȩQWQ-
In classical software development, the developer RCKȩUGJJȩJGICJWȩ@CȩMDȩ?ȩTCPWȩBGȎCPCLRȩL?RSPCȩRF?LȩGLȩ
uses a computer language to create the program classical systems. Tracing an event and its cause,
that implements a certain algorithm. This consti- such as an attack on the system and the vulner-
tutes a straight development process where we can ?@GJGRWȩ CVNJMGRCBȩ @CAMKCQȩ ?ȩ KSAFȩ KMPCȩ AMKNJCVȩ
Figure 12. Paradigm shift in the cybersecurity of systems following the introduction of AI components
10 Cybersecurity Perspective 90
in cybersecurity 1SKK?PW?LBAMLAJSQGMLQ
anytime soon 2FCȩ?BTCLRȩMDȩRFCȩ'ȩPCTMJSRGMLȩGQȩCVNCARCBȩRMȩF?TCȩ
?LȩGLAPC?QGLEȩGKN?ARȩMLȩAW@CPQCASPGRWȩ2FCȩCVGQRGLEȩ
but rather J?LBQA?NCȩUGJJȩ@CȩQS@HCARȩRMȩK?LWȩRP?LQDMPK?RGMLQȩ
GLȩRCPKQȩMDȩKMPCȩCȎCARGTCȩ?LBȩCȑAGCLRȩAW@CPȩBC-
empower them. fences, but at the same time more sophisticated
cyber-attacks. Key conclusions from these devel-
'ȧUGJJȧLMRȧPCNJ?ACȧFSK?LQȧGLȧAW@CPQCASPGRWȧ?LW
to understand RGKCȧ QMMLȧ @SRȧ P?RFCPȧ CKNMUCPȧ RFCKȩ #VNCAR
ations about AI are high, and for good reasons,
the limits of the new EGTCLȩ RFCȩ J?RCQRȩ ?BT?LACQȩ GLȩ RFCȩ ȏCJBȩ ?LBȩ RFCȩ
growing number of successful cases of its appli-
generation off AI cation in several domains, including cybersecu-
rity. However, it is important to understand the
algorithms. limits of the new generation of AI algorithms.
10 Cybersecurity Perspective 92
We have summarised the key issues above, and specially crafted input, manipulating the data that
we clearly still need human operators to com- is used to train it, or abusing biases in the statistical
plement the capabilities of AI for cybersecurity. algorithms used to perform the training. These are
LCUȩAJ?QQCQȩMDȩTSJLCP?@GJGRGCQ
ȩQNCAGȏAȩRMȩ+*ȩ?JEM-
'ȧ UGJJȧ @PGLEȧ AJC?Pȧ @CLCȏRQȧ RMȧ AW@CPQCASPGRWȧ ?LBȧ rithms, which need to be further understood and for
RFCȧ ȏEFRȧ ?E?GLQRȧ APGKC
ȧ @SRȧ UGJJȧ ?JQMȧ GLRPMBSACȧ UFGAFȩQNCAGȏAȩMPE?LGQ?RGML?Jȩ?LBȩRCAFLGA?JȩAMLRPMJQȩ
LCUȧAW@CPQCASPGRWȧAF?JJCLECQ. ML algorithms have need to designed and implemented.
altered the classical paradigm of software devel-
opment. When using them, human developers no Secure software development practices, security
longer program an algorithm to tell the comput- ACPRGȏA?RGMLQ
ȩ QCASPGRWȩ ?SBGRQȩ ?LBȩ AW@CPQCASPGRWȩ
er IPX to solve a given problem but instead they controls need to consider these new kinds of vul-
program it to MFBSOIPX to solve the problem. As a LCP?@GJGRGCQȩ QNCAGȏAȩ RMȩ RFCȩ 'ȩ AMKNMLCLRQȩ MDȩ RFCȩ
result, the AI system behaves as a new algorithm, digital systems. Further research is needed in the
not directly programmed by the human developer: CKCPEGLEȩȏCJBȩMDȩ?BTCPQ?PG?Jȩ+*ȩGLȩMPBCPȩRMȩ@CRRCPȩ
this is the result of a learning process from training understand the limitations in the robustness of ML
data carried out by the ML algorithm originally de- algorithms against malicious action and design
veloped by the human. Recently, it has been found CȎCARGTCȩ QRP?RCEGCQ to mitigate these vulnerabili-
RF?R
ȩBCQNGRCȩRFCGPȩCȎCARGTCLCQQ
ȩ'ȧQWQRCKQȧ@?QCBȧ ties. This is of particular relevance when AI is used
MLȧ +*ȧ RCAFLGOSCQȧ ?PCȧ MDRCLȧ LMRȧ PM@SQRȧ ?E?GLQRȧ in cybersecurity controls or to assist human actors
K?JGAGMSQȧ ?RR?AIQȩ RF?Rȩ CVNJMGRȩ RFCȩ QNCAGȏAȩ U?Wȩ GLȩ GLȩRFCȩGBCLRGȏA?RGML
ȩJMA?JGQ?RGMLȩ?LBȩNPMQCASRGMLȩMDȩ
which the AI system behaves by presenting it with cybercrime.
93 10 Cybersecurity Perspective
2FCPCȧGQȧ?ȧLCCBȧRMȧQCASPCȧRFCȧ?T?GJ?@GJGRWȧMDȧSN NS@JGAȩPCQC?PAFȩGQȩAMLBSARCBȩGLȩRFCȩȏCJBȩMDȩ'ȩ?LBȩ
RMB?RCȧ FGEFOS?JGRWȧ B?R?QCRQȧ GLȧ RFCȧ BMK?GLȧ MDȧ AW@CPQCASPGRW
ȩ?JQMȩAMLQGBCPGLEȩRFCȩMȎCLQGTCȩQGBC
ȩRMȩ
AW@CPQCASPGRWȧ The latest techniques in ML such study emerging and potentially AI-powered cyber-
as DL or reinforced learning can produce impres- attacks and devise corresponding countermeasures.
sive results but require huge quantities of train-
GLEȩB?R?ȩRMȩUMPIȩ?LBȩ@CȩCȎCARGTCȩQȩGQȩRFCȩA?QCȩGLȩ Furthermore, the research landscape on AI is al-
other domains, there is a scarcity of large enough ready highly dominated by the USA and China (see
FGEFOS?JGRWȩB?R?QCRQȩGLȩRFCȩȏCJBȩMDȩAW@CPQCASPGRWȩ Chapter 3) and the ongoing general drain of re-
2FCȩ ?T?GJ?@GJGRWȩ MDȩ QSAFȩ B?R?QCRQȩ RMȩ RFCȩ QAGCLRGȏAȩ search and researchers from Europe needs to be
community is crucial to ensure future advances in PCTCPQCB
ȩCQNCAG?JJWȩGLȩȏCJBQȩ?JPC?BWȩJ?AIGLEȩILMU
RFCȩȏCJB JCBEC?@JCȩ CVNCPRQȩ GLȩ RFCȩ K?PICR
ȩ QSAFȩ ?Qȩ AW@CP-
security and AI. Focusing research on the ethical
Moreover, the creation of up-to-date reference use of AI and the role of regulation can become an
datasets in the several areas of the cybersecur- asset to strengthen European leadership in these
ity domain can also boost research and innovation ?PC?Q
ȩ?LBȩPCR?GLȩCVNCPRGQCȩGLȩ'ȩ?LBȩAW@CPQCASPGRW
@WȩCL?@JGLEȩ?EGJCȩ?LBȩCȎCARGTCȩ@CLAFK?PIGLEȩ?LBȩ
evaluation of state of the art AI techniques. 'ȧ GLȧ AW@CPQCASPGRWȧ PCOSGPCQȧ ?ȧ KSJRGBGQAGNJGL?PWȧ
?NNPM?AFȩ-LȩRFCȩFGEFJWȩRCAFLGA?JȩK?RRCPQȩRF?RȩQSP-
The dual nature of AI.ȧ 'Rȧ GQȧ APSAG?Jȧ RMȧ @Cȧ ?U?PCȧ round the application of AI in cybersecurity, strong
MDȧ RFCȧ DSLB?KCLR?Jȧ BS?Jȧ L?RSPCȧ MDȧ RCAFLGOSCQ
ȧ interactions of policymakers with researchers and
RMMJQȧ ?LBȧ QWQRCKQȧ CKNJMWCBȧ GLȧ AW@CPQCASPGRWȧ CLEGLCCPQȩQCCKȩGKKCLQCJWȩGKNMPR?LRȩ2FCȩȏCJBQȩMDȩ
?LBȧ', especially when both have to be considered AI and cybersecurity are rapidly changing, and re-
together. AI can improve security, but cybercrim- ports will quickly become outdated, making a con-
GL?JQȩ?PCȩCOS?JJWȩCVNCARCBȩRMȩR?ICȩ?BT?LR?ECȩMDȩRFCȩ QR?LRȩ GLDMPK?RGMLȩ ȐMUȩ DPMKȩ RFCȩ RCAFLGA?Jȩ JCTCJȩ RMȩ
latest advances in AI techniques to carry out faster BCAGQGMLȩ@MBGCQȩ?JKMQRȩK?LB?RMPWȩQȩ?LȩCVRCLQGMLȩ
and smarter cyber-attacks. of this, we also need to foster a culture of cross-
collaboration between AI and cybersecurity devel-
This situation does not necessarily require restrict- opers and, on a broader level, researchers from
GLEȩ PCQC?PAFȩ Lȩ CȎCARGTCȩ BCDCLACȩ A?Lȩ MLJWȩ @Cȩ MRFCPȩPCJ?RCBȩȏCJBQȩQSAFȩ?QȩNFGJMQMNFW
ȩCAMLMKGAQȩ
designed knowing how attacks might take place. or social science.
