ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

UNIVERSITY

College of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering

Department of Software Engineering

Group Assignment – Human Computer Interaction

Group Members

1. Nati Nigusse ------------------------------------------------------------------ 0928/10

2. Natanim Baykedagn ---------------------------------------------------------- 0921/10
3. Natenael Tesfaye ------------------------------------------------------------- 0924/10
4. Robel Fekadu ----------------------------------------------------------------- 0824/09
5. Tekleab Alemayehu --------------------------------------------------------- 0912/09

Submitted to Mr. Felix.E (MSc)

1. Locate one source (through the library or the web) that reports on empirical
evidence on human limitations. Provide a full reference to the source. In one
paragraph, summarize what the result of the research states in terms of a physical
human limitation.

In a separate paragraph, write your thoughts on how you think this evidence on
human capabilities impacts interactive system design. (5 pts)

Consideration of Human Limitations, Disabilities,

And Design in HCI

All humans have limitations in their physical capabilities. Some are immediately
visible, others are not. When designing from an HCI perspective, you start realizing
that limitations are often discussed in terms of disabilities. The application of HCI to
supporting and enhancing the physical capabilities of humans is one of the most
promising application areas. Strides in biomedical engineering mean that there is
research to support the blind or those with low vision, those who are deaf or have
impaired hearing, and people with limited mobility. [1]

There are also improvements in the technical supports available to those who face
difficulties in cognitive processing, including persons suffering with symptoms of
autism, dyslexia, and attention deficit disorder. As a systems analyst you will be
subject to the legal provisions of the country in which you are working. For instance,
if you are designing for workplaces in the United States, you may want to access the
obligations of an employer under the Americans with Disabilities Act at Equal Access
Act. There you will find definitions of who is considered disabled, which states in
part, “An individual with a disability is a person who: has a physical or mental
impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities; has a record of
such impairment; or is regarded as having such an impairment.” [1]

An employer in the United States is expected to make reasonable accommodation to

employ a disabled person, which includes “Making existing facilities used by
employees readily accessible to and usable by persons with disabilities; job
restructuring, modifying work schedules, reassignment to a vacant position; acquiring
or modifying equipment or devices, adjusting or modifying examinations, training
materials, or policies, and providing qualified readers or interpreters.”
A qualified employee or application is an individual who, “with or without reasonable
accommodation, can perform the essential functions of the job in question.” An
employer is required to make reasonable accommodation to the known disability of a
qualified applicant or employee if it would not impose an undue hardship on the
operation of the business. Undue hardship is defined as “an action requiring
significant difficulty or expense when considered in light of factors such as an
employer’s size, financial resources, and the nature and structure of its operation. An
employer is not required to lower quality or production standards to make an
accommodation.”

One of the best ways to ensure the broadest possible accommodation is to begin
designing from an HCI perspective. That way, your foremost concern will always be
assisting a user in accomplishing a task, set by the organization, with the use of
technology. When accommodations for disabled people are necessary, there are many
sources to examine and many assistive devices to consider.

For people who are blind or who have low vision, there are braille keyboards as well
as special speech software that reads Web pages and other documents aloud. There
are also screen magnifiers that fit over a display to magnify the entire screen.

For people who lack certain perceptual sensitivity (incorrectly called color blindness),
you can work at testing the colors you are choosing for screens or forms to make
certain that they can be easily distinguished from each other. Particular problems
occur telling the difference between red and green, for instance. Always design the
screen or form with alternative cues, such as icons, written text, or audio cues that
reinforce the content. For instance, if a hyperlink that has been clicked on turns blue
to show it has been followed, you can also add another icon to the display to indicate
that it has been followed or create a separate sidebar list that shows which Web sites
have been visited. These are better alternatives than relying solely on color to convey
your message. [2]

For users who experience impaired hearing, you can make sure that the documents
and screens you design include access to written versions of the audio material.
Alternatively, you might design tasks where headphones can be successfully used.

