STRUKTUR ATOM

The origin of the elements

• Big Bang, 15 billion years ago. The universe is expanding.
• The Initial temperatures immediately after the Big Bang of
about 109 K, the fundamental particles produced in the
explosion had too much kinetic energy to bind together in
the forms we know today.
• However, the universe cooled as it expanded, the
particles moved more slowly, and they soon began to
adhere together under the influence of a variety of forces.
• In particular, the strong force, a short-range but powerful
attractive force between nucleons (protons and neutrons),
bound these particles together into nuclei.
The origin of the elements
• As the temperature fell still further, the electromagnetic
force, a relatively weak but long-range force between
electric charges, bound electrons to nuclei to form atoms,
and the universe acquired the potential for complex
chemistry and the existence of life.
• About two hours after the start of the universe, the
temperature had fallen so much that most of the matter
was in the form of H atoms (89 per cent) and He atoms
(11 per cent).
The nucleosynthesis of light elements
The nucleosynthesis of light elements
The nucleosynthesis of heavy
elements
The abundances of the elements in the
Universe
Atom
An atom is the smallest unit quantity of an element that is
capable of existence, either alone or in chemical
combination with other atoms of the same or another
element. The fundamental particles of which atoms are
composed are the proton, electron and neutron.
Atomic number and mass number
Isotopes
• Nuclides of a particular element that differ in the number
of neutrons and, therefore, their mass number, are called
isotopes
• Example :
Shapes of the Atomic Orbitals
• The principal quantum number n indicates the size of the
orbital.
• The angular momentum quantum number l represents the
shape of the orbital.
• The magnetic quantum number ml represents the spatial
direction of the orbital.
• The spin quantum number ms has little physical meaning;
it merely allows two electrons to occupy the same orbital.
Quantum Numbers
• The principal quantum number (n) describes the size of
the orbital. Orbitals for which n = 2 are larger than those
for which n = 1, for example. Because they have opposite
electrical charges, electrons are attracted to the nucleus
of the atom. Energy must therefore be absorbed to excite
an electron from an orbital in which the electron is close to
the nucleus (n = 1) into an orbital in which it is further from
the nucleus (n = 2). The principal quantum number
therefore indirectly describes the energy of an orbital.
Quantum Numbers
• The angular quantum number (l) describes the shape of
the orbital. Orbitals have shapes that are best described
as spherical (l = 0), polar (l = 1), or cloverleaf (l = 2). They
can even take on more complex shapes as the value of
the angular quantum number becomes larger.
Quantum Numbers
• There is only one way in which a sphere (l = 0) can be
oriented in space. Orbitals that have polar (l = 1) or
cloverleaf (l = 2) shapes, however, can point in different
directions. We therefore need a third quantum number,
known as the magnetic quantum number (m), to
describe the orientation in space of a particular orbital. (It
is called the magnetic quantum number because the
effect of different orientations of orbitals was first
observed in the presence of a magnetic field.)
Quantum Numbers
• The spin quantum number, s, determines the magnitude
of the spin angular momentum of an electron and has a
value of ½. Since angular momentum is a vector quantity,
it must have direction, and this is determined by the
magnetic spin quantum number, ms, which has a value of
+½ or − ½.
The s Orbitals
Electrons in an s orbital are
different from those in p, d, or
f orbitals in two significant
ways.
• First, only the s orbital has
an electron density that
varies in the same way in
every direction out from the
atomic nucleus.
• Second, there is a finite
probability that an electron
in an s orbital is at the
nucleus of the atom. Every
other orbital has a node at
the nucleus.
The p Orbitals
• Unlike the s orbitals, the p orbitals consist of two separate
volumes of space (lobes), with the nucleus located
between the two lobes.
The d Orbitals
The five d orbitals
have more complex
shapes. Three of
them are located
between the
Cartesian axes, and
the other two are
oriented along the
axes. In all cases,
the nucleus is
located at the
intersection of the
axes
The f Orbitals
• The f orbitals are even more complex than the d orbitals.
There are seven f orbitals, four of which have eight lobes.
The other three look like the dz2 orbital but have two
doughnut-shaped rings instead of one.
• These orbitals are rarely involved in bonding, so we do
not need to consider them in any detail.
The Polyelectronic Atom
In model of the polyelectronic atom, the electrons are
distributed among the orbitals of the atom according to the
• Aufbau principle.
• Hund Rule
• Pauli exclusion principle
Ion Electron Configurations
Ion Electron Configurations
Penetration and shielding
For determining shielding for a specific electron:
1. Write electron configuration like this:
(1s) (2s, 2p) (3s, 3p) (3d) (4s, 4p) (4d) (4f) (5s, 5p) . . .
2. Electrons in higher groups (to the right) do not shield
electrons in lower groups
3. For ns or np valence electrons
a. electrons in same group shield 0.35, except the 1s which
shield 0.30
b. electrons in the n-1 group shield 0.85
c. electrons in the n-2 or lower groups shield 1.00
4. For nd or nf valence electrons
a. electrons in same group shield 0.35
b. electrons in the lower groups shield 1.00
Example
a 1s electron in helium
He:(1s)2
S = 1 * 0.30 = 0.30
Z* = Z - S = 2 - 0.30 = 1.70