Therefore, it is important to ensure that further
11Computer Processing and Energy Perspective 94
*OUFOTJWFDPNQVUJOHOFFETUPCFFOFSHZFҪDJFOU
SUMMARY
In this chapter, we analyse one of the often-ignored aspects of AI, i.e. that the opportunities
created by great data volumes and advanced analytics come at an increasing environmen-
R?J
ȩCAMLMKGA
ȩ?LBȩECMNMJGRGA?JȩAMQRȩCLCPEWȩ2FCȩGLRPMBSARGMLȩMDȩRFCȩ'M2ȩ?LBȩ%ȩLCRUMPIQȩUGJJȩ
GLAPC?QCȩRFCȩNPM@JCKȩQGELGȏA?LRJWȩ#LCPEWȩGQȩPCAMELGQCBȩ?Qȩ?ȩK?GLȩBCRCPKGL?LRȩMDȩRFCȩJMLE
term sustainability of AI. Therefore, we need to take early action to address this aspect of the
development of AI and its related technologies. While some actions can be done using today’s
RCAFLMJMEW
ȩKMPCȩNMUCPPCBSARGMLȩGLLMT?RGMLȩGQȩLCCBCBȩRMȩDSJȏJȩDSRSPCȩBCK?LBȩ'RȩGQȩLCACQQ?PWȩ
to introduce advanced technologies in the hardware, software, and services areas, to develop
intensive-computing ecosystems that are ‘green’.
These ecosystem solutions must face four important energy-consumption areas: reduce
RFCȩ CLCPEWȩ AMLQSKCBȩ @Wȩ RFCȩ CVGQRGLEȩ @GEȩ B?R?ȩ ACLRPCQȩ JGKGRȩ B?R?ȩ KMTCKCLRȩ PCBSAGLEȩ RFCȩ
energy consumed from machine-to-machine communications; reduce the embodied energy;
PCBSACȩRFCȩM@QMJCQACLACȩMDȩBGEGR?JȩRCAFLMJMEGCQȩQCC
ȩDMPȩCV?KNJC
ȩRFCȩQFMPRȩJGDCQN?LȩMDȩKM@GJCȩ
phones, replaced every one to three years), which is perhaps the main energy consumption
voice for digital technology.
95 11Computer Processing and Energy Perspective
COMPUTER
PROCESSING
AND ENERGY
PERSPECTIVE
'LRPMBSARGML There is a paradigm
There are several studies (SIA, 2015; Mayer 2009;
IEE, 2012) showing that the digital economy is
PEFȱFK@LJMRQFKD
facing an increasing problem: a severe mismatch
between the processing and storage needs of the
to bring processing
escalating volumes of data available, and a sus-
tainable energy footprint. A report prepared for
at the level of smart
%PCCLNC?ACȩȩAJ?GKCBȩRF?RȩGDȩRFCȩAJMSBȩUCPCȩ
?ȩ AMSLRPW
ȩ GRȩ UMSJBȩ F?TCȩ RFCȩ ȏDRFȩ J?PECQRȩ CLCPEWȩ
sensors, opening
demand in the world, while Vidal (2017) suggested
RF?RȩRFCȩB?R?ȩRQSL?KGȩAMSJBȩAMLQSKCȩMLCȩȏDRFȩMDȩ
an opportunity for
global electricity by 2025.
European investment,
2FCQCȩCQRGK?RCQȩK?W@CȩQMKCUF?RȩMȎȩRFCȩK?PI
ȩ@SRȩ
there seems to be a consensus that B?R?ȧEPMURFȧ
regulatory
UGJJȧ J?PECJWȧ MSRN?ACȧ DMPCQCC?@JCȧ GKNPMTCKCLRQȧ
GLȧAMKNSR?RGML?JȧNMUCPȧ?LBȧRFCȧ?QQMAG?RCBȧCL-
frameworks, and
CPEWȧ DMMRNPGLRȩ $MPȩ CV?KNJC
ȩ @CRUCCLȩ ȩ ?LBȩ
ȩB?R?ȩRP?ȑAȩEPCUȩDMJB
ȩAMKN?PCBȩRMȩ?ȩAMP-
standards to shape
responding 16-fold increase in computing power
(largely tracking Moore’s law) as shown in Figure
these developments.
13 (Short et al., 2011; and Kambatla et al., 2014).
2FCȩ BCTCJMNKCLRȩ MDȩ RFCȩ 'M2ȩ GQȩ CVNCARCBȩ RMȩ UGBCLȩ KSQRȩ@CȩMNRGKGQCBȩQGELGȏA?LRJWȩ'LȩRFGQȩAF?NRCP
ȩUCȩ
the fork between data and processing power in the CVNJMPCȩRFPCCȩK?GLȩ?NNPM?AFCQȩRMȩPCBSACȩRFCȩCLCP-
coming years with an increasing energy bill. There- gy footprint after reporting in more detail the en-
fore, the computing and energy consumption gen- ergy challenges of one important part of the data
erated by AI and IoT (including devices, networks, chain: data centres.
and data centres to which they are connected)
11Computer Processing and Energy Perspective 96
The global energy consumption of DC was esti- DC consolidation, outsourcing and cloud computing
mated at 194 TWh in 201450, which is around 1 % ?PCȩFCJNGLEȩRMȩICCNȩCLCPEWȩAMLQSKNRGMLȩGLȩ"!QȩȐ?R
ȩ
97 11Computer Processing and Energy Perspective
notwithstanding the increase of data and process- which is used for ML applications such as
GLE
ȩ ?Qȩ J?PECPȩ "!Qȩ RCLBȩ RMȩ @Cȩ KMPCȩ CȑAGCLRJWȩ BC- ȩ LCSP?Jȩ LCRUMPIQȩ -RFCPȩ 'ȩ ?AACJCP?RMPȩ BC
signed and managed. signs are starting to appear from other
ȩ TCLBMPQȩ?GKCB
ȩDMPȩCV?KNJC
ȩ?RȩRFCȩPM@MR
-NRGMLQRMGKNPMTCRFCCLCPEW ics markets.
CȏAGCLAWMDRFCGLAPC?QGLE
BCK?LBDMP&.! Ȍ "EWBODFEDMPVE NVMUJDPSF
DIJQT that com-
ȩ @GLCȩRFCȩ?BT?LR?ECQȩMDȩ!.3QȩUGRFȩ%.%.3Q
2FCPCȩ ?PCȩ BGȎCPCLRȩ ?NNPM?AFCQȩ RMȩ ?BBPCQQȩ RFGQȩ and specialised AI chip. This new breed of
problem: chips promises to reduce ten-fold the
times the processing power per watt (e.g.
(a) advance CPU capabilities to process big ȩ RFPMSEFȩ ?ȩ ȏLCEP?GLCBȩ NMUCPȩ K?L?EC
ȩ B?R?
ȩ PSLȩ '
+*ȩ HM@Q
ȩ ?LBȩ AMLQSKCȩ JCQQȩ ment) to be capable of running the most
energy; ȩ AMKNJCVȩAMKNSRGLEȩR?QIQ
(b) improve the energy consumption of DCs
necessary to cool the systems; Ȍ &NCFEEFE QSPDFTTPST for smart sensors
(c) move the intelligence from the centre to by using new microcontrollers designed for
the edge by optimising (cloud-based) com- AI, which are the brains of billions of ‘smart
puting infrastructures and bring AI closer to things’. Trained DL models are com-
the data. piled to generate optimised neural net-
work code that is embedded in advanced
!.3?BT?LACKCLRQCLCPEWQ?TGLE microcontrollers. Embedded processors are
?LBN?P?JJCJGQ?RGMLAMKNSRGLE usually simpler in design and have minimal
power requirements. In addition, moving the
With respect to CPU advancement, there are sev- computation from the centre to the edge of
eral lines of action: the network contributes to reducing the
energy footprint of the IoT.