If you are designing computer tasks for those with limited mobility, you can think of
speech input rather than keyboarding. Additionally, new advances in biomedical
engineering permit mobility impaired users to move the cursor on the screen by
breathing into a tube or by directing the cursor to the desired spot on the screen by
looking at that spot or even, in some highly specialized interfaces, by thinking about
where the cursor should move.

HCI research requires both rigorous methods and relevance. It is often tempting to
lean more heavily towards one or the other. Some other fields of research do focus
more on theoretical results than on relevance. However, HCI research must be
practical and relevant to people, organizations, or design. The research needs to be
able to influence interface design, development processes, user training, public policy,
or something else. Partially due to the philosophies of the founders of the field, HCI
has had a historic focus on practical results that improve the quality of life
(Hochheiser and Lazar, 2007).

Is there a tension sometimes between researchers and practitioners? Absolutely. But

all HCI research should at least consider the needs of both audiences. At the same
time, the research methods used (regardless of the source discipline) must be rigorous
and appropriate. It is not sufficient to develop a new computer interface without
researching the need for the interface and without following up with user evaluations
of that interface. HCI researchers are often placed in a position of evangelism where
they must go out and convince others of the need for a focus on human users in
computing. The only way to back up statements on the importance of users and
human-centered design is with solid, rigorous research. [1]

Implementing Good HCI Practices

The ideal is to invite a usability specialist to serve on the systems development team
with the other team members. However, many systems groups are quite small, and not
many professionals are available who are involved in the practice of usability per se;
so even if you make this recommended change to your project, the odds are that the
position will go unstaffed or understaffed. However, don’t let that discourage you.
You can take some simple steps that will positively influence the outcome of your
systems project.  A list of guidelines for taking an HCI approach to systems design is
shown below.

GUIDELINES FOR THE HCL APPROACH TO SYSTEMS DESIGN

 Examine the task to be done and consider the fit among the human, computer,
and task.
 Identify what obstacles exist for users in their attempts to accomplish their
assigned tasks.
 Keep in mind the perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use from TAM.
 Consider usability. Examine the usage environment by creating use case
scenarios that depict what is going on between users and the technology.
 Use the information you have gained beforehand to figure out the physical and
organizational environmental characteristics. Design with prototyping to
accommodate diverse users and users with disabilities.

Although we have been discussing the system in the abstract, it is important to

recognize that the interface is the system for most users. However well or poorly
designed, it stands as the representation of the system and, by reflection, your
competence as a systems analyst. A well-designed interface improves the fit among
the task, the technology, and the user.

Your goal must be to design interfaces that help users and businesses get the
information they need in and out of the system by addressing the following
objectives:

1. Matching the user interface to the task.

2. Making the user interface efficient.
3. Providing appropriate feedback to users.
4. Generating usable queries.
5. Improving the productivity of computer users.

Summary
In summary the research suggest there is a lot being done to help include those with
disabilities physically. In several countries there acts and laws being drafted to help
mitigate those interfaces. This will surely in developing standardized systems where
anyone with any physical disability can interact with the system.

How it will affect human interaction?

Some aspects of a system interface must be designed to accommodate particular

human characteristics, for neglecting to do so would seriously compromise the
effectiveness of the human computer system. Failing to account for the certainty of
human error in a human - computer system is a recipe for disaster. Interfaces should
be constructed to minimize the number and the effects of errors. Human knowledge is
incomplete, difficult to acquire, and hard to remember. Since all systems require
learning, we should support this process with high - quality training programs,
documentation, active exploration, and on-line interactive help. A surprising number
of people have some kind of physical or mental disability. An interface can block
such individuals from using a computer or it can minimize and even overcome the
effect of these disabilities.