a 4S electron in carbon
C: (1s)2 (2s, 2p)4
S = 3 * 0.35 + 2*0.85 = 2.75
Z* = 6 - 2.75 = 3.25
Example
a 4s electron in copper
Cu: (1s)2 (2s, 2p)8 (3s, 3p)8 (3d)10 (4s, 4p)1
S = 0 * 0.35 + 18*0.85 + 10* 1.00 = 25.3
Z* = 29 - 25.3 = 3.70

a 3d electron in copper
Cu: (1s)2 (2s, 2p)8 (3s, 3p)8 (3d)10 (4s, 4p)1
S = 9 * 0.35 + 18* 1.00 = 21.15
Z* = 29 - 21.15 = 7.85
History of Periodic Table
• Triads Döbereiner (1817)
• Octaves Newlands (1865)
• In 1869 and 1870 respectively, Dmitri Mendele´ev and
Lothar Meyer stated that the properties of the elements
can be represented as periodic functions of their atomic
weights, and set out their ideas in the form of a periodic
table
“Triads” suggest an underlying pattern
Ca = 40 Sr = 87 Ba = 137
(40+137)/2 = 88.5

Cl = 35.5 Br = 80 I = 127
(35.5+127)/2 = 81.2

K = 39 Rb = 85 Cs = 133
(39+133)/2 = 86

S = 32 Se = 78 Te = 125
(32+125)/2 = 78.5 Johann Döbereiner
Jena, Germany
P = 31 As = 75 Sb = 122 1817
(31+122)/2 = 76.5
Octaves Newlands
One of the first attempts at a periodic table, known as
"Newlands octaves", arranged the known elements by
atomic weight. Newland noticed that if he broke up his list
of elements into groups of seven – starting a new row with
the eighth element – the first element in each of those
groups had similar chemistry
The Discovery of the Modern Periodic
Table

Lothar Meyer Dimitri Mendeleev

Two scientists independently discovered the “modern” Periodic Table in 1869.