• (SBQIJDT1SPDFTTJOH6OJU (16
: a specialised
electronic circuit designed to accelerate Ȍ /FVSPNPSQIJD DPNQVUJOH: a technology
the creation of images intended for output based on the use of very-large-scale inte-
ȩ RMȩ?ȩBGQNJ?WȩBCTGACȩ%.3Qȩ?PCȩSQCBȩGLȩKM@GJCȩ gration systems that mimic neuro-biologic-
phones, personal computers, workstations, al structures present in the nervous system.
ȩ ?LBȩE?KCȩAMLQMJCQȩ+MBCPLȩ%.3Qȩ?PCȩTCPWȩ Recent solutions focus on models of neural
ȩ CȑAGCLRȩ?RȩK?LGNSJ?RGLEȩAMKNSRCPȩEP?NFGAQ systems for perception, motor control, or
and image processing, and their highly multisensory integration.
ȩ N?P?JJCJȩQRPSARSPCȩK?ICQȩRFCKȩKMPCȩCȑAGCLRȩ
than general-purpose Central Processing Ȍ 3FWFSTJCMFDPNQVUJOH: a model of computing
Units (CPUs) for algorithms where the pro- that tries to minimise the amount of energy
cessing of large blocks of data is done in dissipated as heat during processing. They
parallel, as for ML and DL. are based on low power circuits, known
as ‘adiabatic’ circuits, that are designed to
Ȍ "* BDDFMFSBUPST
UIF 5FOTPS 1SPDFTTJOH 6OJU conserve energy.
516
ȩ?Lȩ'ȩ?AACJCP?RMPȩBCTCJMNCBȩ@Wȩ%MM
ȩ EJCȩ QNCAGȏA?JJWȩ DMPȩ LCSP?Jȩ LCRUMPIȩ +*ȩ Ȍ 2VBOUVNDPNQVUJOH: a form of computing
ȩ 2FCȩAFGNȩF?Qȩ@CCLȩBCQGELCBȩRMȩSQCȩ%MMEJCQ ȩ CVNJMGRGLEȩQMKCȩMDȩRFCȩNFWQGA?JȩNPMNCPRGCQȩMD
TensorFlow framework, an open math library quantum mechanics. Classic computers
11Computer Processing and Energy Perspective 98
(PPERVBMJUZTIBSFEEBUBJTFTTFOUJBMUPEFWFMPQTPDJBMMZSFTQPOTJWF"*
SUMMARY
In this chapter, we review the key economic characteristics of digital data, including
CAMLMKGCQ
ȩ MDȩ QA?JC
ȩ MDȩ QAMNC
ȩ ?LBȩ LMLPGT?JPWȩ 2FCȩ ȏPQRȩ RUMȩ NMGLRȩ RMȩ ?Lȩ GLAPC?QCȩ
concentration of data, and hence information and power, in the hands of a few actors
in the internet economy, while non-rivalry creates potential tensions between opening
?AACQQȩRMȩRFCȩB?R?ȩQMȩRF?RȩQMAGCRWȩ@CLCȏRQȩRFCȩKMQR
ȩ?LBȩPCQRPGARGLEȩ?AACQQȩQMȩRF?Rȩ
RFCȩB?R?ȩFMJBCPȩ@CLCȏRQȩKMQRȩ2FCQCȩRCLQGMLQȩ?PCȩPCȐCARCBȩGLȩRFCȩJCE?JȩDP?KCUMPI
ȩ
as discussed earlier, and make the development of data strategies in an open and
globalised environment a particular challenge. We argue, however, that if we apply
the lessons of successful internet companies to the European public sector and de-
velop ecosystems based around public platforms, it is possible to create large pools
of shared data that are semantically well-structured and labelled, and can fuel new AI
?NNJGA?RGMLQȩGLȩBGȎCPCLRȩBMK?GLQȩ'LȩRFGQȩU?W
ȩUCȩA?LȩMNCLȩ?AACQQȩRMȩRFCȩB?R?
ȩBCTCJMNȩ
the market, serve the public, and enrich the data commons at the same time.
103 12 Data perspective
DATA PERSPECTIVE
2FCJ?U?LBCAMLMKGAQMD?AACQQ Data is the lifeline of
RMB?R?
+*ȩKMBCJQȩRCLBȩRMȩ~MTCPȏRȩGLȩRFCQCȩA?QCQ
ȩPCBSAGLEȩ data by installing sensors and setting up servers to
RFCȩCȑAGCLAWȩMDȩ?JEMPGRFKQȩMLACȩRFCWȩ?PCȩ?NNJGCBȩ collect, store, transmit and process the data. With-
GLȩPC?JJGDCȩQCRRGLEQȩ-LCȩU?WȩRMȩ?BBPCQQȩRFGQȩGQȩRMȩ out the ability to monetise revenue from the data
try to understand the underlying mechanisms in there would be no incentive to collect them. This
the data through causal inference. This potentially NPM@JCKȩU?QȩȏPQRȩBGQAMTCPCBȩ@Wȩ?SRFMPQȩ?LBȩNS@-
increases the interpretability and fairness of algo- lishers of books and by inventors of new technolo-
rithms (Kilbertus et al., 2017; Athey, 2017). gies. All these innovative ideas and artworks could
easily be copied by others, leaving the original cre-
&DPOPNJFTPGTDPQFȩRFCQCȩMAASPȩUFCLȩRFCȩ@CLCȏRQȩ ?RMPȩ UGRFMSRȩ ?LWȩ PCKSLCP?RGMLȩ DMPȩ FGQ
FCPȩ CȎMPRQȩ
of analysing a merged dataset are higher than the Intellectual property rights (IPR) were introduced to
?L?JWQGQȩMDȩC?AFȩB?R?QCRȩQCN?P?RCJWȩ2FCQCȩ@CLCȏRQȩ avoid these situations.
only occur when there is a relationship between the
two sets, i.e. when they are not completely separa- Should we apply the same economic principles
ble and data that pertain to one situation may also MDȩ'.0ȩRMȩB?R?ȩ?LBȩ?QQGELȩCVAJSQGTCȩPGEFRQȩRMȩB?R?ȩ
@CȩPCJCT?LRȩDMPȩ?LMRFCPȩQGRS?RGMLȩ$MPȩCV?KNJC
ȩUC@ȩ FMJBCPQ
ȩNMQQG@JWȩCTCLȩDSJJȩMULCPQFGNȩPGEFRQȩQȩGLȩ
QSPȏLEȩB?R?ȩK?WȩNPMBSACȩGLQGEFRQȩMLȩAMLQSKCPȩ@C- the case of IPR, these rights should keep a @?J?LACȧ
haviour. Merging these with mobile phone data may @CRUCCLȧEP?LRGLEȧCVAJSQGTCȧPGEFRQȧ?Qȧ?LȧGLACL-
produce more insights when compared to studying RGTCȧDMPȧRFCȧNPMBSARGMLȧMDȧB?R?ȧ?LBȧCLQSPGLEȧ?A-
both datasets separately. Merging with pay data in ACQQȧRMȧB?R?ȧ?LBȧ?JEMPGRFKQȧGLȧMPBCPȧRMȧNPMBSACȧ
shops adds further insights, etc. Economies of scope UGBCPȧ@CLCȏRQȧDMPȧQMAGCRW. The applicability of IPR
CVNJ?GLȩ UFWȩ B?R?BPGTCLȩ ȏPKQȩ ?PCȩ QMȩ B?R?FSLEPWȩ to ML algorithms was discussed in Section 7.3. We
and collect all the data they can get: the wider the come back to legal protection of data rights be-
coverage of the available datasets in terms of varie- JMUȩ GLȩ ȩ $GPQR
ȩ UCȩ CVNJMPCȩ T?PGMSQȩ KC?LGLEQȩ
ty of situations and observations, the more accurate of ‘data access’.
and insightful the predictions that can be made with
these datasets.
NNJWGLECAMLMKGAPC?QMLGLE
/POSJWBMSZ: whilst goods and services are rival RMB?R??AACQQ
products, i.e. they can only be used by one person
at a time, ?LȧGBC?