References:

 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/computer-science/human-computer-
interaction
 https://www.w3computing.com/systemsanalysis/considering-human-limitations-
disabilities-design/

2. Find as many different examples as you can of physical controls and displays. (5
pts)
(a) List them
(b) Try to group them, or classify them
(c) Discuss whether you believe the control or display is suitable for its purpose

A computer system contains various elements, each of which affects the user of the
system. Some of this physical controls and displays are as follows:

1. Input devices for interactive use, allowing text entry, drawing and selection
from the screen:

 Text entry: traditional keyboard, phone text entry, speech and handwriting
 Pointing: principally the mouse, but also touch pad, stylus and others
 3D interaction devices.

2. Output display devices for interactive use:

 Different types of screen mostly using some form of bitmap display

 Large displays and situated displays for shared and public use
 Digital paper may be usable in the near future

3. Virtual reality systems and 3D visualization which have special interaction

and display devices.

4. Various devices in the physical world:

 Physical controls and dedicated displays

 Sound, smell and haptic feedback
 Sensors for nearly everything including movement, temperature, bio-signs

5. Memory:

 Short-term memory: RAM

 Long-term memory: magnetic and optical disks
 Capacity limitations related to document and video storage
 Access methods as they limit or help the user

6. Processing:

 The effects when systems run too slow or too fast, the myth of the infinitely
fast machine
 Limitations on processing speed
3. How can design rationale benefit interface design and why might it be rejected by
design teams? (3 pts)

Design rationale is the information that explains why a computer system is the way it
is, including its structural or architectural description and its functional or behavioral
description. In this sense, design rationale does not fit squarely into the software life
cycle described in this chapter as just another phase or box. Rather, design rationale
relates to an activity of both reflection (doing design rationale) and documentation
(creating a design rationale) that occurs throughout the entire life cycle.

It is beneficial to have access to the design rationale for several reasons:

1. In an explicit form, a design rationale provides a communication mechanism

among the members of a design team so that during later stages of design and/or
maintenance it is possible to understand what critical decisions were made, what
alternatives were investigated (and, possibly, in what order) and the reason why one
alternative was chosen over the others. This can help avoid incorrect assumptions
later.

2. Accumulated knowledge in the form of design rationales for a set of products can
be reused to transfer what has worked in one situation to another situation which has
similar needs. The design rationale can capture the context of a design decision in
order that a different design team can determine if a similar rationale is appropriate
for their product.

3. The effort required to produce a design rationale forces the designer to deliberate
more carefully about design decisions. The process of deliberation can be assisted by
the design rationale technique by suggesting how arguments justifying or discarding a
particular design option are formed.

4. Even if an optimal solution did exist for a given design decision, the space of
alternatives is so vast that it is unlikely a designer would discover it. In this case, it is
important that the designer indicates all alternatives that have been investigated.
Then later on it can be determined if she has not considered the best solution or had
thought about it and discarded it for some reason. In project management, this kind of
accountability for design is good.
 Why a design might be rejected?

Team members rejected decisions mostly because of not being able to solve the
problems of that particular design idea. In the ‘flower formed product’ topic, even
though it was within the conceptual context, the decision was declined because of
technical obstacles. At the same time, the ‘scanner’ topic initiated discussions on a
more abstract level about whether to make an electronic-based product. Rejected
decisions led to a narrowing of the solution space by defining boundaries in the wide
area of ideas.

Many topics were discussed in the design teamwork. The results showed that,
particularly in the conceptual phase of design process, some discussion topics turned
out to be rejected design decisions. Rejected decisions come with defining spaces that
are excluded from the solution space. To summarize, we can state that among all other
decisions, the rejection of decisions can be seen as a necessary part of decision
making, with important effects: narrowing the solution space, decreasing the
complexity of the design problem, and prioritization and structuring of the design
problem.

Besides these three problem-related aspects, rejected decisions also play an important
role in the social dynamics of the team, utilized as conflict management within the
team.