Dimitri Mendeleév
St. Petersburg,
Russia

Mendeleév on his desk played and arranged pieces of paper,

listing elements with their respective atomic weights,
trying to find some order.
Mendeleev’s First Table — March, 1869
Ti 50 Zr 90 ?100
V 51 Nb 94 Ta 182
Cr 52 Mo 96 W 186
Mn 55 Rh 104.4 Pt 197.4
Fe 56 Ru 104.4 Ir 198
Ni=Co 59 Pd 106.6 Os 199
H1 Cu 63.4 Ag 108 Hg 200
Be 9.4 Mg 24 Zn 65.2 Cd 112
B 11 Al 27.4 ? 68 U 116 Au 197?
C 12 Si 28 ? 70 Sn 118
N 14 P 31 As 75 Sb 122 Bi 210?
O 16 S 32 Se 79.4 Te 128?
F 19 Cl 35.5 Br 80 I 127
Li 7 Na 23 K 39 Rb 85.4 Cs 133 Tl 204
Ca 40 Sr 87.6 Ba 137 Pb 207
? 45 Ce 92
Er? 56 La 94
Yt? 60 Di 95
In 75.6? Th 118?
Mendeleev made 8 statements about
his Table in his first publication
1. When arranged by atomic weight, the elements show a periodicity
of properties.
2. Similar elements have atomic weights which are either very similar
(platinum, iridium, osmium) or which increase regularly
(potassium, rubidium, cesium).
3. The arrangement of the elements correspond to their valences.
4. Elements which are most common have small atomic weights.
5. The atomic weight can determine the character of an element.
6. More elements will be discovered.
7. The atomic weight of an element may be corrected by comparison
with adjacent elements.
8. Some properties of unknown elements can be predicted from their
atomic weights.
 Lothar Meyer’s Table — December, 1869

I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX

B 11 Al 27.3 — — ? In 113.4 Tl 202.7
C 11.97 Si 28 — Sn 117.8 — Pb 206.4
Ti 48 Zr 89.7
N 14.01 P 30.9 As 74.9 Sb 122.1 Bi 207.5
V 51.2 Nb 93.7 Ta 182.2
O 15.96 S 31.98 Se 78.0 Te 128?
Cr 52.4 Mo 95.6 W 183.5
F 19.1 Cl 35.38 Br 79.75 I 126.5
Mn 54.8 Ru 103.5 Os 198.6?
Fe 55.9 Rh 104.1 Ir 196.7
Co&Ni 58.6 Pd 106.2 Pt 196.7
Li 7.01 Na 22.99 K 39.04 Rb 85.2 Cs 132.7
Cu 63.3 Ag 107.66 Au 196.2
?Be 9.7 Mg 23.9 Ca39.9 Sr 87.0 Ba 136.8
Zn 64.9 Cd 111.6 Hg 199.8
 Lothar Meyer’s plot
Atomic volume

Atomic weight

Lothar Meyer’s plot shows definite spikes in an ascending cyclic

pattern that suggests an internal structure. The intriguing
question of atomic structure had to wait for another half century,
until spectroscopists and theoreticians could attack the problem.
Differences between Mendeleev and
Meyer
1. Mendeleev did not concern himself with why the table
worked. He just boldly proclaimed that the trends were real,
and that in fact the properties of unknown elements could be
predicted!
2. Meyer was not so daring about the predictive power of the
table. He was very curious, however, with the reasons for the
trends, which he thought reflected some internal structure.
3. Mendeleev thought the elements were primordial matter.
4. Meyer thought there must be yet smaller particles.
5. Mendeleev continued to work on his table, which very
quickly was successful in predicting specific elements — and
he became famous.
6. It took scientists many decades understand exactly how
Meyer’s plot described an inner structure of the atom, and
his work was eclipsed by these scientists who discovered
this structure of protons, electrons, and neutrons.
PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
(Mendeléeff, 1871)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
eka-boron
Row
R2 O RO R2 O3 RO2 R2 O5 RO3 R2 O7 RO4
RH4 RH3 RH2 RH eka-aluminum
1 H 

1 eka-silicon
2 Li Be B C N O F
7 9.4 11 12 14 16 19

3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
23 24 27. 28 31 32 35.
3) Ti V Cr Mn
K Ca "eka- 5) Fe Co Ni Predicted!
4 B"
39 40 44? 48 51 52 55 56 59 59
Cu Zn "eka- "eka- As Se Br
5 Al" Si"
63 65 68? 72?
75 78 80