ȧ?ȧNGCACȧMDȧGLDMPK?RGMLȧMPȧ?Lȧ?J- The modalities and conditions for access to data
EMPGRFKȧ?PCȧLMLPGT?JȧRFCWȧA?Lȧ@CȧSQCBȧ@WȧK?LWȧ T?PWȩ AMLQGBCP?@JW
ȩ UGRFȩ NMRCLRG?JJWȩ TCPWȩ BGȎCPCLRȩ
NCMNJCȧ?RȧRFCȧQ?KCȧRGKCȧQȩ?ȩPCQSJR
ȩRFCȩ@CLCȏRQȩ economic outcomes for individuals and for society
derived from data are higher when used by a group as a whole (Bergmann and Morris, 2017). We should
of people compared to used by an individual. From therefore be careful and more precise in what we
a societal perspective, it may therefore be better mean when we use the word ‘access’.
to share data and algorithms as widely as possible
P?RFCPȩRF?LȩICCNGLEȩRFCKȩNPGT?RCȩ&MUCTCP
ȩRFCȩȐGNȩ ȩB?R?ȩFMJBCPȩK?WȩLMRȩNCPACGTCȩ?LWȩ@CLCȏRQȩGLȩBGP
side of wide sharing and easy access is the lack ectly sharing or selling data to others and decide to
of incentives to invest in production of data and keep them private, protected by legal and/or tech-
algorithms. Data may be a by-product of ongoing nical protection measures. Rather than selling data
activities and require no additional incentives. For directly, they can be used indirectly as input in the
GLQR?LAC
ȩCAMKKCPACȩȏPKQȩQRMPCȩAMLQSKCPȩ@CF?T- NPMBSARGMLȩ MDȩ ?ȩ AMKKCPAG?Jȩ QCPTGACȩ $MPȩ CV?KNJC
ȩ
iour data on their websites as part of their online %MMEJCȩ BMCQȩ LMRȩ BGPCARJWȩ QCJJȩ MPȩ QF?PCȩ AMLQSKCPȩ
transactions. Public administrations collect loads of data but uses them for selling advertising slots.
data while carrying out their duties. In other cases !MLQSKCPQȩ @CLCȏRȩ DPMKȩ RFCȩ GLDMPK?RGMLȩ QCPTGACQȩ
FMUCTCP
ȩȏPKQȩK?WȩBCJG@CP?RCJWȩGLTCQRȩGLȩAMJJCARGLEȩ while advertisers pay for the advertising service.
105 12 Data perspective
In this way, even non-accessible data can generate LMRFCPȩ QACL?PGMȩ MAASPQȩ UFCLȩ B?R?ȩ ?PCȩ CVRP?ARCBȩ
@CLCȏRQȩDMPȩGLBGTGBS?JQȩ?LBȩDMPȩQMAGCRWȩ from data holders against their will, possibly with-
out their knowledge and at a cost to them, but may
Data holders can also make the data directly avail- @CȩMDȩ@CLCȏRȩRMȩQMAGCRWȩ#V?KNJCQȩGLAJSBCȩK?LB?-
?@JCȩ'DȩRFCȩB?R?ȩ?PCȩP?RFCPȩCVAJSQGTCȩ?LBȩT?JS?@JC
ȩ tory open data access for environmental reporting
they may fetch a price in the data market. Since and access to private data to detect or prevent
data are non-rival they can be sold many times. crime. Individual data holders may incur costs but
+MLMNMJGQRGAȩQCJJCPQȩMDȩCVAJSQGTCȩB?R?ȩA?LȩCGRFCPȩQCJJȩ RFCȩ LCRȩ @CLCȏRȩ RMȩ QMAGCRWȩ GQȩ NMQGRGTCȩ LMRFCPȩ CV-
?Rȩ?ȩȏVCBȩNPGACȩMPȩ?BHSQRȩNPGACQȩ?AAMPBGLEȩRMȩC?AFȩ ?KNJCȩGQȩMLJGLCȩȏPKQȩRF?RȩRCQRȩT?PGMSQȩAMKKCPAG?Jȩ
buyer’s willingness to pay. In that case, everyone strategies on a small sample of consumers before
has access and there is no welfare loss to society. deploying them on a larger scale. The consumers in
2FCȩB?R?ȩKMLMNMJGQRȩK?VGKGQCQȩKMLCR?PWȩ@CLCȏRQȩ RFCȩRCQRȩQ?KNJCȩK?WȩE?GLȩMPȩJMQCȩDPMKȩRFCȩCVNCPG-
from the data. A welfare distribution issue may oc- KCLR
ȩUGRFMSRȩILMUGLEȩGR
ȩ@SRȩRFCȩȏPKȩK?Wȩ@CLCȏRȩ
ASPȩUFCLȩKMQRȩMDȩRFCȩ@CLCȏRQȩ?AAPSCȩGLȩKMLCRGQCBȩ DPMKȩCVRP?ARGLEȩ@CF?TGMSP?JȩGLDMPK?RGMLȩDPMKȩSQCPQȩ
form to the data holder and less so to data users or
the person whose behaviour generated the data. If 2PSQRȧGQȧ?LȧGKNMPR?LRȧD?ARMPȧGLȧB?R?ȧQF?PGLEȧ?LBȧ
RFCȩB?R?ȩ?PCȩJCQQȩCVAJSQGTCȩ?LBȩAMKNCRGLEȩQMSPACQȩ ?AACQQȧA variety of initiatives have been deployed
for (partial) substitute data are available, the mo- RMȩ QRPCLERFCLȩ RPSQRȩ UFGJCȩ QF?PGLEȩ B?R?ȩ #VNCPG-
LMNMJWȩA?Lȩ@CȩUC?ICLCBȩ?LBȩKMPCȩ@CLCȏRQȩUGJJȩ?A- mental personal information management spaces
crue to data users. The choice between direct and (PIMS) give individuals more control over the use
indirect data sales is often not straightforward for of their personal data. Similarly, ‘data trusts’ seek
B?R?ȩFMJBCPQȩQMKCȩK?WȩBMȩ@MRFȩGLȩN?P?JJCJȩ$MPȩCV- RMȩNPMTGBCȩRPSQRCBȩCVAF?LECȩKCAF?LGQKQȩTG?ȩJCE?Jȩ
?KNJC
ȩK?LWȩB?R?ȩȏPKQȩQCJJȩB?R?ȩBGPCARJWȩ?LBȩNPM- conditions, storage formats and mutual oversight
vide data analytics services. organisations.
ȩBGȎCPCLRȩQGRS?RGMLȩMAASPQȩUGRFȩMNCLȩMPȩDPCCȩ?AACQQȩ
that makes data available to all potential users at .MJGAWGLRCPTCLRGMLGLRFCB?R?
XCPMȩAMQRȩ CLCȏRQȩ?PCȩBGQRPG@SRCBȩ?APMQQȩRFCȩUGBCQRȩ K?PICR
possible group of users, similar to the perfect price
BGQAPGKGL?RGMLȩA?QCȩ?@MTC
ȩCVACNRȩRF?Rȩ?JJȩ@CLCȏRQȩ #VRP?ARGLEȩGLQGEFRQȩDPMKȩB?R?QCRQȩ@WȩKC?LQȩMDȩ+*ȩ
accrue to data users, not the data holder. If data MPȩMRFCPȩRCAFLGOSCQȩA?Lȩ@CȩTCPWȩ@CLCȏAG?JȩDMPȩQMKCȩ
are a by-product of the data holder’s ordinary ac- @SRȩRFCȩGLQGEFRQȩA?Lȩ?JQMȩ@CȩCVNJMGRCBȩRMȩPCBGQRPG@SRC
tivities and can be collected at low or zero cost, @CLCȏRQȩ @CRUCCLȩ N?PRGCQȩ 1F?PGLEȩ ?AACQQȩ RMȩ B?R?ȩ
DPCCȩ?AACQQȩUGJJȩLMRȩ?ȎCARȩRFCȩUCJD?PCȩMDȩRFCȩB?R?ȩ A?LȩNMRCLRG?JJWȩGLAPC?QCȩRFCȩ@CLCȏRQȩ@SRȩK?Wȩ?JQMȩ
holder. Even when publishing the data carries a cost result in more redistribution. Should policymakers
to the data holder, open access may prove bene- intervene in data ownership and access markets,
ȏAG?JȩRMȩRFCȩFMJBCPȩ@CA?SQCȩEPC?RCPȩSQCȩMDȩRFCȩB?R?ȩ MPȩ QFMSJBȩ RFCWȩ @Cȩ JCDRȩ RMȩ MNCP?RCȩ DPCCJWȩ 2P?LQJ?R-
can act as an advertisement, and improve data CBȩ GLRMȩ CAMLMKGAȩ H?PEML
ȩ RFGQȩ P?GQCQȩ RFCȩ OSCQRGMLȩ
quality through validation and error detection at of potential data market failures that reduce social
limited cost for the data holder. However, if data welfare and require policy intervention. Such fail-
collection is costly and their use is very valuable, ures may not only occur in primary data markets
the holder may not have an incentive to grant free but also in downstream markets for goods and ser-
and open access. Losing revenue may also reduce vices where transactions depend on access to data.
incentives for data collectors to invest in innovative 2FCȩCVRCLRȩMDȩ?AACQQȩ?LBȩAMKNCRGRGMLȩGLȩSNQRPC?Kȩ
services that could be produced with the data. data markets may have implications for competition
in downstream goods and services markets.
12 Data perspective 106
"?R?ȩ K?Wȩ F?TCȩ TCPWȩ @CLCȏAG?Jȩ SQCQȩ DMPȩ QMAGCRWȩ GLȩ 1MKCȩNPMTGQGMLQȩGLȩRFCȩ%".0ȩPCBSACȩ?AACQQȩRMȩNCP-
terms of innovation and welfare. However, data can QML?Jȩ B?R?ȩ $MPȩ CV?KNJC
ȩ RFCWȩ NPMFG@GRȩ RFCȩ SQCȩ MDȩ
also be used to reduce competition in markets and personal data for purposes other than the original-
nudge consumers into decisions that are not neces- ly intended purpose, unless they are anonymised.