For instance, the ‘fun concept’ idea did not gain acceptance among the members of
the team, because this topic was likely to lead to a dispute. It has been observed that
not every decision influences the design outcome, whereas rejected decisions may
significantly affect the final design. Accepted design decisions depict the process and
the behavior of the team in reaching the final solution; however, when a decision is
rejected this means more than a change in direction.

This study reveals that rejected decisions are the determining factor in the continuous
adaption of the design solution space. Rejected decisions are not just ordinary topics
that are incompatible with the design task and goals. Thus, the rejected decision can
provide answers to questions as: ‘How do designers configure the solution space with
rejected decisions?’ and ‘What are the influences of issues discussed before decisions
become rejected decisions?’ [6]
4. Why are there few effective HCI standards? (2 pts)

HCI standards are set by national or international bodies to ensure wide compliances
so this means that there are very few bodies capable of creating standards. The point
of a standard is to provide rules that as many designers as possible will adhere too.
The existence of many standards would defeat the point since that would mean many
groups of designers following many different standards, which is the opposite of
standardization.

Norman’s Seven Principles

To assess the interaction between human and computers, Donald Norman in 1988
proposed seven principles. He proposed the seven stages that can be used to
transform difficult tasks. Following are the seven principles of Norman −
 Use both knowledge in world & knowledge in the head.
 Simplify task structures.
 Make things visible.
 Get the mapping right (User mental model = Conceptual model = Designed
model).
 Convert constrains into advantages (Physical constraints, Cultural constraints,
Technological constraints).
 Design for Error.
 When all else fails − Standardize.

Heuristic Evaluation

Heuristics evaluation is a methodical procedure to check user interface for usability

problems. Once a usability problem is detected in design, they are attended as an
integral part of constant design processes. Heuristic evaluation method includes some
usability principles such as Nielsen’s ten Usability principles.

Nielsen's Ten Heuristic Principles

 Visibility of system status.

 Match between system and real world.
 User control and freedom.
 Consistency and standards.
 Error prevention.
 Recognition rather than Recall.
  Flexibility and efficiency of use.
 Aesthetic and minimalist design.
 Help, diagnosis and recovery from errors.
 Documentation and Help
The above mentioned ten principles of Nielsen serve as a checklist in evaluating and
explaining problems for the heuristic evaluator while auditing an interface or a
product. [8]

References

[1] ”Considering Human Limitations, Disabilities, and Design (HCI)”,

[online document], 2021.
https://www.w3computing.com/systemsanalysis/considering-human-
limitations-disabilities-design/. [Accessed 3 March 2021].

[2] “Physical Considerations in HCI Design”, [online document], 2021.

https://www.w3computing.com/systemsanalysis/physical-
considerations-hci-design/. [Accessed 3 March 2021].

[3] Dspace.utalca.cl. 2020. [Online document]

https://dspace.utalca.cl/bitstream/1950/10513/1/l.scott_mackenzie.pdf
[Accessed 3 March 2021].

[4] Alan Dix, The computer,[online],Available:

https://www.slideshare.net/alanjohndix/hci-chapter-2 [Accessed 3
March 2021].

[5] How-can-design-rationale-benefit-interface-design-and-why-might-it,
University of Notre dame, [online],Available:
https://www.coursehero.com/tutors-problems/Computer-
Science/25410098-a-Howcan-design-rationale-benefit-interface-
design-and-why-might-it/ [Accessed 3,March 2021]
[6] Design rationale, [online], Available:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_rationale [Accessed 3 March
2021]
[7] Felician University, [online] Available:
https://www.coursehero.com/file/p5ufir9/neither-the-nounverb-
orverbnoun-guideline-the-order-is-more-flexible-forthe/#:~:text=There
%20are%20few%20effective%20Human,becaus%20they%20are
%20relatively%20unstable.&text=Some%20software%20product
%20standards%20have,formal%20standard%20document%20were
%20published [Accessed 3 March 2021]
[8] Why are there few effective HCI standards,[online] Available:
https://brainly.in/question/13939249/ [Accessed 3 March 2021]