6 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Ru Rh Pd
85 87 88 90 94 96 100 104 104 106 Correct
Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te ?)
I ) ) )
7
) ) Ce) ) )
?
108 112 113 118 122 125 127
) Ba )
value?
8 Cs
??
Di
133 137 138 140
) ) ) )
9
Misfits?
10
)
??
Er La Ta W
178 180 182 184
) ) )
Os Ir Pt
195 197 198
) ) )
11 Au Hg Tl Pb Bi
199 200 204 207 208
) ) ) Th) )
12
231
)
? ? U
240
)
Mendeléeff assumed: oxide of Be = BeO
oxide of In = In2 O3
oxide of U = UO3
How Mendeleev predicted unknown
elements
Mendeleev simply followed the trends of the table to
interpolate the properties of three new elements, which he
called eka-boron, eka-aluminum, and eka-silicon. He
predicted the atomic weights would be 44, 68, and 72,
respectively, and he predicted the chemical properties and
physical properties of each of these elements. His paper
didn’t get much attention until. . . .

Eka-B Eka-Al Eka-Si

44 68 72
Boisbaudran discovers eka-aluminum
Predicted Found
at. wt. = 68 at. wt. = 69.9
sp. gr. = 5.9 sp. gr. = 5.94
low m.p. m.p. = 30º
Oxide Ea2O3 Oxide Ga2O3
soluble in acids soluble in acids
and bases and bases

Lecoq
de Boisbaudran,
Cognac, France Gallium - discovered 1875
Nilson discovers eka-boron

Predicted Found
at. wt. = 44 at. wt. = 44
Oxide Eb2O3 Oxide Sc2O3
with sp. gr. = with sp.gr. =
3.5, not soluble 3.86, not soluble
in alkalies in alkalies

Lars Fredrik Nilson,

Uppsala, Sweden
Scandium - discovered 1879
Winkler discovers eka-silicon
Predicted Found
at. wt. = 72 at. wt. = 72.3
Oxide EsO2 Oxide GeO2
with sp. gr. = with sp. gr. =
4.7 4.70
Volatile chloride GeCl4 with
EsCl4 b.p. = 86 º

Clemens Winkler,
Freiberg, Germany
Germanium - discovered 1886
 PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
(Mendeléeff, 1891)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

R2 O RO R2 O3 RO2 R2 O5 RO3 R2 O7 R2 O RO R2 O3 RO2 R2 O5 RO3 R2 O7


 H
1
Li Be B C N O F Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
7 9 11 12 14 16 19 23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5
)
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br
39 40 44 48 51 52 55 56 58. 59 63 65 70 72 75 79 80
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo 5) Pd
Ru Rh Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I
85 87 89 90 94 96 103 104 106 108 112 113 118 120 125 127
Cs Ba La Ce ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) )
133 137 138 140
) ) )
Yb ) Ta W Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi
173 182 184 191 193 196 198 200 294 206 208
) Th ) )
U ) ) ) ) ) ) ) )
232 240
) )
Also known in 1891: Er, Tb, Ho, Tm, Sm, Gd, Pr, Nd, Dy
Difficulties include: Brauner found Te = 127.6 1889
A new family of elements?!

New gas isolated from

the atmosphere!

Sir William Ramsey

University College
(London)
 PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
(1894)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

R2 O RO R2 O3 RO2 R2 O5 RO3 R2 O7 R2 O RO R2 O3 RO2 R2 O5 RO3 R2 O7


 H
1
Li Be B C N O F Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
7 9 11 12 14 16 19 23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5 40
)
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 63 65 70 73 75 79 80
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I
85 88 89 91 93 96 101 104 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127
Cs Ba La Ce
133 137 139 140
Yb Ta W Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi
173 181 184 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209
Th U
232 238

A new column is needed for the new element!