Q?PGJWȩRMȩRFCGPȩ?BT?LR?ECȩ2FCPCȩGQȩMDRCLȩ?ȩRP?BCMȎȩ 2FGQȩK?ICQȩGRȩBGȑASJRȩDMPȩFMJBCPQȩMDȩNCPQML?JȩB?R?ȩ
@CRUCCLȩQFMPRRCPKȩNPGACȩCȑAGCLAWȩ?LBȩJMLECPRCPKȩ to aggregate them into larger databases or share
innovation incentives. them with other types of data services for the pur-
pose of aggregation and analysis by means of ML
0CESJ?RMPQȧA?LȧAPC?RCȧCVAJSQGTCȧAMLRPMJȧPGEFRQȧDMPȧ ?JEMPGRFKQȩ-RFCPȩNPMTGQGMLQȩGLȩRFCȩ%".0ȩD?AGJGR?RCȩ
B?R?ȧFMJBCPQȧMPȧRFCWȧA?LȧQMDRCLȧRFCQCȧCVAJSQGTCȧ ?AACQQȩRMȩB?R?ȩ$MPȩCV?KNJC
ȩPRGAJCȩȩK?LB?RCQȩ
PGEFRQȧ?LBȧNSLAFȧQMKCȧFMJCQȧGLȧRFCKȧRMȧD?AGJGR?RCȧ portability of personal data. At the request of the
?AACQQȧRMȧRFCȧB?R? In reality, regulators often do B?R?ȩ QS@HCAR
ȩ RFCȩ B?R?ȩ FMJBCPȩ F?Qȩ RMȩ RP?LQDCPȩ RFCȩ
@MRFȩ?RȩRFCȩQ?KCȩRGKCȩzȩ?QȩUCȩUGJJȩLMUȩGJJSQRP?RCȩ personal data to a destination of choice of the data
for the case of the EU. QS@HCARȩ2FCȩB?R?ȩQS@HCARȩA?LȩRFSQȩAFMMQCȩRMȩEGTCȩ
wider access to his/her data. Anonymous data can
In the EU, there are two general horizontal legal be transferred or used for other purposes. A good
instruments that have something to say on data CV?KNJCȩGQȩL?TGE?RGMLȩ?NNQȩLȩGKNMPR?LRȩQMSPACȩMDȩ
PGEFRQȩ RFCȩ %CLCP?Jȩ "?R?ȩ .PMRCARGMLȩ 0CESJ?RGMLȩ PM?BȩRP?ȑAȩB?R?ȩGQȩRFCȩKMTCKCLRȩMDȩKM@GJCȩNFMLCQȩ
%".0ȩ#!ȩ?ȩDMPȩNCPQML?JȩB?R?ȩMDȩL?RSP?JȩNCP- in cars. Telecom service operators track the pos-
sons and the Data Base Directive (DBD) (EC, 1996) itioning of mobile phones as a technical measure
DMPȩ?LWȩB?R?ȩAMJJCARCBȩ@WȩȏPKQȩQCCȩ1CARGMLȩ to keep the phones connected to the antennas of
RFCȩ KM@GJCȩ NFMLCȩ LCRUMPIȩ 2FCȩ %".0ȩ ?JJMUQȩ RFCȩ
2FCȩ #3ȩ %".0ȩ QCRQȩ QMKCȩ PSJCQȩ PCE?PBGLEȩ RFCȩ SQCȩ transmission of anonymous data about movement
of personal data. Any data that can be linked to a MDȩKM@GJCȩNFMLCQȩ2FCȩ%".0ȩNSRQȩLMȩPCQRPGARGMLQȩMLȩ
natural person is considered to be personal data, cross-border transfers of data within the EU. How-
irrespective of the source, storage or transmission ever, RP?LQDCPQȧMSRQGBCȧRFCȧ#3ȧA?LȧMLJWȧ@CȧK?BCȧ
KCAF?LGQKȩ 2FCȩ %".0ȩ BMCQȩ LMRȩ EP?LRȩ MULCPQFGNȩ RMȧMNCP?RMPQȧRF?RȧPCQNCARȧRFCȧ%".0
PGEFRQȩ RMȩ NCPQML?Jȩ B?R?ȩ @SRȩ EGTCQȩ B?R?ȩ QS@HCARQȩ ?ȩ
number of control rights over their personal data, The EU Database Directive (DBD) (EC, 1996) con-
including the right to obtain consent from the data tains two provisions: copyright and a TVJ HFOFSJT
QS@HCARȩ@CDMPCȩ?AACQQGLEȩRFCȩB?R?
ȩRMȩRFCȩPGEFRȩDMPȩ right. Copyright protects the structure of data-
B?R?ȩ QS@HCARQȩ RMȩ ?AACQQȩ RFCGPȩ NCPQML?Jȩ B?R?ȩ ?LBȩ bases which, if original, constitutes the author’s
delete them, to port their data to other uses, etc. own intellectual creation. By contrast, the more
Privacy Personal data protection is considered to be controversial TVJ HFOFSJT right protects databases
a basic and inalienable human right that cannot be regardless of their originality, as long as there has
traded away. For this reason, personal data are as- been ‘substantial investment in obtaining, verifying
QSKCBȩLMRȩRMȩ@CȩRFCȩQS@HCARȩMDȩ?LȩCAMLMKGAȩRP?LQ- or presenting the contents’. Both the copyright and
action. However, a frequently used online business the TVJHFOFSJTrightin the DBD put the database
KMBCJȩ GLTMJTCQȩ RFCȩ CVAF?LECȩ MDȩ NCPQML?Jȩ B?R?ȩ GLȩ MULCPȩGLȩ?ȩNMQGRGMLȩMDȩCVAJSQGTCȩ?AACQQȩ?LBȩRFCPC-
PCRSPLȩ DMPȩ ?ȩ B?R?@?QCBȩ QCPTGACȩ 2FCȩ B?R?ȩ QS@HCARȩ fore reduce access to the data. A recent evaluation
A?Lȩ ?AACNRȩ MPȩ PCDSQCȩ RFCȩ CVAF?LEC
ȩ BCNCLBGLEȩ MLȩ of the DBD (EC, 2018g) concluded that it has been
whether s/he perceives it as a fair and credible deal CȎCARGTCȩGLȩF?PKMLGQGLEȩRFCȩ#3ȩJCEGQJ?RGMLȩMLȩB?R?-
RF?RȩUGJJȩ@PGLEȩKMPCȩ@CLCȏRQȩRF?LȩNMRCLRG?JȩF?PKQȩ bases and avoiding fragmentation, and that it still
from reduced privacy. provides an appropriate balance between protect-
GMLȩ MDȩ GLTCQRKCLRȩ ?LBȩ GLRCPCQRQȩ MDȩ SQCPQȩ -Lȩ RFCȩ
other hand, it also notes that as a result of a 2004
107 12 Data perspective
2FCȧ#3ȧ.S@JGAȧ1CARMPȧ'LDMPK?RGMLȧ.1'ȧ"GPCARGTCȧ
#!
ȧ ȧ QCCIQȧ RMȧ K?ICȧ B?R?ȧ FCJBȧ @Wȧ NS@JGAȧ Since data are
QCARMPȧ MPE?LGQ?RGMLQȧ KMPCȧ ?AACQQG@JCȧ RMȧ AGRG-
XCLQȧ?LBȧȏPKQȩ2MȩRFCȩCVRCLRȩRF?RȩQMKCȩMDȩRFCQCȩ
organisations may be involved in the production of
non-rival and
AMKKCPAG?Jȩ QCPTGACQȩ zȩ DMPȩ GLQR?LACȩ NS@JGAȩ SRGJGRGCQȩ
GLȩRP?LQNMPRȩ?LBȩCLCPEWȩzȩGRȩK?Wȩ?JQMȩAMTCPȩQMKCȩ
can be transferred
commercial operations. Providing public access to
these commercially sensitive data may entail op-
at virtually zero
portunity costs for the data holders. The Directive
suggests that pricing of data access should incur
cost all over
marginal costs. Digital datasets are often charac-
RCPGQCBȩ@WȩRFCȩFGEFȩȏVCBȩAMQRQȩMDȩAPC?RGLEȩRFCȩB?R?-
the world
set and virtually zero marginal costs of replicating
and transmitting it. As a result, the marginal cost
the question of
rule may not cover the actual cost of producing
public-sector data but, as argued earlier, much of
‘Data Sovereignty’
RFGQȩB?R?ȩGQȩECLCP?RCBȩRMȩDSJȏJȩ?ȩJCE?JȩK?LB?RCȩGLȩ
RFCȩȏPQRȩNJ?AC
ȩQMȩGRQȩPCSQCȩ@CAMKCQȩ?ȩ@WNPMBSAR
ȩ
has become
?LBȩ A?Lȩ @CLCȏRȩ RFCȩ NS@JGAȩ ?BKGLGQRP?RGMLȩ KSAFȩ
more than keeping the data closed. This is the case, an issue.