Also known in 1894: Er, Tb, Ho, Tm, Sm, Gd, Pr, Nd, Dy
 PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
(1895)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

R2 O RO R2 O3 RO2 R2 O5 RO3 R2 O7 R2 O RO R2 O3 RO2 R2 O5 RO3 R2 O7


 H He
1 4
Li Be B C N O F Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
7 9 11 12 14 16 19 23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5 40
)
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 63 65 70 73 75 79 80
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I
85 88 89 91 93 96 101 104 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127
Cs Ba La Ce
133 137 139 140
Yb Ta W Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi
173 181 184 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209
Th U
232 238

Another gas discovered! (was originally seen in the sun)

Also known in 1895: Er, Tb, Ho, Tm, Sm, Gd, Pr, Nd, Dy
 PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
(1898)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

R2 O RO R2 O3 RO2 R2 O5 RO3 R2 O7 R2 O RO R2 O3 RO2 R2 O5 RO3 R2 O7


 H He
1 4
Li Be B C N O F Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
7 9 11 12 14 16 19 23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5 40
)
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 63 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85 88 89 91 93 96 101 104 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
Cs Ba La Ce
133 137 139 140
Yb Ta W Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi
173 181 184 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209
Th U
232 238

Two more gases discovered!

Also known in 1898: Er, Tb, Ho, Tm, Sm, Gd, Pr, Nd, Dy
 PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
(1898)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

R2 O RO R2 O3 RO2 R2 O5 RO3 R2 O7 R2 O RO R2 O3 RO2 R2 O5 RO3 R2 O7


 H He
1 4
Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
7 9 11 12 14 16 19 20 23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5 40
)
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 63 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85 88 89 91 93 96 101 104 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
Cs Ba La Ce
133 137 139 140
Yb Ta W Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi
173 181 184 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209
Th U
232 238

Another gas discovered ! (Table needs to be restacked)

Also known in 1898: Er, Tb, Ho, Tm, Sm, Gd, Pr, Nd, Dy
Mendeléeff's Last Periodic Table
(1902)

Ro 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
R R2 O RO R2 O3 RO2 R2 O5 RO3 R2 O7 RO4
w
1 H
1.008

2 He Li Be B C N O F
4.0 7.03 9.1 11.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 19.0
4 0
3 Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
19.9 23.0 24.3 27.0 28.4 31.0 32.0 35.4
5 6 5
4 Ar K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni
38 39.1 40.1 44.1 48.1 51.4 52.1 55.0 55.9 59 59
5 Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br
63.6 65.4 70 72.3 75 79 79.9
5
6 Kr Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Ru Rh Pd
81.8 85.4 87.6 89.0 90.6 94.0 96.0 101.7 103.0 106.5

7 Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I
107.9 112.4 114.0 119.0 120.0 127 127
8 Xe Cs Ba La Ce
128 132.9 137.4 139 140
9

10 Yb Ta W Os Ir Pt
173 183 184 191 193 194.9
11 Au Hg Tl Pb Bi
197.2 200.0 204.1 206.9 208

12 Ra Th U
224 232 239

Not included:
Er, Tb, Ho, Tm, Sm, Gd, Pr, Nd, Dy, Eu, Po, Ac, Rn
 PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
(Brauner, 1902)

Row 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
R R2 O RO R2 O3 RO2 R2 O5 RO3 R2 O7 RO4
RH4 RH3 RH2 RH
1 H  Brauner
1
2 He Li Be B C N O F
attempted to
4 7 9 11 12 14 16 19 find order in
3 Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
20 23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5
the higher
4 Ar K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni elements
40 39 40 44 48 51 52 55 56 59 59
5 Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br
63 65 70 72 75 78 80
Bohuslav Brauner 6 Kr Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Ru Rh Pd
Prague, Bohemia 82 85 87 89 90 94 96 100 102 103 106
7 Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I
108 112 114 119 120 128 127 Predicted?!
8 Xe Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd
128 133 137 139 140 141 144 145
Sm Eu
147 148 151 152
Gd
155 156 159 160 Bauner
Tb Ho Er predicted 98
163 165 166 167
Tm Yb elements
171 173 176 through
Ta W Os Ir Pt
178 182 184 190 191 193 195 uranium
9 Au Hg Tl Pb Bi
197 200 204 207 209 212 214
10 Ra Th U
218 220 225 230 233 235 239

Not included: Dy, Po, Ac, Rn

Organization of the Modern Periodic Table
In the modern periodic table, the elements are placed in
order of increasing atomic number (the number of protons).
Organization of the Modern Periodic Table
• Each group contains elements of similar electron
configuration
• The elements in a group have similar properties, it is
important to realize that every element is unique
• The elements from lanthanum to ytterbium and from
actinium to nobelium show similar chemical behavior
Organization of the Modern Periodic Table
• Groups 1 and 2 and 13 through 18 represent the main
group elements, and these groups correspond to the
filling of the s and p orbitals.
• Groups 3 through 11, corresponding to the filling of the d
orbitals, are classified as the transition metals.
• The elements of Group 12, although sometimes included
among the transition metals, have a very different
chemistry from that series; hence, Group 12 will be
considered separately.
Organization of the Modern Periodic Table
• Several of the main groups have been given specific
names: alkali metals (Group 1), alkaline earth metals
(Group 2), pnictogens (a lesser-used term for Group 15),
chalcogens (a lesser-used term for Group 16), halogens
(Group 17), and noble gases (Group 18).
• The elements in Group 11 are sometimes called the
coinage metals.
• The elements corresponding to the filling of the 4f orbitals
are called the lanthanoids, and those corresponding to the
filling of the 5f orbitals are called the actinoids.
Alkali Metals Noble Gases

Alkaline Earths Main Group

Halogens

Transition Metals

Main Group Lanthanides and Actinides

Stability of the Elements and Their
Isotopes
In the universe, there are only 80 stable elements
Classifications of the Elements
Metals and non-metals
• Metals
• Good conductors of heat and electricity.
• Malleable and ductile.
• Moderate to high melting points.

• Nonmetals
• Nonconductors of heat and electricity.
• Brittle solids.
• Some are gases at room temperature.
Metals
• The tendency of metals are electron release
Non-metals
• The tendency for non-metals are gain electrons
Periodic Properties: Atomic Radius
• The covalent radius, rcov, is defined as the half-distance
between the nuclei of two atoms of the same element joined in
a single covalent bond.
• The van der Waals radius, rvdw, is defined as the half-distance
between the nuclei of two atoms of neighboring molecules.
Periodic Properties: Atomic Radius
• Descending a group, the atoms become larger. This trend
is also explainable in terms of the increasing size of the
orbitals and the influence of the shielding effect.
• the value of Zeff for the outer electrons to determine the
apparent outer orbital size and hence the radii of the
atoms across a period.
Periodic Properties: Ionization Energy
• The first ionization energy, that is, the energy needed to
remove one electron from the outermost occupied orbital
of a free atom X:
X (g) → X+ (g) + e-
Periodic Properties: Electron Affinity
• Electron affinity is defined as the energy change when an
electron is added to the lowest energy unoccupied orbital
of a free atom:
X(g) + e- → X- (g)
Periodic Properties: Electronegatifity
• electronegativity as the power of an atom in a molecule to
attract shared electrons to itself.
• This relative attraction for bonding electron pairs really
reflects the comparative Zeff of the two atoms on the
shared electrons.
• Thus, the values increase from left to right across a period
and decrease down a group in the same way as ionization
energies do.
• Electronegativity is a relative concept, not a measurable
function. The Pauling electronegativity scale is an
arbitrary one, with the value for fl uorine defi ned as 4.0.
Periodic Properties: Electronegatifity