DMPȩ CV?KNJC
ȩ GDȩ RFCȩ B?R?ȩ ECLCP?RCQȩ LCUȩ NPMBSARQȩ
and services that the public administration can use
12 Data perspective 108
RFCWȩ DCCBȩ RFGQȩ ȐMUȩ MDȩ B?R?ȩ MSRQGBCȩ #SPMNCȩ 'Lȩ RFGQȩ 3)ȩ #VNJMPGLEȩLCUȩDMPKQȩMDȩN?PRLCPQFGNȩUGRFȩRFC
AMLRCVR
ȩ UCȩ D?ACȩ ?ȩ PC?Jȩ AF?JJCLEC
ȩ GDȩ U?LRȩ RMȩ QR?Wȩ public to share personal data, leveraging
open, in developing a data strategy for Europe that their increased control on access to such
increases the pool of European data, adds value to ȩ B?R?ȩNPMTGBCBȩ@WȩRFCȩ%".0
it by structuring and semantically annotating it, and
RP?GLQȩ'ȩ?NNJGA?RGMLQȩRF?Rȩ@CLCȏRȩ#SPMNC?LȩQMAGCRWȩ -NCLGLEȩ?LBȩQF?PGLEȩB?R?ȩ?APMQQȩ?JJȩICWȩQR?ICFMJBCPQȩ
Many countries are grappling with this challenge, as zȩNS@JGAȩQCARMP
ȩAMKKCPAG?JȩQCARMPȩ?LBȩRFCȩNS@JGAȩzȩGQȩ
GLBGA?RCBȩGLȩ!F?NRCPȩȩ-LCȩAMSLRPWȩRF?RȩF?Qȩ@CRRCPȩ very important and already a challenge. Adding value
articulated a possible response is France where the to the data while sharing it is an additional crucial
report by the Mission Villani (2018) put forward a dimension to support the development of AI bene-
RFPCCNPMLECBȩB?R?ȩQRP?RCEWȩQCCȩ MVȩ ȏAG?JȩRMȩ#SPMNCȩ'LȩRFGQȩPCQNCAR
ȩUCȩA?LȩJC?PLȩDPMKȩRFCȩ
NPGT?RCȩQCARMPȩ?QȩMSRJGLCBȩGLȩRFCȩLCVRȩQCARGML
ɎɛɤDZ Summary data strategy from the Mission Villani Report (2018)
Users’ behaviour (interaction) and content generat- contract among all the key stakeholders so that
CBȩMPȩCVAF?LECBȩAMLRPG@SRCȩRMȩDMPKȩRFCȩCLF?LACBȩ each agree on the sharing and use of their data for
data that is so important for AI. Raw data as such is AJC?PȩNSPNMQCQȩ?LBȩAJC?Pȩ@CLCȏRQȩ
frequently of little value, but this increases when it
GQȩAMLRCVRS?JGQCBȩ?LBȩAPMQQPCDCPCLACBȩ$?AC@MMIȩGQȩ We have seen in the review of national AI strate-
the biggest content manager in the world, but does gies in Chapter 4 that several countries are already
not produce any content. Its users do it. PCȐCARGLEȩMLȩFMUȩRMȩQF?PCȩB?R?ȩ@CRUCCLȩRFCȩNS@JGAȩ
QCARMP
ȩ NPGT?RCȩ QCARMPȩ ?LBȩ RFCȩ NS@JGA
ȩ DMPȩ CV?KNJCȩ
If we want to take advantage of the enormous di- through data trusts (UK), social contracts (France)
versity and richness of European data, we should or MyData (Finland). Each country may have its
JC?PLȩ DPMKȩ RFCȩ CV?KNJCQȩ MDȩ QSAACQQDSJȩ GLRCPLCRȩ own model but we need to share the best practices
companies and develop European data ecosystems and synergies and agree a framework to then en-
bringing together the public sector, the commercial rich this data for the public good.
sector, academia and the third sector and the gen-
eral public. Developing such ecosystems requires a There is general agreement that European AI appli-
LCUȩN?PRLCPQFGN
ȩDMPȩCV?KNJC
ȩGLȩRFCȩDMPKȩMDȩ?ȩQMAG?Jȩ cations must be based on, and reinforce the Euro-
pean values enshrined in the Treaties. These values
and the European legal framework must be seen as
a source of strength and global competitive advan-
tage, not a limitation for AI. They must permeate
?JJȩRFCȩD?ACRQȩMDȩ?ȩ#SPMNC?Lȩ~B?R?ȏA?RGMLȩNPMACQQ
ȩ
We should learn i.e. the process of transforming the information we
generate into new forms of value or insights. From
from the examples RFCȩCVGQRGLEȩQAGCLRGȏAȩJGRCP?RSPCȩCEȩ2?LȩCRȩ?J
ȩȩ
0MWȩCRȩ?J
ȩȩ-NFCPȩCRȩ?J
ȩȩUCȩQCCȩRF?RȩRFGQȩ
of successful process can be organised into three main phases,
(see Fig. 14): data collection and aggregation, data
internet companies transformation/enhancement, and insight genera-
tion and provision.
bringing together ȏAGCLRȩ ?LBȩ JMLERCPKȩ B?R?ȩ AMJJCARGMLȩ ?LBȩ QRMP?ECȩ
solutions. This is essential to provide a stable foun-
the public sector, the dation for any analytical process. Infrastructure is
necessary to facilitate and support the formation
MDȩ AMJJ?@MP?RGTCȩ CAMQWQRCKQ
ȩ ?Rȩ BGȎCPCLRȩ JCTCJQȩ
commercial sector, (national, European, and community or sectoral
MLCQ
ȩRMȩAMLQRGRSRCȩ?ȩPCJG?@JC
ȩȐCVG@JC
ȩ?LBȩQA?J?@JCȩ
academia and the third supply-chain system for data, and processing. Valu-
?@JCȩCV?KNJCQȩAMSJBȩGLAJSBCȩNS@JGAȩ?BKGLGQRP?RGMLȩ
sector, and the general data ecosystems, industrial data ecosystems, for
CV?KNJC
ȩGLȩRFCȩQN?ACȩQCARMP
ȩ'LBSQRPWȩ
ȩFC?JRF
ȩ
public. etc. In the latter, data collected and provided by the
public would also be crucial.
12 Data perspective 112
Figure 14.'DWDÀFDWLRQSURFHVVHQDEOLQJWKH$,UHYROXWLRQ
113 12 Data perspective
SUMMARY
As we show in Chapter 9, we do not know what impacts AI will have on work and
society, but we do know we need to increase our resilience to AI, particularly in regions
of Europe already more vulnerable. We put forward some elements of a possible
approach centred on the network of Digital Innovation Hubs. There are already several
FSLBPCBȩFS@Qȩ?RȩRFCȩNPCQCLRȩRGKCȩUFGAFȩ?PCȩCVN?LBGLEȩP?NGBJWȩUGRFȩ?ȩR?PECRȩMDȩMLCȩ
for each region in Europe, many of which are focusing on AI. Their purpose is to faci-
JGR?RCȩ?AACQQȩRMȩRCAFLMJMEWȩ?LBȩILMUFMUȩRMȩNS@JGAȩ?BKGLGQRP?RGMLQȩ?LBȩȏPKQ
ȩ1+#Qȩ
in particular, in combination with the planned AI-on-demand-platform. We suggest
putting these hubs at the centre of local ecosystems which could create local pools of
shared data so that the AI skills developed/upgraded locally could be put to good use
in developing AI algorithms and solutions trained on local data to address local needs.
115 13 Societal resilience perspective
SOCIETAL RESILIENCE
PERSPECTIVE
2FCLCCBDMPPCQGJGCLAC Harnessing the
As we discussed in the previous chapters of this re- richness and diversity
NMPR
ȩ 'ȩ MȎCPQȩ K?LWȩ NMRCLRG?Jȩ MNNMPRSLGRGCQȩ RMȩ GK-
prove our lives but also raises a number of challeng- of European regions
es to society. We are preparing ethical guidelines for
the development of AI systems that are account- and data is crucial
able, responsible and transparent but we must also
recognise that future change may be unpredictable to build resilience
and sudden. Therefore, we should not only try and
shape the development of technology so that it bene- and develop AI
ȏRQȩ MSPȩ QMAGCRW
ȩ @SRȩ ?JQMȩ NPCN?PCȧ MSPȧ GLQRGRSRGMLQ
ȧ
NMJGAGCQ
ȧ NCMNJCȧ ?LBȧ QMAGCRWȧ ?Rȧ J?PECȧ RMȧ @CAMKCȧ applications
KMPCȧȐCVG@JC
ȧ?B?NR?@JCȧ?LBȧPC?BWȧRMȧRP?LQDMPK.
Basically, we need to become more resilient. responsive to
Interest in resilience has been rising rapidly dur- European
ing the last 20 years as a response to increasing
challenges like climate change, globalisation, im- and local needs.
migration, and digital transformation that test our
coping capacities as individuals, regions, countries This framework may prove very useful in addressing
and institutions. the multiple challenges and opportunities of AI. For
CV?KNJC
ȩ K?LWȩ UMPICPQȩ UGJJȩ LCCBȩ @MRFȩ NPMRCARGMLȩ
Resilience is a key concept in the policy discourse of (absorptive capacity), and support for their potential
the EU57, and the JRC has developed a framework retraining (adaptive capacity). This also highlights
(Manca et al., 2017) for societal resilience that in- the centrality of individual resilience capacities.
cludes not only prevention, anticipation and prepa- .PCN?P?RGMLȩ GQȩ ?JQMȩ ?ȩ K?HMPȩ CJCKCLR
ȩ GLAJSBGLEȩ RFCȩ
ration but also adaptation and transformation, i.e. right policy frameworks (as advocated in the con-
the need to reform and potentially bounce back af- RCVRȩMDȩEJM@?JGQ?RGMLȩ@Wȩ ?JBUGLȩ?LBȩ4GFPG?J?
ȩ
ȩ
ter a shock. According to this framework, a system MPȩ%GJCQ
ȩȩDMPȩ?LRGRPSQRȩNMJGAGCQȩ?LBȩRFCȩLCACQ-
(or society) is resilient if it can face shocks and per- sary public debates about the ways forward as a so-
sistent structural changes without losing its ability AGCRWȩ?QȩP?GQCBȩ@W
ȩ?KMLEȩMRFCPQ
ȩ%SGJJĸLȩ?LBȩ0CBBW
ȩ
to deliver societal well-being in a sustainable way 2018; University of Melbourne, 2018).
(i.e. deliver societal well-being without compromis-
ing that of future generations). 5Cȩ?JQMȩLCCBȩRMȩAMLQGBCPȩRF?RȩRFCȩCȎCARQȩMDȩ'ȩK?Wȩ
RP?LQACLBȩECMEP?NFGCQȩ?LBȩQCARMPQȩ'RȩGQȩCVNCARCBȩ
to give a new boost to globalisation (Baldwin and
13 Societal resilience perspective 116
Figure 16 shows a second measurement attempt, for possible future action. In Figure 18, we bring
this time looking mostly at preparedness at the together both Digital Innovation Hubs and current
Member State level. It combines various aspects of ?A?BCKGAȩQSNNJWȩMDȩQRSBWȩRMNGAQȩMLȩ'
ȩ?QȩOS?JGȏCBȩ
'MPGCLRCBȩEMTCPLKCLRȩCȎMPRQȩ@?QCBȩMLȩRFCȩȩ GLȩ!F?NRCPȩȩ'LȩRFGQȩU?W
ȩUCȩA?LȩQR?PRȩPCȐCARGLEȩMLȩ
CBGRGMLȩMDȩRFCȩ-NCLȩ"?R?ȩ ?PMKCRCPȩ?LBȩB?R?ȩMLȩ potential synergies, gaps and priorities to develop
RFCȩ QF?PCȩ MDȩ PCJCT?LRȩ ȏCJBQȩ GLȩ FGEFCPȩ CBSA?RGML59 such local ecosystems.
2FCȩȏESPCȩQFMUQȩRF?RȩDMPȩ?@MSRȩF?JDȩMDȩRFCȩAMSL-
tries all variables point to the same direction60, so
EMTCPLKCLRȩCȎMPRQȩ?LBȩCBSA?RGMLȩN?RRCPLQȩNMPRP?Wȩ
a coherent picture of preparedness.
Figure 17. Human resources in science and technology and Digital Innovation Hubs
Source: Eurostat regional yearbook 2018 and JRC.
While we are making some progress in understand- operation by a robot, while a somewhat bigger share
ing how to measure resilience to AI, there are some (47 % in 2012 and 2014, but declining to 35 % in
BGȑASJRGCQȩGLȩ?NNJWGLEȩRMȩ'ȩRFCȩA?SQ?J
ȩRUMQRCNȩ?N- 2017) would be comfortable with robots at their
proach that Alessi et al. (2018) used to measure the UMPINJ?ACȩ -Lȩ ?ȩ KMPCȩ NMQGRGTCȩ LMRCȩ ?LBȩ JMMIGLEȩ ?Rȩ
PCQNMLQCȩRMȩRFCȩȏL?LAG?JȩAPGQGQȩ$MPȩRFCȩȏPQRȩQRCNȩMDȩ the broader public perception of digital transform-
the approach, which involves assessing the strength ations, the 2017 Eurobarometer survey (SP460), in-
of the phenomenon, we lack a long-term time series dicates that three quarters of the respondents think
MDȩ 'ȩ ?BMNRGMLȩ GLȩ BGȎCPCLRȩ AMSLRPGCQȩ 2FCȧ 'ȧ 'LBCVȧ the digital transformation has a positive impact on
?LBȧGRQȧNJ?LLCBȧ#3ȧCVRCLQGMLȧ@WȧRFCȧ(0!ȧK?WȧMȎCPȧ the economy. Two thirds (67 %) think that the im-
?ȧQR?PRGLEȧNMGLRȧRMȧ?BBPCQQȧRFGQȧJGKGR?RGML. Anoth- pact is also positive on their quality of life, while
er possibility is to use corporate- and citizen-level ȩϤȩ?JQMȩȏLBȩ?ȩNMQGRGTCȩGKN?ARȩMLȩQMAGCRWȩ2?ICLȩ
QSPTCWQȩ +MPGI?U?ȩ ȩ NPCQCLRQȩ QSAFȩ CV?KNJCQȩ together, these results make it possible to start per-
for Japan, while various special issues of the Euro- DMPKGLEȩQMKCȩȏPQRȩPCQGJGCLACȩ?L?JWQGQȩUFGJCȩ@SGJBGLEȩ
barometer survey (SP382 in 2012, SP427 in 2014 up the time series on AI adoption.
?LBȩ 1.ȩ GLȩ
ȩ DMPȩ CV?KNJCȩ ?PCȩ GLBGA?RGTCȩ MDȩ
NS@JGAȩ MNGLGMLȩ GLȩ BGȎCPCLRȩ #SPMNC?Lȩ AMSLRPGCQȩ $MPȩ Another set of challenges relates to the second step
CV?KNJC
ȩRFCȩRFPCCȩQSPTCWQȩ?@MTCȩQFMUȩRF?RȩMLJWȩ?ȩ of the Alessi et al. model, which involved robust stat-
small share of EU citizens (around 22 %, quite sta- istical predictors of resilient behaviour. Here the
ble in time) would be comfortable having a medical main problem is that AI is already pervasive across
119 13 Societal resilience perspective
Figure 18. Human resources in science and technology, Digital Innovation Hubs, and academic supply in study topics related to AI
Source: Eurostat regional yearbook 2018 and JRC.
many sectors of the economy and society and there- *CQQMLQDPMKRFC?L?JWQGQ
DMPCȩ GRȩ GQȩ TCPWȩ BGȑASJRȩ RMȩ BGQCLR?LEJCȩ NPMACQQȩ DPMKȩ MD'DMPSLBCPQR?LBGLEPCQGJGCLAC
response, and attribute causality. The way we re-
QNMLBȩRMȩRFCȩCȎCARQȩMDȩ'ȩK?WȩGLȐSCLACȩ?LBȩQRCCPȩ Looking at AI from a resilience perspective does not
RFCȩ CVRCLRȩ ?LBȩ QCTCPGRWȩ MDȩ RFCȩ CȎCARQȩ RFCKQCJTCQȩ only enrich our understanding of, and preparedness
This steering process is a key aspect of resilience. for AI, but also advances the analysis of resilience.
-LCȩ NMQQG@GJGRWȩ DMPȩ KC?QSPGLEȩ RFCȩ CȎCARGTCLCQQȩ MDȩ 2FCȩA?QCȩMDȩ'ȩGQȩMLCȩMDȩRFCȩȏPQRȩCV?KNJCQȩ?RȩRFCȩ(0!ȩ
steering is to keep track of predictions and then of considering a persistent structural change, which
compare them to realised outcomes some time af- A?JJQȩDMPȩ?Lȩ?BHSQRCBȩAMLACNRS?Jȩ?LBȩKC?QSPCKCLRȩ
RCPU?PBQȩ $MPȩ CV?KNJC
ȩ RFCȩ NPCBGARGMLQȩ MDȩ HM@ȩ BGQ- ?NNPM?AFȩ'RȩNPMTGBCQȩ?LȩGLRCPCQRGLEȩCV?KNJCȩMDȩRFCȩ
placements and replacements, which are based on LCCBȩ RMȩ RFGLIȩ ?@MSRȩ BGȎCPCLRȩ A?N?AGRGCQȩ ?LBȩ GLRCP-
current forecasts of technology developments, could TCLRGMLQȩ ?Rȩ BGȎCPCLRȩ RGKCȩ FMPGXMLQȩ 'Rȩ CKNF?QGQCQȩ
@CȩPCAMPBCBȩ1WQRCK?RGAȩBGȎCPCLACQȩ@CRUCCLȩRFCȩPC- the role of power relationships, and the issue of po-
alised and forecast numbers may be indicative of tential updates of the ‘social contract’. Finally, it calls
AF?LECQȩGLȩRFCȩ?SRMK?RGMLȩNPMACQQȩ-RFCPȩNMQQG@GJG- DMPȩQRCCPGLEȩRFCȩDSRSPCȩN?RFȩMDȩ'ȩRMȩRFCȩ@CLCȏRȩMDȩ
ties may emerge as we apply the resilience frame- humankind, and thereby coming out stronger from
work to AI and progress in practice. the adoption of AI.
14 Summary and conclusions 120
SUMMARY
AND CONCLUSIONS
5Cȧ?PCȧMLJWȧ?RȧRFCȧ@CEGLLGLEȧMDȧ?ȧP?NGBȧNCPGMBȧMDȧ The EU Member States and the European Com-
RP?LQDMPK?RGMLȧMDȧMSPȧCAMLMKWȧ?LBȧQMAGCRW due mission are developing coordinated national and
to the convergence of many digital technologies. European strategies, recognising that we can only
PRGȏAG?Jȩ 'LRCJJGECLACȩ 'ȩ GQȩ ACLRP?Jȩ RMȩ RFGQȩ AF?LECȩ succeed together. We can build on our areas of
?LBȩMȎCPQȩK?HMPȩMNNMPRSLGRGCQȩRMȩGKNPMTCȩMSPȩJGTCQȩ QRPCLERF
ȩ GLAJSBGLEȩ CVACJJCLRȩ PCQC?PAF
ȩ JC?BCPQFGNȩ
in some industrial sectors like automotive and
The recent developments in AI are the result of in- robotics, a solid legal and regulatory framework,
creased processing power, improvements in algo- and very rich cultural diversity also at the regional
PGRFKQȩ ?LBȩ RFCȩ CVNMLCLRG?Jȩ EPMURFȩ GLȩ RFCȩ TMJSKCȩ and sub-regional levels.
and variety of digital data. Many applications of AI
have started to appear in our everyday lives, from 'RȩGQȩECLCP?JJWȩPCAMELGQCBȩRF?Rȩ'ȩA?LȩȐMSPGQFȩMLJWȩGDȩ
machine translations, to image recognition, and supported by a robust computing infrastructure and
music generation, and are increasingly deployed in good quality data:
industry, government and commerce. Connected
and autonomous vehicles, and AI-supported med- • With respect to computing, UCȧF?TCȧGBCLRGȏCBȧ
ical diagnostics are areas of application that will ȧ ?ȧUGLBMUȧMDȧMNNMPRSLGRWȧDMPȧ#SPMNCȧRMȧGLTCQR
soon be commonplace. ȧ GLȧRFCȧCKCPEGLEȧLCUȧN?P?BGEKȧMDȧAMKNSRGLEȧ
ȧ BGQRPG@SRCBȧRMU?PBQȧRFCȧCBECQȧMDȧRFCȧLCR
There is strong global competition on AI among the ȧ UMPI
ȧin addition to centralised facilities. This
USA, China and Europe. The USA leads for now but will also support the future deployment of
China is catching up fast and aims to lead by 2030. ȩ %ȩ?LBȩRFCȩ'M2
For the EU, it is not so much a question of winning or
JMQGLEȩRFCȩP?ACȩ@SRȩMDȩȏLBGLEȩ?ȩU?WȩRMȩCK@P?ACȩRFCȩMN- • With respect to data, we argue in favour of
NMPRSLGRGCQȩMȎCPCBȩ@Wȩ'ȩGLȩ?ȩU?WȩRF?RȩGQȩFSK?LACL- learning from successful internet companies,
tred, ethical, secure, and true to our core values. opening access to data and developing
121 14 Summary and conclusions
FOOTNOTES
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123 Footnotes
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References 134
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135 References
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LIST OF BOXES
MVȩȩȩ #?PJWȩQSAACQQȩA?QCȩMDȩK?AFGLCȩJC?PLGLEȩGLȩAW@CPQCASPGRWȩQN?KȩȏJRCPGLEȩȩ 19
MVȩȩȩ Turning point in image recognition 20
MVȩȩȩ DL for singing processing 21
MVȩȩȩ 1MKCȩCV?KNJCQȩMDȩ'ȩBCTCJMNKCLRQȩGLȩRFCȩ31ȩȩ 26
MVȩȩȩ The Techno-Economic Segment (TES) approach in a nutshell 30
MVȩȩȩ 1MKCȩCV?KNJCQȩMDȩ'ȩ?NNJGA?RGMLQȩGLȩ!FGL?ȩȩ 50
MVȩȩȩ The impact of AI on working conditions 82
MVȩȩȩ AI and digital labour platforms 83
MVȩȩȩ Summary data strategy from the Mission Villani Report (2018) 109
MVȩȩȩ#V?KNJCQȩMDȩ.'QȩGLȩJMA?JȩEMTCPLKCLRȩȩ 110
137 List of Figures
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Paradigm shift in machine learning 20
Figure 2. Percentage of AI players detected by the most representative
keywords (2000-18) 30
Figure 3. AI players in the world by geographical zones (% over world total),
2009-2018 31
Figure 4.ȩȩ 2MNȩȩ'ȩNJ?WCPQȩGLȩRFCȩUMPJBȩ?LBȩPCJ?RGMLȩUGRFȩ%".ȩ@WȩECMEP?NFGA?JȩXMLCQ
ȩ
2009-2018 32
Figure 5.ȩȩ 'ȩNJ?WCPQȩGLȩRFCȩ#3ȩ?LBȩPCJ?RGMLȩUGRFȩ%".ȩ@WȩAMSLRPW
ȩȩ 32
Figure 6. R&D versus non-R&D players in top 10 countries by number of AI players,
2009-2018 33
Figure 7. Number of AI players in selected types of activity (% over world total),
2009-2018 33
Figure 8.ȩȩ "GQRPG@SRGMLȩMDȩ#3ȩNJ?WCPQȩϤȩGLȩ#3DSLBCBȩ'ȩPCQC?PAFȩNPMHCARQ
ȩȩ 34
Figure 9.ȩȩ -AASPPCLACȩMDȩ'ȩRMNGAQȩϤȩ@WȩECMEP?NFGA?JȩXMLC
ȩȩ 35
Figure 10.ȩȩ 'ȩRFCK?RGAȩNPMȏJCQȩGLȩ?A?BCKGAȩNPMEP?KKCQȩ?QȩϤȩMDȩRMR?JȩNPMEP?KKCQȩ 74
Figure 11.ȩȩ "GQRPG@SRGMLȩMDȩSLGTCPQGRGCQȩMȎCPGLEȩ'ȩQRSBWȩRMNGAQȩMTCPȩFSK?LȩPCQMSPACQȩ
in science and technology 2017 75
Figure 12. Paradigm shift in the cybersecurity of systems following the introduction
of AI components. 89
Figure 13.ȩȩ .PMHCARGMLȩMDȩB?R?ȩ?LBȩAMKNSRGLEȩEPMURFQȩJME?PGRFKGAȩQA?JCȩ 96
Figure 14.ȩȩ "?R?ȏA?RGMLȩNPMACQQȩCL?@JGLEȩRFCȩ'ȩPCTMJSRGMLȩ 112
Figure 15. Employment in manufacturing and healthcare: EU and USA 117
Figure 16. AI preparedness in EU Member States 117
Figure 17. Human resources in science and technology and Digital Innovation Hubs 118
Figure 18. Human resources in science and technology, Digital Innovation Hubs,
and academic supply in study topics related to AI 119
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Politécnica de Madrid), and Ilkka Tuomi (Meaning Processing).
We are particularly grateful to the International Editorial Board members for their comments and support:
• Dr. Bob Bishop, President and Founder of the International Centre for Earth Simulation Foundation.
• .PMDȩ4GPEGLG?ȩ"GELSK
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• Dr. Cosmina Dorobantu, Deputy Director of the Public Policy Programme and Policy Fellow at the Alan
Turing Institute for Data Science and AI.
• "Pȩ,SPG?ȩ-JGTCP
ȩ"GPCARMPȩMDȩ0CQC?PAFȩGLȩ"?R?ȩ1AGCLACȩ?Rȩ4MB?DMLCȩ?LBȩ!FGCDȩ"?R?ȩ1AGCLRGQRȩGLȩ"?R?.MNȩ
Alliance.
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• Prof. Yves Poullet, Professor at the Faculty of Law University of Namur, and Co-Chair of the Namur
Digital Institute.
• "PȩLBPC?ȩ0CLB?
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and the Digital Economy at the Centre for European Policy Studies.
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